Unit – III

Vector space
Vector space: Le F be a field of scalars and V be a non – empty vector set then V(F) is a vector space. If there exist a function
F: FXV → V is satisfying the following conditions
I. (V, + ) is an abilean group
II. Scalar properties :
1. a x ∈V ∀ a∈ F , x ∈ V
2. a ( x + y )=a x+ a y ∀ x , y ∈V ∧∀ a∈ F
3. ( a+ b ) x=a x +b x ∀ x ∈ V ∧a , b ∈ F
4. a ( b x )= ( ab ) x ∀ x ∈ V ∧a , b ∈ F
5. 1. x=x ∀ x ∈ V 1 ∈ F

Ex: R(Q) , Q(Q), R( R) , C(R) , C( C), C(Q) ….. etc

Ex: Q(R) is not a vector space where V = Q and F = R

Let a=√ 2∈ R∧x=2 ∈Q

⇒ a x=( √2 ) 2=2 √ 2∉ Q

Scalar properties are not satisfying

∴ Q(R ) is not vector space .

Note : Let V(F) be a vector space iff F ⊆ V

Null space: Let V = { 0 } forms a vector space over any field F then the vector space V(F) is called a null space .

Question: Show that R3( R ) is vector space where R3 =R3= { (x , y , z )|x , y , z ∈ R } with respect to vector addition and scalar

Multiplications are defined as ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) + ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 )=(x1 + x 2 , y 1 + y 2 , z 1 + z 2)

a ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) =( a x 1 ,ay 1 , az 1 ) , ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ∈ R3 a ∈ R

Solution: Let R3 = { ( x , y , z )|x , y , z ∈ R }

Define vector addition and scalar multiplications are

( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) +( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 )=(x1 + x 2 , y 1 + y 2 , z 1 + z 2)
a ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) =( a x 1 ,ay 1 , az 1 ) , ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ∈ R3 a ∈ R

I. To prove (R3, +) is an abilean group :

1. Closer property: Since by the definition of the vector addition
( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) +( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 )=(x1 + x 2 , y 1 + y 2 , z 1 + z 2)
Since x 1 , x 2 , y 1 , y 2 , z 1 , z 2 ∈ R
⇒ x 1+ x2 , y 1+ y2 , z 1+ z 2 ∈ R
⇒( x 1+ x2 , y 1+ y2 , z 1+ z 2 ¿ ∈ R3
∴ ( x1 , y 1 , z 1 ) + ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) =( x1 + x 2 , y 1 + y 2 , z 1 + z 2 ) ∈ R3 ∀ ( x 1 , y1 , z 1) , ( x 2 , y 2 , z2 ) ∈ R 3
∴ ( R3 , +) is closer property
2. Associative property: Let ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) , ( x 3 , y 3 , z 3 ) ∈ R3

Let ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) + [ ( x2 , y 2 , z 2 ) + ( x 3 , y 3 , z 3 ) ]=( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) +[( x2 + x 3 , y 2 + y 3 , z 2 + z 3 ) ]

= ( x 1 + ( x 2 + x3 ) , y 1 + ( y 2 + y 3 ) , z 1 + ( z 2 + z 3 ) )
 = ( ( x1 + x 2 ) + x 3 , ( y 1 + y 2 ) + y 3 ,( z 1+ z2 )+ z 3)

= [ x 1+ x2 , y 1+ y2 , z 1+ z 2 ] + ( x 3 , y 3 , z3 )

= [ ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) + ( x2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ] + ( x 3 , y 3 , z3 )

∴ ( x1 , y 1 , z 1 ) + [ ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) + ( x 3 , y 3 , z 3 ) ]= [ ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) + ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ]+ ( x2 , y 2 , z 2 )

∀ ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) , ( x2 , y 2 , z 2 ) , ( x 3 , y 3 , z 3 ) ∈ R3

∴ (R3, +) is satisfying associative property

3. Identity property: Let ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) , ∈ R3 where x1 , y 1 , z 1 ∈ R

Since 0 ∈ R such that 0=(0 , 0 , 0)∈ R3

( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) +( 0 , 0 , 0 ) =( 0 , 0 , 0 ) + ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 )=( x1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ∈ R3 ∃(0 , 0 , 0) ∈ R 3
∴ (R3, +) is satisfying identity property

4. Inverse property: Let ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) , ∈ R3 where x1 , y 1 , z 1 ∈ R

Since x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ∈ R ∃−x 1 ,− y 1 ,−z1 ∈ R such that (−x 1 ,− y 1 ,−z 1 ) ∈ R3 ⇒−( x1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ,∈ R3

