NAME: Lawrenz Dave Aquino

BS-ARCH 3
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Trigonometric functions are also known as Circular Functions can be simply defined as the
functions of an angle of a triangle. It means that the relationship between the angles and sides of a
triangle are given by these trig functions. The basic trigonometric functions are sine, cosine, tangent,
cotangent, secant and cosecant. Also, read trigonometric identities here.

There are a number of trigonometric formulas and identities that denotes the relation between the
functions and help to find the angles of the triangle. All these trigonometric functions with their
formula are explained here elaborately, to make them understand to the readers.
Also, you will come across the table where the value of these ratios is mentioned for some particular
degrees. And based on this table you will be able to solve many trigonometric examples and
problems.

Six Trigonometric Functions

The angles of sine, cosine, and tangent are the primary classification of functions of trigonometry.
And the three functions which are cotangent, secant and cosecant can be derived from the primary
functions. Basically, the other three functions are often used as compared to the primary
trigonometric functions. Consider the following diagram as a reference for an explanation of these
three primary functions. This diagram can be referred to as the sin-cos-tan triangle. We usually
define trigonometry with the help of the right-angled triangle.
Sine Function
Sine function of an angle is the ratio between the opposite side length to that of the hypotenuse.
From the above diagram, the value of sin will be:

 Sin a =Opposite/Hypotenuse = CB/CA

Cos Function
Cos of an angle is the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the hypotenuse. From
the above diagram, the cos function will be derived as follows.

 Cos a = Adjacent/Hypotenuse = AB/CA

Tan Function
The tangent function is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to that of the adjacent side. It
should be noted that the tan can also be represented in terms of sine and cos as their ratio. From
the diagram taken above, the tan function will be the following.

 Tan a = Opposite/Adjacent = CB/BA

Also, in terms of sine and cos, tan can be represented as:
Tan a = sin a/cos a

Secant, Cosecant and Cotangent Functions

Secant, cosecant (csc) and cotangent are the three additional functions which are derived from the
primary functions of sine, cos, and tan. The reciprocal of sine, cos, and tan are cosecant (csc),
secant (sec), and cotangent (cot) respectively. The formula of each of these functions are given as:

 Sec a = 1/(cos a) = Hypotenuse/Adjacent = CA/AB

 Cosec a = 1/(sin a) = Hypotenuse/Opposite = CA/CB
 cot a = 1/(tan a) = Adjacent/Opposite = BA/CB
Note: Inverse trigonometric functions are used to obtain an angle from any of the
angle’s trigonometric ratios. Basically, inverses of the sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and
cosecant functions are represented as arcsine, arccosine, arctangent, arc cotangent, arc secant,
and arc cosecant.

Formulas
Let us discuss the formulas given in the table below for functions of trigonometric ratios(sine, cosine,
tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant) for a right-angled triangle.
Identities
Below are the identities related to trig functions.

Even and Odd functions

The cos and sec functions are even functions; the rest other functions are odd functions.
sin(-x) = -sin x
cos(-x) = cos x
tan(-x) = – tan x
cot(-x) = -cot x
csc(-x) = -csc x
sec(-x) = sec x

Periodic Functions
The trig functions are the periodic functions. The smallest periodic cycle is 2π but for tangent and the
cotangent it is π.
sin(x+2nπ) = sin x
cos(x+2nπ) = cos x
tan(x+nπ) = tan x
cot(x+nπ) = cot x
csc(x+2nπ) = csc x
sec(x+2nπ) = sec x
Where n is any integer.
Pythagorean Identities
When the Pythagoras theorem is expressed in the form of trigonometry functions, it is said to be
Pythagorean identity. There are majorly three identities:

 sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 [Very Important]

 1+tan x = sec x
2 2

 cosec2 x = 1 + cot2 x
These three identities are of great importance in Mathematics, as most of the trigonometry questions
are prepared in exams based on them. Therefore, students should memorise these identities to
solve such problems easily.

Sum and Difference Identities

 sin(x+y) = sin(x).cos(y)+cos(x).sin(y)
 sin(x–y) = sin(x).cos(y)–cos(x).sin(y)
 cos(x+y) = cosx.cosy–sinx.siny
 cos(x–y) = cosx.cosy+sinx.siny
 tan(x+y) = [tan(x)+tan(y)]/[1-tan(x)tan(y)]
 tan(x-y) = [tan(x)-tan(y)]/[1+tan(x)tan(y)]
How to Solve Trigonometric Functions?

Solving Trigonometric Functions

Solved Examples on Trigonometric Functions

Example 1: Find the values of Sin 45°, Cos 60° and Tan 60°.
Solution: Using the trigonometric table, we have
Sin 45° = 1/√2
Cos 60° = 1/2
Tan 60° = √3
Example 2: Evaluate Sin 105° degrees.
Solution: Sin 105° can be written as sin (60° + 45°) which is similar to sin (A + B).
We know that, the formula for sin (A + B) = sin A × cos B + cos A × sin B
Therefore, sin 105° = sin (60° + 45°) = sin 60° × cos 45° + cos 60° × sin 45°
= √3/2 × 1/√2 + 1/2 × 1/√2
= √3/2√2 + 1/2√2
= (√3+1)/2√2
Example 3: A boy sees a bird sitting on a tree at an angle of elevation of 20°. If a boy is
standing 10 miles away from the tree, at what height bird is sitting?
Solution: Consider ABC a right triangle, A is a bird’s location, B = tree is touching the ground and C
= boy’s location.
So BC 10 miles, angle C = 20° and let AB = x miles
We know, tan C = opposite side/adjacent side
tan(20°) = x/10
or x = 10 × tan(20°)
or x = 10 × 0.36 = 3.6
Bird is sitting at the height of 3.6 miles from the ground.

Frequently Asked Questions on Trigonometric Functions

What are the six trigonometric functions?

The six trigonometric functions are Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Secant, Cosecant and Cotangent.

What is the use of trigonometric functions?

In geometry, trigonometric functions are used to find the unknown angle or side of a right-angled
triangle.

What are the three basic trigonometric functions?

The three basic trigonometry functions are Sine, Cosine and Tangent.

What is the formula for trigonometry functions?

If θ is an angle of a right-angled triangle, then the trigonometry functions are given by:
sin θ = Opposite Side of angle θ/Hypotenuse
cos θ = Adjacent Side of angle θ/Hypotenuse
tan θ = Opposite Side of angle θ/Adjacent
cot θ = Adjacent Side of angle θ/Opposite
sec θ = Hypotenuse/Adjacent Side of angle θ
cosec θ = Hypotenuse/Opposite Side of angle θ

What is the value of sin θ, cos θ and tan θ, if θ=30 degrees?