∴ ( x1 , y 1 , z 1 ) + (−( x 1 , y 1 , z 1) )=−( x1 , y 1 , z 1 ) + ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 )= ( 0 ,0 , 0 ) ∃−( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) , ∈ R3

∀ ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ∈ R3

∴ (R3, +) is satisfying inverse property

5. Commutative property : Let ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ∈ R3

( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) + ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 )=( x 1 + x 2 , y 1+ y 2 , z 1+ z 2 )
= ( x 2 + x1 , y 2+ y 1 , z 2+ z 1 ) ( R is coommutative )

= ( x 2 , y 2 , z2 ) + ( x1 , y 1 , z 1 )

∴ ( x1 , y 1 , z 1 ) + ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) =( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) + ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ∀ ( x1 , y 1 , z 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ∈ R 3

∴ (R3, +) is satisfying commutative property

∴ (R3, +) is an abilean group

II. To prove scalar properties:

1. Let ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ∈ R3 ∧a ∈ R where x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ∈ R

⇒ a ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) =( a x 1 ,a y 1 , a z1 )

Since x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ∈ R∧a ∈ R

⇒ a x 1 ,a y 1 , a z 1 ∈ R

⇒(a x 1 , a y 1 , a z 1)∈ R3

∴ a ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ∈ R3 ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ∈ R3∧a ∈ R
2. To prove a [ ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1) + ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ]=a ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) +a ( x 2 , y 2 , z2 ) ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) , ( x2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ∈ R3
 Now consider a [ ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1) + ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ]=a( x 1 + x2 , y 1+ y 2 , z 1+ z 2 )

= (ax 1 +a x 2 ,ay 1 +a y 2 , az 1+ a z 2)

= ( a x 1 , ay 1 , az 1 ) + ( a x 2 , ay 2 , az 2 )

= a ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) + a ( x2 , y 2 , z 2 )

∴ a [ ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) + ( x 2 , y 2 , z2 ) ]=a ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) + a ( x2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ∀ ( x 1 , y1 , z 1) , ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) ∈ R 3∧a ∈ R

3. To prove ( a+ b ) ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 )=a ( x1 , y 1 , z 1 )+ b ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1) ∈ R 3∧a , , b ∈ R

Now consider ( a+ b ) ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 )=( ( a+b ) x 1 ,(a+b) y 1 ,(a+b) z 1 )

= (a x 1 +b x 1 , a y 1 +b y 1 , a z 1 +b z 1)

= ( a x 1 , ay 1 , az 1 ) + ( bx 1 ,by 1 , bz 1)

= a ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) + b ( x1 , y 1 , z 1 )

∴ ( a+b ) ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) =a ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) +b ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1) ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ∈ R3 ∧a , , b∈ R

4. To prove a ( b ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ) =( ab ) ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ∀ ( x1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ∈ R3∧a ,, b ∈ R

Now consider a ( b ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ) =a ( b x 1 , by 1 , bz1 )

=¿

= ( ( ab ) x1 , ( ab ) y 1 ,(ab) z 1 )

= (ab) ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 )

∴ a ( b ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) ) =( ab ) ( x1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ∈ R3 ∧a , , b ∈ R

5. Now 1. ( x1 , y 1 , z 1 )=( 1. x 1 , 1. y 1 , 1. z 1 )

= ( x1 , y1 , z1 )

∴ 1. ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) =( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) ∈ R 3

∴ R3(R) be a vector space

Question: Rn= ¿. Then show that Rn( R) is vector space with

Respect to vector addition and scalar multiplications
Question: Show that R2(R) be a vector space with respect to vector addition and scalar multiplications are defined as

( x 1 , y 1 ) ⊕ ( x 2 , y 2 )=( x1 + x 2+ 1, y 1 + y 2 +1 ) ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ) ∈ R2
a ( x , y )=( ax +a−1 , ay+ a−1 ) ∀ ( x , y ) ∈ R2∧a∈ R

Question: Let F be a field and V is a set of all nxm whose entries are in F. The show that V(F) is vector space.
Question: Define vector addition and scalar multiplications in R2( R) are