If θ = 30 degrees, then,
Sin θ = sin 30 = ½
Cos θ = cos 30 = √3/2
Tan θ = tan 30 = 1/√3

What is the range of sin, cos and tan function in a periodic graph?
Sine Function: y = sinx; Domain: x ∈ R & Range: − 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
Cos Function: y = cos x; Domain: x ∈ R & Range: − 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1
Tan Function: y=tan x; Domain: x ∈ R , x≠(2k+1)π/2 & Range: − ∞ < tan x < ∞
Cartesian Coordinate System

The cartesian coordinate system is a branch of mathematics that tells about how to represent a point
uniquely in the n-dimensional coordinate plane. The theory of the cartesian system was proposed by
a French philosopher and mathematician called Rene Descartes in the 17th century. This cartesian
coordinate system provided the relationship between Euclidean geometry and algebra, which has
revolutionized the study of mathematics. The cartesian coordinate system is the foundation of
analytical geometry and helps in the representation of lines, curves, geometric figures in the n-
dimensional plane. Let us learn more about the cartesian system and the terms associated with it.

What Is Cartesian System?

The system which we use to label points in a plane is known as the Cartesian System. The cartesian
form is derived from the number line. To understand the cartesian coordinate system we must know
about the number line thoroughly. In this system, we have the following defined parameters such as:

 Two perpendicular lines are named as X-axis and Y-axis.

 The plane is called the Cartesian, or coordinate plane and the two lines X and Y when put together are
called the coordinate axes of the system.
 The two coordinate axes divide the plane into four parts called quadrants.
 The intersection point of the axes is the zero of the Cartesian System. This point will generally be denoted
by O. The coordinates of the origin are denoted as (0, 0).
 To specify the position of any point P in the plane, we measure the distance x we have to move along X,
and then the distance y we have to move parallel to Y, to reach from O to P. Distances can be negative.
 For example, if you have to move right, then x will be positive. Similarly, if you have to move down on Y,
then y will be negative.
 The two real numbers x and y plotted together will describe the position of P uniquely. We can write this
as follows: P = (5, 6) [from the below figure]. Thus, the location of P can be labeled uniquely by two real
numbers. For different positions of P, this pair of real numbers will be different.

Now observe the following graphical representation of cartesian coordinates and read the above
description again.
Let us discuss a few parameters associated with the cartesian system to have a basic
understanding of how well we can read the coordinates.

Cartesian Coordinates

In the cartesian system, the x-coordinate of a point is its perpendicular distance from the y-axis. It is
measured along the x-axis which is positive along the positive direction and negative along the
negative direction. For point P, it is +5 on the positive x-axis. This x-coordinate is called the
abscissa.

In the cartesian system, the y-coordinate of a point is its perpendicular distance from the x-axis. It is
measured along the y-axis. For point P, it is +6 on the positive y-axis. This y-coordinate is called the
ordinate.

Dimensions of Cartesian System

In the cartesian coordinate system we generally start the bifurcation with one dimension, then two-
dimension, and then a three-dimensional system. Let us discuss these three cartesian systems
dimensions in detail.

One Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

The cartesian coordinate system for a one-dimensional space is a straight line having the origin O
and a positive side and a negative side of the line. One-dimensional means either the plane have a
horizontal line or a vertical line. If the line is horizontally plotted then the right side is taken as
positive and the left side is taken as negative. Whereas, if the line is oriented vertically then the
upper part of the line is taken as positive and the lower part of the line is taken as negative.

Each point on the line is specified with reference to the origin, and with a defined scale. The
coordinate of the point is prefixed with a + or - sign and the numeric value to represent its distance
from the origin O. Generally the one-dimensional line is referred to as the number line and any of the
real numbers can be conveniently represented on this number line.

Two Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

A cartesian plane divides the plane space into two dimensions and is useful to easily locate the
points. It is also referred to as the coordinate plane. The two axes of the coordinate plane are the
horizontal x-axis and the vertical y-axis. These coordinate axes divide the plane into four quadrants,
and the point of intersection of these axes is the origin (0, 0). Further, any point in the coordinate
plane is referred to by a point (x, y), where the x value is the position of the point with reference to
the x-axis, and the y value is the position of the point with reference to the y-axis. The coordinates of
the point in the first quadrant are (+x, +y), the second quadrant is (-x, +y), the third quadrant is (-x, -
y), and the fourth quadrant is (+x, -y).

Three Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

The three-dimensional cartesian coordinate system consists of three axes, the x-axis, the y-axis, and
the z-axis, which are mutually perpendicular to each other and have the same units of length across
all three axes. Similar to the two-dimensional coordinate system, where the point of intersection of
these three axes is the origin O, and these axes divide the space into eight octants. Any point in
space is represented with the coordinates (x, y, z). The x value of the point (x, y, z) is referred to as
the abscissa, the y value of the point is referred to as the ordinate and the z value is referred to
as applicate.

Further the coordinates of a points in the eight octants are represented as (+x,+y,+z), (-x,+y,+z),
(+x,+y,-z), (-x,+y,-z), (+x,-y,+z), (-x,-y,+z), (+x,-y,-z), (-x,-y,-z).

Please note, the cartesian coordinate system can have an n-dimensional system to represent
numerous quantities at once. But the higher dimensions cannot be presented geometrically and
assumed in theory only. The higher dimensional systems have major applications in computer
programming and artificial intelligence.

Cartesian System Formulas

The formulas of the cartesian coordinate system help in conveniently proving the various properties
of lines, curves, planes in a two-dimensional and three-dimensional system. The formulas of the
cartesian coordinate system include the distance formula, slope formula, midpoint formula, section
formula, equations of a line in two and three dimensions, equations of curves, and equations of a
plane. Let us know more about each of the formulas in the below paragraphs.

Cartesian Coordinates Distance Formula

The distance between two points (x1,y1)(x1,y1) and x2,y2)x2,y2) is equal to the square root of the
sum of the squares of the difference of the x coordinates and the y-coordinates of the two given
points. The formula for the distance between two points is as follows.

D = √(x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2(x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2

Slope Formula

The slope of a line is the inclination of the line. The slope can be calculated from the angle made by
the line with the positive x-axis, or by taking any two points on the line. The slope of a line inclined at
an angle θ with the positive x-axis is m = Tanθ. The slope of a line joining the two
points (x1,y1)(x1,y1) and x2,y2)x2,y2) is equal to m = (y2−y1)(x2−x1)(y2−y1)(x2−x1).

Mid-Point Formula

The formula to find the midpoint of the line joining the points (x1,y1)(x1,y1) and x2,y2)x2,y2) is a new
point, whose abscissa is the average of the x values of the two given points, and the ordinate is the
average of the y values of the two given points. The midpoint lies on the line joining the two points
and is located exactly between the two points.

(x,y)=(x1+x22,y1+y22)(x,y)=(x1+x22,y1+y22)

Section Formula

The section formula is useful to find the coordinates of a point that divides the line segment joining
the points (x1,y1)(x1,y1) and (x2,y2)(x2,y2) in the ratio m:nm:n. The point dividing the given two points
lies on the line joining the two points and is available either between the two points or on the line,
beyond the two points.

(x,y)=(mx2+nx1m+n,my2+ny1m+n)(x,y)=(mx2+nx1m+n,my2+ny1m+n)

Cartesian Equation of a Line

This equation of a line represents all the points on the line, with the help of a simple linear equation.
The standard form of the equation of a line is ax + by + c= 0. There are different methods to find the
equation of a line. Another important form of the equation of a line is the slope-intercept form of the
equation of a line (y = mx + c). Here m is the slope of the line and c is the y-intercept of the line.
Further, the other forms of the equation of a line are point-slope form, two-point form, intercept form,
and the normal form. The differential equations of a line are as follows.

 Point Slope Form: (y - y11) = m(x - x11)

 Two Point Form: (y−y1)=(y2−y1)(x2−x1)(x−x1)(y−y1)=(y2−y1)(x2−x1)(x−x1)
 Slope Intercept Form: y = mx + c
 Intercept Form: xa+yb=1xa+yb=1
 Normal Form: xcosθ + ysinθ = P

Cartesian Equation of a Plane

The equation of a plane in a cartesian coordinate system can be computed through different
methods based on the available inputs values about the plane. The following are the four different
expressions for the equation of plane.

 Normal Form: Equation of a plane at a perpendicular distance d from the origin and having a unit
normal vector ^nn^ is →r.^nr→.n^ = d.
 Through three Non Collinear Lines: The equation of a plane passing through three non collinear
points →aa→, →bb→, and →cc→,
is (→r−→a)[(→b−→a)×(→c−→a)]=0(r→−a→)[(b→−a→)×(c→−a→)]=0.
 Intersection of Two Planes: The equation of a plane passing through the intersection of two
planes →r.^n1=d1r→.n^1=d1, and →r.^n2=d2r→.n^2=d2,
is →r(→n1+λ→n2)=d1+λd2r→(n→1+λn→2)=d1+λd2.

Important Notes on Cartesian Coordinate System

 The point of intersection of both the axes is known as the origin and its coordinates are (0, 0).
 There can be an infinite number of points on a cartesian coordinate plane.
 Points that lie on any of the number lines do not belong to any quadrant.
 A point that is above the x-axis has its y-coordinate positive and if the point lies below the x-axis,
then its y-coordinate is negative.
 A point that lies to the right of the y-axis has its x-coordinate positive and if the point lies to the left
of the y-axis, then the x-coordinate in negative.
 The Component Method
The Basics - Good Vectors from Bad

The component method of summing vectors is universally feared by introductory

physics students, but is actually simple as long as you don't get too worried about
trigonometric details. The foundation of the component method actually relies on a
basic principle:
Vectors are easy to sum if they fall into two categories:

The vectors point along the same line. In this case, the sum of the two vectors is just the summation of
the lengths if they point in the same direction, and the subtraction of the two lengths if they point in
opposite directions.

The vectors are perpendicular to each other. Here, simple mathematical relationships can be used to
solve for the resultant vector.

Component Method of Vector Addition

Earlier in this lesson, we learned that vectors oriented at right angles to one another can be
added together using the Pythagorean theorem. For instance, two displacement vectors with
magnitude and direction of 11 km, North and 11 km, East can be added together to produce a
resultant vector that is directed both north and east. When the two vectors are added head-to-
tail as shown below, the resultant is the hypotenuse of a right triangle. The sides of the right
triangle have lengths of 11 km and 11 km. The resultant can be determined using the
Pythagorean theorem; it has a magnitude of 15.6 km. The solution is shown below the diagram.
This Pythagorean approach is a useful approach for adding any two vectors that are directed at
right angles to one another. A right triangle has two sides plus a hypotenuse; so the
Pythagorean theorem is perfect for adding two right angle vectors. But there are limits to the
usefulness of the Pythagorean theorem in solving vector addition problems. For instance, the
addition of three or four vectors does not lead to the formation of a right triangle with two sides
and a hypotenuse. So at first glance it may seem that it is impossible to use the Pythagorean
theorem to determine the resultant for the addition of three or four vectors. Furthermore, the
Pythagorean theorem works when the two added vectors are at right angles to one another -
such as for adding a north vector and an east vector. But what can one do if the two vectors
that are being added are not at right angles to one another? Is there a means of using
mathematics to reliably determine the resultant for such vector addition situations? Or is the
student of physics left to determining such resultants using a scaled vector diagram? Here on
this page, we will learn how to approach more complex vector addition situations by combining
the concept of vector components (discussed earlier) and the principles of vector resolution
(discussed earlier) with the use of the Pythagorean theorem (discussed earlier).

Addition of Three or More Right Angle Vectors

As our first example, consider the following vector addition problem:

Example 1:
A student drives his car 6.0 km, North before making a right hand turn and driving 6.0
km to the East. Finally, the student makes a left hand turn and travels another 2.0 km
to the north. What is the magnitude of the overall displacement of the student?
Like any problem in physics, a successful solution begins with the development of a
mental picture of the situation. The construction of a diagram like that below often
proves useful in the visualization process.

When these three vectors are added together in head-to-tail fashion, the resultant is a
vector that extends from the tail of the first vector (6.0 km, North, shown in red) to the
arrowhead of the third vector (2.0 km, North, shown in green). The head-to-tail vector
addition diagram is shown below.
As can be seen in the diagram, the resultant vector (drawn in black) is not the
hypotenuse of any right triangle - at least not of any immediately obvious right triangle.
But would it be possible to force this resultant vector to be the hypotenuse of a right
triangle? The answer is Yes! To do so, the order in which the three vectors are added
must be changed. The vectors above were drawn in the order in which they were
driven. The student drove north, then east, and then north again. But if the three
vectors are added in the order 6.0 km, N + 2.0 km, N + 6.0 km, E, then the diagram
will look like this:

After rearranging the order in which the three vectors are added, the resultant vector is
now the hypotenuse of a right triangle. The lengths of the perpendicular sides of the
right triangle are 8.0 m, North (6.0 km + 2.0 km) and 6.0 km, East. The magnitude of
the resultant vector (R) can be determined using the Pythagorean theorem.