( x 1 , y 1 ) + ( x 2 , y2 ) =( x 1+ x2 , y 1+ y 2) ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 ) , ( x2 , y 2 ) ∈ R2
a ( x , y )=( ax +1 , ay+1 ) ∀ ( x , y ) ∈ R2∧a ∈ R
 Verify that R2(R) be vector space or not.
Subspace: Let V(F) be a vector space and W is any non- empty sub set of V. then W is a subspace of V if W is itself is a
Vector space with respect to same vector addition and scalar multiplications in V over the same field F
Trivial and non – trivial subspace: Let V(F) be a vector space. Then the vector space V has at least two sub spaces namely
{ 0 } and V itself are called trivial subspaces of V
If there exist any subspace W of V other than these two subspaces are called non – trivial subspaces
Theorem: Let V(F) be a vector space and W is any non – empty sub set of V. then W is a subspace of V iff
aα +bβ ∈ W ∀ α , β ∈W ∧a , b ∈ F

Proof: Let V(F) be a vector and W is any non – empty sub set of V
Now we have to prove that W is subspace of V iff aα +bβ ∈ W ∀ α , β ∈W ∧a , b ∈ F
Case(i): Suppose W is a subspace of V

⇒ W(F) is itself is a vector space

Let α , β ∈W ∧a , b ∈ F

⇒ aα ,bβ ∈W ( since by definition of scalar multiplication in W)

⇒ aα ,+bβ ∈ W ( since by definition of vector addition in W)
∴ aα +bβ ∈W ∀ α , β ∈ W ∧a , b ∈ F

Case(ii): Conversely suppose aα +bβ ∈ W ∀ α , β ∈W ∧a , b ∈ F−−−−−−−−−−( 1 )

Now we have to prove that W is a subspace of V

It is sufficient to prove that W is itself is a vector space with respect to same vector addition and scalar multiplications
In V over the field F i.e W(F) be a vector space
I. To prove (W, +) is an abilian group :
Substitute a = 1 and b = -1 in (1)

⇒ α −β ∈W ∀ α , β ∈ W

Since H is a sub group of (G, *) iff a∗b−1 ∈ H , ∀ a , b ∈ H

⇒ (W, +) is a sub group of (V, +)

Since (V, +) is abilian group and every subgroup of abilian group is abilian

⇒ (W, +) is an abilian group

∴ (W, +) is an abilian group

II. To scalar properties:

1. Substitute a = 1 and b = 0 in (1)
(1) ⇒ aα ∈ W
∴ aα ∈W ∀ α ∈ W , a ∈ F
2. Let α , β ∈W ∧a ∈ F
Since W is a non – empty sub set of V
⇒ α , β ∈V ∧a ∈ F and V is a vector space
⇒ a ( α + β )=aα +aβ
 ∴ a ( α + β ) =aα + aβ ∀ α , β ∈ W ∧a ∈ F
3. Let α ∈ W∧a , b ∈ F
Since W is a non – empty sub set of V
⇒α ∈ V ∧a ,b ∈ F and V is a vector space
⇒ ( a+ b ) α =aα + bα
∴ ( a+b ) α =aα +bα ∀ α ∈ W ∧a , b ∈ F
4. Let α ∈ W∧a , b ∈ F
Since W is a non – empty sub set of V
⇒α ∈ V ∧a ,b ∈ F and V is a vector space
⇒ a ( bα )=(ab)α
∴ a ( bα ) =(ab)α ∀ α ∈W ∧a , b ∈ F
5. Since 1. α =α ∀ α ∈W , 1∈ F
∴ W(F) is itself a vector space
∴ W is a subspace of V
Hence the theorem.
Note: Let V(F) be a vector space and W is any non – empty sub set of V. then W is a subspace of V iff
α −β ∈W ∧∀ α , β ∈W ∧aα ∈ W a , b ∈ F

Question: Show that W = { (x , y , z )|2 x +5 y +6 z=0 } where x, y, z are real numbers is subspace of R3(R) .

Solution: Let R3( R) be a vector space

W = { ( x , y , z )|2 x +5 y +6 z=0 } where x, y, z are real numbers

Now we have to prove that W is subspace

Since 0 is a real number such that 2(0)_ + 5(0) +6(0) = 0

⇒ 0=(0 ,0 , 0)∈W
∴ W is a non – empty set of R3

Let α , β ∈W

⇒ α =( x 1 , y 1 , z 1) such that 2 x 1+5 y 1 +6 z 1=0−−−−−(1)

And β=( x 2 , y 2 , z 2) such that 2 x 2+ 5 y 2+6 z 2=0−−−−−(2)

Now consider aα +bβ=a ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) + b ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) where a , b ∈ R