R2 = (8.0 km)2 + (6.0 km)2

R2 = 64.0 km2+ 36.0 km2
R2 = 100.0 km2
R = SQRT (100.0 km2)
R = 10.0 km

(SQRT indicates square root)

In the first vector addition diagram above, the three vectors were added in the order in
which they are driven. In the second vector addition diagram (immediately above), the
order in which the vectors were added was switched around. The size of the resultant
was not affected by this change in order. This illustrates an important point about
adding vectors: the resultant is independent by the order in which they are added.
Adding vectors A + B + C gives the same resultant as adding vectors B + A + C or
even C + B + A. As long as all three vectors are included with their specified
magnitude and direction, the resultant will be the same. This property of vectors is the
key to the strategy used in the determination of the answer to the above example
problem. To further illustrate the strategy, let's consider the vector addition situation
described in Example 2 below.

Example 2:
Mac and Tosh are doing the Vector Walk Lab. Starting at the door of their physics
classroom, they walk 2.0 meters, south. They make a right hand turn and walk 16.0
meters, west. They turn right again and walk 24.0 meters, north. They then turn left
and walk 36.0 meters, west. What is the magnitude of their overall displacement?

A graphical representation of the given problem will help visualize what is happening.
The diagram below depicts such a representation.

When these four vectors are added together in head-to-tail fashion, the resultant is a
vector that extends from the tail of the first vector (2.0 m, South, shown in red) to the
arrowhead of the fourth vector (36.0 m, West, shown in green). The head-to-tail vector
addition diagram is shown below.

The resultant vector (drawn in black and labeled R) in the vector addition diagram
above is not the hypotenuse of any immediately obvious right trangle. But by changing
the order of addition of these four vectors, one can force this resultant vector to be the
hypotenuse of a right triangle. For instance, by adding the vectors in the order of 2.0
m, S + 24.0 m, N + 16.0 m, W + 36.0 m. W, the resultant becomes the hypotenuse of
a right triangle. This is shown in the vector addition diagram below.

With the vectors rearranged, the resultant is now the hypotenuse of a right triangle that
has two perpendicular sides with lengths of 22.0 m, North and 52.0 m, West. The 22.0
m, North side is the result of 2.0 m, South and 24.0 m, North added together. The 52.0
m, West side is the result of 16.0 m, West and 36.0 m, West added together. The
magnitude of the resultant vector (R) can be determined using the Pythagorean
theorem.

R2 = (22.0 m)2 + (52.0 m)2

R2 = 484.0 m2 + 2704.0 m2
R2 = 3188.0 m2
R = SQRT (3188.0 m22)
R = 56.5 m

(SQRT indicates square root)

As can be seen in these two examples, the resultant of the addition of three or more
right angle vectors can be easily determined using the Pythagorean theorem. Doing so
involves the adding of the vectors in a different order.

SOH CAH TOA and the Direction of Vectors

The above discussion explains the method for determining the magnitude of the resultant for
three or more perpendicular vectors. The topic of direction has been ignored in the discussion.
Now we will turn our attention to the method for determining the direction of the resultant
vector. As a quick review, recall that earlier in this lesson a convention for expressing the
direction of a vector was introduced. The convention is known as the counter-clockwise from
east convention, often abbreviated as the CCW convention. Using this convention, the direction
of a vector is often expressed as a counter-clockwise angle of rotation of the vector about
its tail from due East.

To begin our discussion, let's return to Example 1 above where we made an effort to add
three vectors: 6.0 km, N + 6.0 km, E + 2.0 km, N. In the solution,
the order of addition of the three vectors was rearranged so that a
right triangle was formed with the resultant being the hypotenuse of
the triangle. The triangle is redrawn at the right. Observe that the
angle in the lower left of the triangle has been labeled as theta (Θ).
Theta (Θ) represents the angle that the vector makes with the north
axis. Theta (Θ) can be calculated using one of the three
trigonometric functions introduced earlier in this lesson - sine, cosine
or tangent. The mnemonic SOH CAH TOA is a helpful way of remembering which function to
use. In this problem, we wish to determine the angle measure of theta (Θ) and we know the
length of the side opposite theta (Θ) - 6.0 km - and the length of the side adjacent the angle
theta (Θ) - 8.0 km. The TOA of SOH CAH TOA indicates that the tangent of any angle is the
ratio of the lengths of the side opposite to the side adjacent that angle. Thus, the tangent
function will be used to calculate the angle measure of theta (Θ). The work is shown below.

Tangent(Θ) = Opposite/Adjacent
Tangent(Θ) = 6.0/8.0
Tangent(Θ) = 0.75
Θ = tan-1 (0.75)
Θ = 36.869 …°
Θ =37°

The problem is not over once the value of theta (Θ) has been calculated. This angle measure
must now be used to state the direction. One means of doing so is to simply state that the
direction of the resultant is 37° east of north. Alternatively, the counter-clockwise convention
could be used. Since the angle that the resultant makes with east is the complement of the
angle that it makes with north, we could express the direction as 53° CCW.

We will now consider Example 2 as a second example of how to use SOH CAH TOA to
determine the direction of a resultant. In Example 2, we were trying to determine the
magnitude of 2.0 m. S + 16.0 m, W + 24.0 m, N + 36.0 m, W. The solution involved re-
ordering the addition so that the resultant was the hypotenuse of a right triangle with known
sides. The right triangle is shown below. The resultant is drawn in black. Once more, observe
that the angle in the lower right of the triangle has been labeled as theta (Θ). Theta (Θ)
represents the angle that the vector makes with the north axis.
Theta (Θ) can be calculated using the tangent function. In this problem, we wish to determine
the angle measure of theta (Θ) and we know the length of the side opposite theta (Θ) - 52.0 m
- and the length of the side adjacent the angle theta (Θ) - 22.0 m. The TOA of SOH CAH TOA
indicates that the tangent of any angle is the ratio of the lengths of the side opposite to the
side adjacent that angle. Thus, the tangent function will be used to calculate the angle measure
of theta (Θ). The work is shown below.

Tangent(Θ) = Opposite/Adjacent
Tangent(Θ) = 52.0/22.0
Tangent(Θ) = 2.3636 …
Θ = tan-1 (2.3636 …)
Θ = 67.067 …°
Θ =67.1°

The problem is not over once the value of theta (Θ) has been calculated. This angle measure
must now be used to state the direction. One means of doing so is to simply state that the
direction of the resultant is 67.1° west of north. Alternatively, the counter-clockwise convention
could be used. The north axis is rotated 90° counter-clockwise from east and this vector is an
additional 67.1° counter-clockwise past north. Thus the CCW direction is 157.1° CCW.

In summary, the direction of a vector can be determined in the same way that it is always
determined - by finding the angle of rotation counter-clockwise from due east. Since the
resultant is the hypotenuse of a right triangle, this can be accomplished by first finding an angle
that the resultant makes with one of the nearby axes of the triangle. Once done, a little thinking
is required in order to relate the angle to a direction.

Addition of Non-Perpendicular Vectors

Now we will consider situations in which the two (or more) vectors that are being added are not
at right angles to each other. The Pythagorean theorem is not applicable to such situations
since it applies only to right triangles. Two non-perpendicular vectors will not form a right
triangle. Yet it is possible to force two (or more) non-perpendicular vectors to be transformed
into other vectors that do form a right triangle. The trick involves the concept of a vector
component and the process of vector resolution.
A vector component describes the effect of a vector in a given direction. Any angled vector has
two components; one is directed horizontally and the other is directed vertically. For instance, a
northwest vector has a northward component and a westward component. Together, the effect
these two components are equal to the overall effect of the angled vector. As an example,
consider a plane that flies northwest from Chicago O'Hare airport towards the Canada border.
The northwest displacement vector of the plane has two components - a northward component
and a westward component. When added together, these two components are equal to the
overall northwest displacement. This is shown in the diagram below.

The northwest vector has north and west components that are represented as Ax and Ay. It can
be said that

A = Ax + Ay

So whenever we think of a northwest vector, we can think instead of two vectors - a north and
a west vector. The two components Ax + Ay can be substituted in for the single vector A in the
problem.

Now suppose that your task involves adding two non-perpendicular vectors together. We will
call the vectors A and B. Vector A is a nasty angled vector that is neither horizontal nor vertical.
And vector B is a nice, polite vector directed horizontally. The situation is shown below.
Of course nasty vector A has two components - Ax and Ay. These two components together are
equal to vector A. That is, A = Ax + Ay .

And since this is true, it makes since to say that A + B = Ax + Ay + B.

And so the problem of A + B has been transformed into a problem in which all vectors are at
right angles to each other. Nasty has been replaced by nice and that should make any physics
student happy. With all vectors being at right angles to one another, their addition leads to a
resultant that is at the hypotenuse of a right triangle. The Pythagorean theorem can then be
used to determine the magnitude of the resultant.

To see how this process works with an actual vector addition problem, consider Example 3
shown below.

Example 3:

Max plays middle linebacker for South's football team. During one play in last Friday night's
game against New Greer Academy, he made the following movements after the ball was
snapped on third down. First, he back-pedaled in the southern direction for 2.6 meters. He then
shuffled to his left (west) for a distance of 2.2 meters. Finally, he made a half-turn and ran
downfield a distance of 4.8 meters in a direction of 240° counter-clockwise from east (30° W of
S) before finally knocking the wind out of New Greer's wide receiver. Determine the magnitude
and direction of Max's overall displacement.

As is the usual case, the solution begins with a diagram of the vectors being added.

To assist in the discussion, the three vectors have been labeled as

vectors A, B, and C. The resultant is the vector sum of these three
vectors; a head-to-tail vector addition diagram reveals that the
resultant is directed southwest. Of the three vectors being added,
vector C is clearly the nasty vector. Its direction is neither due south
nor due west. The solution involves resolving this vector into its
components.

The process of vector resolution was discussed earlier in this lesson.

The process involves using the magnitude and the sine and cosine functions to determine the x-
and y-components of the vector. Vector C makes a 30° angle with the southern direction. By
sketching a right triangle with horizontal and vertical legs and C as the hypotenuse, it becomes
possible to determine the components of vector C. This is shown in the diagram below. The
side adjacent this 30° angle in the triangle is the vertical side; the vertical side represents the
vertical (southward) component of C - Cy. So to determine Cy, the cosine function is used. The
side opposite the 30° angle is the horizontal side; the horizontal side represents the horizontal
(westward) component of C - Cx. The values of Cx and Cy can be determined by using SOH CAH
TOA. The cosine function is used to determine the southward component since the southward
component is adjacent to the 30° angle. The sine function is used to determine the westward
component since the westward component is the side opposite to the 30° angle. The work is
shown below.
Now our vector addition problem has been transformed from the addition of two nice vectors
and one nasty vector into the addition of four nice vectors.

With all vectors oriented along are customary north-south and east-west axes, they can be
added head-to-tail in any order to produce a right triangle whose the hypotenuse is the
resultant. Such a diagram is shown below.

The triangle's perpendicular sides have lengths of 4.6 meters and 6.756 meters. The length of
the horizontal side (4.6 m) was determined by adding the values of B (2.2 m) and Cx (2.4 m).
The length of the vertical side (6.756… m) was determined by adding the values of A (2.6 m)
and Cy (4.156… m). The resultant's magnitude (R) can now be determined using the
Pythagorean theorem.

R2 = (6.756… m)2 + (4.6 m)2

R2 = 45.655… m2 + 21.16 m2
R2 = 66.815… m2
R = SQRT(66.815… m2 )
R = 8.174 … m
R = ~8.2 m
The direction of the resultant can be determined by finding the angle
that the resultant makes with either the north-south or the east-west
vector. The diagram at the right shows the angle theta (Θ) marked
inside the vector addition triangle. This angle theta is the angle that
the resultant makes with west. Its value can be determined using the
tangent function. The tangent function (as in TOA) relates the angle
value to the ratio of the lengths of the opposite side to the adjacent
side. That is,

tangent(Θ) = (6.756… m)/(4.6 m) = 1.46889…

Using the inverse tangent function, the angle theta (Θ) can be determined. On most calculators,
this involves using the 2nd-Tangent buttons.

Θ = tan-1 (1.46889…) = 55.7536… °

Θ = ~56°

This 56° angle is the angle between the resultant vector (drawn in black above) and the
westward direction. This makes the direction 56° south of west. The direction of the resultant
based on the counter-clockwise from east convention (CCW) can be determined by adding 180°
to the 56°. So the CCW direction is 236°.

Example 4 provides one final example of how to combine vector resolution with vector addition
in order to add three or more non-perpendicular vectors. Because this example includes three
particularly nasty vectors, a table will be used to organize the information about he magnitude
and direction of the components. The use of a table is a wise idea when problems get
complicated.

Example 4:

Cameron Per (his friends call him Cam) and Baxter Nature are on a hike. Starting from home
base, they make the following movements.

A: 2.65 km, 140° CCW

B: 4.77 km, 252° CCW
C: 3.18 km, 332° CCW

Determine the magnitude and direction of their overall displacement.