= ( a x 1 +b x 2 , a y 1 +b y 2 , a z 1 +b z 2 )

Now consider 2 ( a x 1+ b x2 ) +5 ( a y 1 +b y 2 ) +6 (a z 1+ b z 2)

= 2 a x 1+2 b x 2+ 5 a y 1+5 b y 2 +6 a z 1 +6 b z 2

= a ( 2 x 1+5 y 1 +6 z 1 ) +b(2 x 2 +5 y 2+6 z 2 )

= a ( 0 )+ b ( 0 )=0
∴ aα +bβ ∈W ∀ α , β ∈ W , a , b ∈ F

Question: Let R3(R) be a vector space, which of the followings are subspace of R3

i) W = { ( x , y , z )| px+qy + rz=0 } where x, y, z are real numbers and p, q , r are fixed constants.
ii) W = { ( x , y , z )|x , y , r ∈ Q }
 iii) W = { ( x , y , z )|x , y , z ∈ R−Q }
iv) W = { ( x , 0 , 0)|x ∈ R }
v) W = { (0 , y , 0)| y ∈ R }
vi) W = { ( x , y , 0)|x , y ∈ R }
vii) W = { ( x , 0 , z)|x , z ∈ R }
viii) W = { (0 , y , z)| y , z ∈ R }
ix) W = { ( x , y , z )|x+ y=z } where x , y z ∈ R

Question: Let V(R) is a vector space of 2X2 matrices . which of the followings are subspaces of V

( )
1 2
i) W¿ {( )|
a b
c d } ( )
a , b , c , d ∈ Z x=
1 2
3 5
1
a= ax=
3
3
1
3
5
∉W
3

ii) W¿ {( )|
a b
c d
a , b , c , d ∈Q
}
W¿ { A 2 X 2| A =A }
T
iii)
iv) W¿ { A 2 X 2| A T =−A }
W¿ { A 2 X 2| A = A }
2
v)
vi) W¿ { A 2 X 2|det ⁡(A )=2 }
vii) W¿ ¿

Theorem: Let V(F) be a vector space. Intersection of two subspaces is again a subspace of V.
Proof: Let V(F) be a vector space
Suppose W1 and W2 are two subspaces of V
Now we have W1∩ W2 is a subspace of V

Since W1is subspace of V ⇒ 0 ∈W 1

Since W2is subspace of V ⇒ 0 ∈W 2

∴ 0 ∈W 1 ∩W 2

∴ W 1 ∩W 2 is a non –empty subset of V

Let x , y ∈W 1 ∩W 2

⇒ x , y ∈W 1and x , y ∈W 2

Let x , y ∈W 1and W 1 is a subspace of V

⇒ ax+by ∈W 1 ∀ a , b ∈ F−−−−−−−−−(1)

Let x , y ∈W 2and W 2 is a subspace of V

⇒ ax+by ∈W 2 ∀ a , b ∈ F−−−−−−−−−(2)

From (1) and (2)

⇒ ax+by ∈W 1 ∩W 2

∴ ax+ by ∈ W 1 ∩W 2 ∀ x , y ∈W 1 ∩W 2∧a , b ∈ F
 ∴ W 1 ∩W 2 is a subspace of V I.e intersection of two subspaces is again a subspace of V

Note: Intersection of family of n subspaces is again a subspace of vector space V(F)

i.e ¿ i=1 ¿ n W iis a subspace of vector space V(F) where each Wi is a subspace of V(F) for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, ------------ n

Note: Union of two subspaces need not be a subspace of a vector space

Ex: Let R3(R) be a vector space and

W1 = { (x , 0 , 0)|x ∈ R }

W2 = { (0 , y , 0)| y ∈ R } are two subspaces of R3

Let (1, 0, 0) ∈W 1and (0, 2,0) ∈W 2

⇒ (1,0, 0) , (0, 2, 0)∈W 1 ∪ W 2

But (1, 0,0) +(0, 2, 0) = (1, 2, 0)∉W 1 ∪ W 2

∴ W 1 ∪W 2is not a subspace of R3

Theorem: Let V(F) be a vector space and W1 and W2 are two subspaces of V then
i) W1 + W2 is subspace of V
ii) W1 ⊆ W1+ W2 and W2 ⊆ W1+ W2
Proof: Let V(F) be a vector space and W1 and W2 are two subspaces of V