The visual representation of the situation is shown below.

To determine the resultant, the three individual vectors are resolved into horizontal and vertical
components. The angle information about each vector is used to form a right triangle in which
the vector is the hypotenuse and the perpendicular sides are oriented along the east-west and
north-south axes. This is shown in the diagram below.

Trigonometric functions - sine, cosine and tangent - are then used to determine the magnitude
of the horizontal and vertical component of each vector. The work is shown and organized in
the table below.

Vector East-West Component North-South Component

(2.65 km)•cos(40°) (2.65 km)•sin(40°)

A
2.65 km
= 2.030… km, West = 1.703… km, North
140° CCW

(4.77 km)•sin(18°) (4.77 km)•cos(18°)

B
4.77 km
= 1.474… km, West = 4.536… km, South
252° CCW
 (3.18 km)•cos(28°) (3.18 km)•sin(28°)
C
3.18 km
= 2.808… km, East = 1.493… km, South
332° CCW

Sum of 0.696 km, West 4.326 km, South

A+B+C

The last row of the above table represents the sum of all the East-West components and the
sum of all the North-South components. The resultant consists of these two components. The
resultant is determined by adding together these two the components to form a right triangle
that has a hypotenuse that is equal to the resultant. This typically involves adding all the
horizontal components to determine the total length of the horizontal side of the right triangle
… and adding all the vertical components to determine the total length of the vertical side of
the right triangle. This is done in the table above by simple adding another row to the table for
the vector sum of all the components. In adding the east-west components of all the individual
vectors, one must consider that an eastward component and a westward component would add
together as a positive and a negative. Some students prefer to think of this as subtraction as
opposed to addition. In actuality, it really is addition - the addition of vectors with opposite
direction. Similarly, a northward and a southward component would also add together as
a positive and a negative. Once the bottom row is accurately determined, the magnitude of the
resultant can be determined using Pythagorean theorem.

R2 = (0.696 km)2 + (4.326 km)2

R2 = 0.484 km2 + 18.714 km2
R2 = 19.199 km2
R = SQRT(19.199 km2)
R = ~4.38 km
The direction of the resulting displacement can be determined by
constructing the final triangle from the components of the resultant.
The components of the resultant are simply the sum the east-west and
north-south components. Once done, SOH CAH TOA is used to
determine the angle that the resultant makes with a nearby axis. The
diagram is shown at the right. The angle labeled as theta (Θ) is the
angle between the resultant vector and the west axis. This angle can be
calculated as follows:

Tangent(Θ) = opposite/adjacent
Tangent(Θ) = (4.326 km)/(0.696 km)
Tangent(Θ) = 6.216
Θ = tan-1(6.216)
Θ = 80.9°

This angle measure represents the angle of rotation of the vector south
of due west. It would be worded as 80.9° south of west. Since west is
180° counterclockwise from east, the direction could also be expressed
in the counterclockwise (CCW) from east convention as 260.9°.

So the result of our analysis is that the overall displacement is 4.38 km with a direction of
260.9° (CCW).

The questions that have been addressed on this page are:

1. How can three or more perpendicular vectors be added together to determine the resultant?
2. How can two or more non-perpendicular vectors be added together to determine the
resultant?
For both questions, we have found that any two or three or more vectors can be transformed or
rearranged so that they add together to form a right triangle with the hypotenuse being the
resultant. Once the right triangle is formed, Pythagorean theorem and SOH CAH TOA can be
used to calculate the resultant.

REACTION FORCE
Steps for Calculating the Reaction Force between Two Objects
Step 1: Determine which two objects are interacting.
Step 2: Determine the magnitude and direction of the force that one object exerts on the other.
Step 3: State that the force the second object exerts back on the first is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction of the original force.
Vocabulary for Calculating the Reaction Force between Two Objects
Netwon's Third Law: Issac Newton stated in the third of his laws determining how objects react to
forces that any force by one object on another result in a force of equal magnitude and opposite
direction acting against the actor of the first force. These forces are always exactly equal in
magnitude regardless of the size, mass, or any other characteristics of either object interacting.
The following two problems demonstrate how to calculate the reaction force between two objects.
Example Problem 1 - Calculating the Reaction Force between Two Objects
A woman with a mass of 65 kg and her daughter who has a mass of 30 kg is on roller skates on a
smooth, flat floor. The woman pushes her daughter forward with a force of 40 N causing her to
accelerate in the +x-direction. What is the magnitude of the force the daughter exerts on the
woman?
Step 1: Determine which two objects are interacting.
We need to first determine which objects are interacting. In this case, the two objects interacting are
the woman and her daughter. According to Newton's third law, any force one acts on the other will
be paired by an equal and opposite force by the second person back on the first.
Step 2: Determine the magnitude and direction of the force that one object exerts on the other.
Next, we will determine the magnitude of the force that one object exerts on the other. Here, the
woman exerts a 40-N force on her daughter in the +x-direction.
Step 3: State that the force the second object exerts back on the first is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction of the original force.
Regardless of the size or strength of either person, Newton's third law states that the paired forces
will always be equal and opposite. Therefore, we know that the daughter will exert a 40-N force back
on her mother in the -x-direction.
Example Problem 2 - Calculating the Reaction Force between Two Objects
A man stands very close to a solid brick wall. He shoves the wall as hard as he can with a 120-N
force in the Eastward direction and moves backward as he does. The wall does not move at all. How
much force does the wall apply to the man as he shoves?
Step 1: Determine which two objects are interacting.
In this case, the man and the wall are the two objects exerting forces on each other.
Step 2: Determine the magnitude and direction of the force that one object exerts on the other.
In this problem, the man exerts a 100-N force-directed eastward on the wall.
Step 3: State that the force the second object exerts back on the first is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction of the original force.
The wall exerts a 100-N force to the west on the man which explains why he moves in that direction
after the shove. Again, the relative mass between the two objects and the relative motion of the
objects after the force has no bearing on the force pair; it is always equal and opposite.
Nomenclature

A = area of moment diagram

a = linear dimension

a = distance from the left end of a span to the centroid of its moment diagram

b = linear dimension

b = distance from the right end of a span to the centroid of its moment diagram

C = centroid of moment diagram

c = linear dimension

d = linear dimension

E = modulus of elasticity

I = moment of inertia

L = length

M = applied bending moment

P = applied concentrated load

R = reaction

W = concentrated transverse load

w = distributed transverse load

1.3.4 Introduction to Reaction Forces and Moments on Beams Under Transverse Loading

Figure 1-30 shows a beam under transverse loading. Two equations of equilibrium may
be applied to find the reaction loads applied to such a beam by the supports. These
consist of a summation of forces in the vertical direction and a summation of moments.
If a beam has two reaction loads supplied by the supports, as in the case of a cantilever
beam or a beam simply supported at two points, the reaction loads may be found by
the equilibrium equations and the beam is statically determinate. However, if a beam
has more than two reaction loads, as in the case of a beam fixed at one end and either
pinned or fixed at the other end, it is statically indeterminate and beam deflection
equations must be applied in addition to the equations of statics to determine the
reaction loads.
Section 1.3.4.1 presents a method for determining reaction loads on beams fixed at one
end and pinned at another point, and Section 1.3.4.3 treats reaction loads for beams
fixed at both ends. Beams on three or more supports are treated in Section 1.3.4.5.