Since W1 + W2 = { x + y|x ∈ W 1 , y ∈W 2 }

Now we have to prove that W1 + W2 is a subspace of V

Since W1 , W2 are subspaces of V ⇒ 0 ∈W 1∧0 ∈W 2

⇒ 0=0+0 ∈ W 1+ W 2

∴ W 1+ W 2 (≠ ∅) ⊆V

Let α , β ∈W 1 +W 2 ∧a , b ∈ F
⇒ α=x 1 + y 1 where x 1 ∈ W 1 , y 1 ∈W 2 and β=x 2 + y 2 where x 2 ∈ W 1 , y 2 ∈W 2

Now consider aα +bβ=a ( x 1 + y 1 ) +b( x2 + y 2 )

= a x 1+ a y 1+ b x2 +b y 2

∴ aα +bβ = a x 1+ b x 2+ a y1 +b y 2

Since x 1 , x 2 ∈ W 1∧W 1 is a subspace of V then ax 1 +b x 2 ∈ W 1−−−−−−−−−−(1)

Since y 1 , y 2 ∈W 2∧W 2 is a subspace of V then ay 1 +b y 2 ∈W 2−−−−−−−−−−(2)

From (1) and (2) ( ax 1 +b x 2 ) +(ay 1+ b y 2) ∈W 1 +W 2

⇒ aα +bβ ∈ W 1 +W 2
∴ aα +bβ ∈W 1+W 2 ∀ α , β ∈ W 1 +W 2 , a , b ∈ F

∴ W 1 +W 2 is a subspace of V

ii) Let x ∈ W 1
 ⇒ x=x +0 where 0 ∈W 2

⇒ x=x +0 ∈W 1+W 2
∴ x ∈W 1+W 2
∴ x ∈W 1 ⇒ x ∈W 1 +W 2 ∀ x ∈W 1
∴ W 1 ⊆ W 1 +W 2
Similarly we can prove W 2 ⊆W 1 +W 2

Theorem: Let V(F) be a vector space and W1, W2 are two subspaces of V . Then every α ∈ V can be uniquely expressed as
α =x + y where x ∈W 1 ∧ y ∈ W 2whenW 1 ∩W 2={0 }

Proof: Let V(F) be a vector space and W1, W2 are two subspaces of V

Since W 1 ∩W 2={0 }

Now we have to prove that every α ∈ V can be uniquely expressed as α =x + y whe ℜ x ∈ W 1∧ y ∈W 2−−−(1)

If possible α ∈ V can be expressed as other way α =x 1 + y 1 where x 1 ∈ W 1∧ y 1 ∈ W 2−−−−−( 2)

From (1) & (2) x + y=x 1 + y 1

⇒ x−x 1= y 1− y−−−−−−−−(3)

Since x , x 1 ∈ W 1 ⇒ x−x 1 ∈W 1 (W 1is a subspace of V)

Since y 1 , y ∈W 2 ⇒ y 1− y ∈W 2 (W 2 is subspace of V)

Since y 1− y ∈W 2 ⇒ x−x 1 ∈ W 2 ( since by ( 3 ) )

But x−x 1 ∈ W 1

⇒ x−x 1 ∈ W 1 ∩W 2

But W 1 ∩W 2={0 }

⇒ x−x 1=0
∴ x=x1

Since x−x 1 ∈ W 1 ⇒ y 1− y ∈ W 1 ( since by ( 3 ) )

But y 1− y ∈W 2

⇒ y 1− y ∈W 1 ∩W 2

But W 1 ∩W 2={0 }

⇒ y 1− y =0
∴ y 1= y

∴ Every α ∈ V can be uniquely expressed as α =x + y where x ∈W 1 ∧ y ∈ W 2

Linear combination: Let V(F) be a vector space and α ∈ V is non – zero vector, x 1 , x 2 ,−−−−−− xn are n vectors in V

If there exist a 1 , a2 ,−−−−−a n ∈ F such that α =a1 x 1+ a2 x2 + a3 x 3±−−−−−−+a n x n. Then

α is a linear combination of x 1 , x 2 ,−−−−−− xn

Question: Let R3(R) be a vector space. (5,4 , 6) in R3 can be written as linear combination of (1, 2, 3), (1, 0, 0) , (1, 1, 1) ?
Solution: Let R3(R) be a vector space
Let (5,4 , 6)= a(1, 2, 3)+ b(1, 0, 0) + c(1, 1, 1) there exist a, b, c are in R

⇒ (5, 4, 6) = (a+ b +c, 2a +c, 3a+c)

⇒ a+ b +c= 5 ----------------------- (1) , 2a +c= 4 ----------- (2) & 3a+c= 6 -------------- (3)

Now (3) – (2) ⇒ a = 2

Substitute a = 2 in (2) ⇒ c = 0

Substitute a = 2, c= 0 in (1) ⇒ b = 3
∴ (5,4 , 6)= 2(1, 2, 3)+ 3(1, 0, 0) + 0(1, 1, 1)
∴ (5, 4, 6) is a linear combination of (1, 2, 3) , (1, 0, 0) & (1, 1, 1).