1.3.4.1 Reaction Forces and Moments on Beams with One Fixed End and One Pinned Support

Figure 1-31(a) shows a uniform beam with one fixed and one pinned support. The
following procedure may be used to determine the support reactions on such a beam if
its stresses are in the elastic range.

1. Split the beam at the pinned support as in Figure 1-31(b) and find MA from the equations
of statics.
2. Consider the right section of the beam as a single beam simply supported at both ends
as in Figure 1-31(b). Find the moment diagram for this beam as in Figure 1-31(c). A is the
area of this moment diagram and C is the centroid of this area.
3. Find MB by the equation

MB=−3Aa¯L2−MA2MB=−3Aa¯L2−MA2

(1-38)

The evaluation of the first term of this equation may be facilitated by the use of Table 1-10.

4. Evaluate RA and RB by applying the equations of statics to Figure 1-31(d).

Once the support reactions have been determined, the moment and shear diagrams
may be constructed for the beam. If the pinned support is at the end of the
beam, MA may be set equal to zero.
1.3.4.2 Sample Problem - Reactions on Beam with One Fixed and One Pinned Support

Given: The beam shown in Figure 1-32.

Find: The reaction moments and forces on the beam.

Solution: Figure 1-33(a) may be obtained by redrawing the beam as in Figure 1-31(b).
The moment diagram may then be drawn for the right portion; and A, a, and MA may be
determined as in Figure 1-33(b).

From Equation (1-38),

MB=−3Aa¯L2−MA2=−3(25000)(10)(20)2−50002=−4,375 in*lbMB=−3Aa¯L2−MA2=−
3(25000)(10)(20)2−50002=−4,375 in*lb

Now that MB is known, RA and RB may be found by applying the equations of statics to
Figure 1-33(c). Doing this gives RA = 781 lb and RB = 219 lb.
1.3.4.3 Reaction Forces and Moments on Beams with Both Ends Fixed

Figure 1-34(a) shows a uniform beam with both ends fixed. The following procedure
may be used to determine the support reactions on such a beam if its stresses are in the
elastic range.

1. Consider the beam to be simply supported as in Figure 1-34(b).

2. Find the moment diagram for this simply supported beam as in Figure 1-34(c). A is the
area of the moment diagram and C is the centroid of this area.
3. Find MA and MB by the equations

MA=2AL2 (2b¯−a¯)MA=2AL2 (2b¯−a¯)

(1-39)

MB=2AL2 (2a¯−b¯)MB=2AL2 (2a¯−b¯)

 (1-40)

The evaluation of the terms in these equations may be facilitated by the use of Table 1-10.

4. Evaluate RA and RB by applying the equations of statics to Figure 1-34(d).

Once the end reactions have been determined, the moment and shear diagrams may be
constructed for the beam.

The above procedure may be avoided by using Table 1-9 which gives equations for the
reaction moments for beams fixed at both ends under various loadings. The sign
convention for this table are as shown in Figure 1-34(d).
1.3.4.4 Reaction Forces and Moments on Continuous Beams

A continuous beam is one with three or more supports. Such a beam is statically
indeterminate and deflection equations must be applied to find the support reactions.
The three-moment equation is such an equation.

1.3.4.5 Application of the Three Moment Equation to Solving for the Reactions on Continuous Beams

Figure 1-35(a) shows a uniform beam that is simply supported at three colinear points,
A, B, and C. In order to obtain the reactions, the beam is broken into two simply
supported sections with no end moments, as shown in Figure 1-35(b). The moment
diagrams are then found for these sections and the area A and centroid C of these
diagrams are found as shown in Figure 1-35(c). The quantities found may now be
substituted into the three moment equation:

MAL1+2MB(L1+L2)+MCL2=−6A1a¯1L1−6A2b¯2L2MAL1+2MB(L1+L2)+MCL2=−6A1a¯1
L1−6A2b¯2L2

(1-41)

If MA and MC are known, this equation may be solved for the moment at B, MB. Knowing
this moment, the support reactions at A, B, and C may be found by applying the
equations of statics.

The terms to the right of Equation (1-41) may be found for various simple loadings by
use of Table 1-10.
If a beam has a number of concentrated loads as shown in Figure 1-36, Equation (1-42)
becomes
MAL1+2MB(L1+L2)+McL2=−∑P1a1L1(L21−a21)−∑P2b2L2(L22−b22)MAL1+2MB(L1+L2
)+McL2=−∑P1a1L1(L12−a12)−∑P2b2L2(L22−b22)

(1-42)

where P1 denotes any one of several concentrated loads which may act on the left span
at a distance a1 from support A. Similarly, P2 denotes any load in the right span at a
distance from support C.

If a beam is simply supported at more than thre.e points, the three-moment equation
may be written for each intermediate support. The equations may then be solved
simultaneously to obtain the moments at each support. This procedure is illustrated by
the sample problem in Section 1.3.4.6.

1.3.4.6 Sample Problem - Reactions on Continuous Beams by the Three Moment Equation

Given: The continuous beam shown in Figure 1-37.

Find: The support reactions.

Solution: The three-moment equation may be written for spans 1 and 2. Since only
concentrated loads are present, the special case given by Equation (1-42) may be used.
Thus,

M1L1+2M2(L1+L2)+M3L3=−P1a1L1(L21−a21)−P2b2L2(L22−b22)M1L1+2M2(L1+L2)+M3
L3=−P1a1L1(L12−a12)−P2b2L2(L22−b22)

Inserting numerical values gives

0(10)+2M2(10+15)+M3(20)=−500(5)10(102−52)−300(5)15(152−52)0(10)+2M2(10+15
)+M3(20)=−500(5)10(102−52)−300(5)15(152−52)

Simplifying gives 5M2 + 2M3 = 3875.

The more general form of the three-moment equation given by Equation (1-41) may
now be written for spans 2 and 3 with the aid of cases one and three of Table 1-10.

M2(15)+2M3(15+20)=−300(10)15(152+102)−10(20)34M2(15)+2M3(15+20)=−300(10)1
5(152+102)−10(20)34

Simplifying gives 3M2 + 14M3 = -15,000.

The two equations in M2 and M3 that were just obtained may be solved simultaneously
to find that M2 = -376 and M3 = -990.

The equations of statics may now be applied as illustrated in Figure 1-38 to find the
reaction forces.
The beam may now be drawn as in Figure 1-39.
 RESULTANT OF FORCES

What is the Resultant Force and How to Find it (with Examples)?

In this article, you will learn what the resultant force (also known as net force) is, and how to find it
when an object is subject to parallel forces as well as non-parallel forces with the help of examples.

What is the resultant force?

When an object is subject to several forces, the resultant force is the force that alone produces
the same acceleration as all those forces.
For example, if 4 forces act on a block and cause it to accelerate 1 m/s2 south, then the resultant
force is the force that, if applied alone to the block, will also make it accelerate 1 m/s2 south.

The reason why the resultant force is useful is that it allows us to think about several forces as
though they were a single force. This means that to determine the effect that several forces have on
an object, we only need to determine the effect that a single force has.

How to find the resultant force?

If we know the mass m of an object and the acceleration a produced by the forces that act on it, we
can find the resultant force using Newton's Second Law. Indeed, according to Newton's Second
Law, the force F that alone produces the acceleration a on an object of mass m is:
F = ma

This force F is our resultant force. So, we can write:

R = ma

Which indicates that the resultant force R has the same direction as a, and has magnitude equal to
the product ma.
For example, if a box of 1.5 kg is subject to 5 forces which make it accelerate 2.0 m/s2 north-west,
then the resultant force is directed north-west and has the magnitude equal
to 1.5 kg × 2.0 m/s2 = 3.0 N.

Often, however, we know the forces that act on an object and we need to find the resultant force.

Experiments show that when an object is subject to several forces, F1, F2, ..., the resultant force R is
the vector sum of those forces:
R = F1 + F2 + ...
Notice that this is not a mere sum of the magnitudes of the forces, but the sum of the forces taken
as vectors, which is more involved because vectors have both a magnitude and a direction that we
need to consider when doing the sum.
According to the above equation, if an object is subject to no forces, then the resultant force is zero,
and if an object is subject to only one force, then the resultant force is equal to that force. These
two cases are pretty simple, but what about an object subject to two or more forces? How do we
perform the vector sum then?

To explain this clearly, we will now go through all the cases that can happen, from simple ones in
which all the forces are parallel, to more complex ones in which the forces are not parallel, and show
how to find the resultant force in each of them with the help of examples.

• Two forces acting in the same direction

Let's start with the simple case in which an object is subject to two forces that act in the same
direction:

The resultant force is in the same direction as the two forces, and has the magnitude equal to
the sum of the two magnitudes:

 Two forces acting in opposite directions

Let's consider the case in which an object is subject to two forces that act in opposite directions.

If the two forces are equal in magnitude:

The resultant force will be zero because two opposite forces cancel each other out.
On the other hand, if the two forces are not equal in magnitude:
Now comes the important part:

If we sum all the x components, we will get the x component of the resultant force:
F1x + F2x = Rx

Rx = F1x + F2x

Rx = F1 cos 45° + F2

Rx = (50 N) (cos 45°) + 60 N

Rx = 95 N
Similarly, if we sum all the y components, we will get the y component of the resultant force:
F1y + F2y = Ry

Ry = F1y + F2y

Ry = F1 sin 45° + 0

Ry = F1 sin 45°

Ry = (50 N) (sin 45°)

Ry = 35 N

At this point, we know the x and y components of R, which we can use to find the magnitude and
direction of R:
Rx = 95 N

Ry = 35 N

The magnitude of R can be calculated by applying Pythagoras' Theorem:

R = √Rx2 + Ry2

R = √952 + 352 N = 100 N

The angle θ that R makes with Rx can be calculated using trigonometry:

Ry
θ = tan-1
Rx

35 N
θ = tan-1 = 20°
95 N

Thus, the resultant force R has magnitude 100 N and direction angle of 20°.

• More than 2 non-parallel forces

Finally, let's examine the case in which an object is subject to more than two non-parallel forces.
For example, suppose we have an object that is subject to three forces, F1, F2, and F3.

The magnitude of each force is shown below:

F1 = 10 N

F2 = 20 N

F3 = 40 N

The free-body diagram of the object looks like this:

F1x = F1
F2x = 0
F3x = −F3 cos 60°
F1y = 0
F2y = F2
F3y = −F3 sin 60°

Again, the x component of the resultant force R is the sum of all x components:
Rx = F1x + F2x + F3x
Rx = F1 + 0 + (−F3 cos 60°)
Rx = F1 − F3 cos 60°
Rx = 10 N − (40 N) (cos 60°)
Rx = −10 N

Similarly, the y component of R is the sum of all y components:

Ry = F1y + F2y + F3y
Ry = 0 + F2 + (−F3 sin 60°)
Ry = F2 − F3 sin 60°
Ry = 20 N − (40 N) (sin 60°)
Ry = −15 N

Finally, let's calculate the magnitude and direction of R using its two components Rx and Ry:
Rx = −10 N
Ry = −15 N
R = √Rx2 + Ry2

R = √(−10)2 + (−15)2 N = 18 N

Ry
θ = tan-1
Rx

−15 N
θ = tan-1 = 56°
−10 N

To express the direction of R, we need to calculate the direction angle (i.e. the counterclockwise
angle that R makes with the positive x-axis), which in our case is 180° + θ, i.e. 236°.

The process that we used in this case and in the previous one to find the resultant force when the
forces are not parallel can also be used when all the forces are parallel. In fact, it can be used in any
case – it's a generic process. However, in the cases of parallel forces, we recommend using the much
simpler processes that we described before.

Here's a quick summary of the generic process:

1. Draw a free-body diagram of the object

2. Draw coordinate axes on the free-body diagram
3. Decompose the forces acting on the object into x and y components
4. Calculate the x and y components of the resultant force by adding
the x and y components of all forces
5. Finally, find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force by using
its x and y components
A note on drawing coordinate axes on a free-body diagram: we recommend you to draw them so
that one of the axes is in the same direction as the acceleration of the object. For example, if you
have an object accelerating up a ramp, you should draw tilted coordinate axes with the x-axis uphill.
Sometimes, however, your object may be at rest or you may not know the direction of the
acceleration. In that case, place the coordinate axes so that as many forces as possible are parallel to
them since this will simplify the expressions for their components.