Question: Let R3(R) be a vector space. (5,4 , 3) in R3 can be written as linear combination of (1, 2, 3), (1, 0, 0) , (1, 1, 1) ?

Linear span set: Let V(F) be a vector space and S is any non – empty finite sub set of V then the linear span of S is defined as

{ | }
n
L(S) = γ ∈ V γ =∑ ai x i where x i ∈ S∧ai ∈ F 1 ≤i ≤n and it is known as generating set
i=1

Note: Let V(F) be a vector space and S any non – empty finite are infinite set then L(S) in always infinite set.

Note: L(S) always non – empty subset of a vector space V and S⊆ L(S)

Note: Let S⊆T then L(S) ⊆ L(T) and L(S U T)= L(S) + L(T)
Theorem: Let V(F) be a vector space and S is any non – empty subset of V. then L(S) is subspace of V.
Proof: Let V(F) be a vector space and S is any non – empty subset of V
Suppose S = {x1, x2, ---------- xn} be a finite subset of V

{ | }
n
Since L(S) = γ ∈ V γ=∑ ai x i where x i ∈ S∧ai ∈ F 1 ≤i ≤n
i=1

Since L(S) is non –empty subset of V

Let α , β ∈ L ( S )∧a , b ∈ F
n
⇒ α =∑ ai x i there exist a i ∈ F for all 1≤ i≤ n−−−−−−−−(1)
i=1

n
& β=∑ bi x i there exist b i ∈ F for all 1≤ i≤ n−−−−−−−−(2)
i=1

n n
Now consider aα +bβ=a ∑ ai x i +b ∑ b i x i
i=1 i=1

n
= ∑ ¿¿ ¿
i=1

n
∴ aα +bβ = ∑ (aa ¿ ¿i+bb i) xi −−−−−−−−−−−−( 3 ) ¿
i=1
 Since a , a i , b , bi ∈ F and F is a field

⇒ (aa ¿ ¿ i+bb i)∈ F ¿

n
⇒ ∑ (aa ¿ ¿i+bb i) xi ∈ L( S) ¿
i=1

⇒ aα +bβ ∈ L(S )

∴ aα +bβ ∈ L ( S ) ∀ α , β ∈ L ( S )∧a ,b ∈ F

∴ L(S) is subspace of V

Theorem: Let V(F) be a vector space and S is any non – empty subset of V. then S is a subspace of V iff L(S) = S.
Proof: Let V(F) be a vector space and S is any non – empty subset of V

{ | }
n
Since L(S) = γ ∈ V γ=∑ ai x i where x i ∈ S∧ai ∈ F 1 ≤i ≤n
i=1

Now we have to prove that S is subspace of V iff L(S) = S

Case(i) : Suppose S is subspace of V
Now we have to prove that L(S) = S

Since we know that S⊆ L(S)--------------------------------------- (1)

Let α ∈ L(S )
n
⇒ α =∑ ai x i where x i ∈ S there exist ai ∈ F for all 1≤ i≤ n
i=1

Since each x i ∈ Sand ai ∈ F , S is subspace of V

⇒ a i x i ∈ S fof all 1 ≤i ≤ n
n
⇒ ∑ ai x i ∈ S ( since S is subspace of V)
i=1

⇒ α∈S

∴ α ∈ L ( S ) ⇒ α ∈ S , ∀ α ∈ L(S )

∴ L(S) ⊆ S --------------------------------------- (2)

From (1) and (2) L(S) = S

Case(ii) : Conversely suppose L(S) = S
Since L(S) is subspace of V
⇒ S is subspace of V

∴ S is subspace of V iff L(S) = S

Linear independent vectors (L.I): Let V(F) be a vector space , x1, x2, x3 ------------- xn are n vectors in V are said to be linear
Independent vectors if a1x1+ a2x2+ a3x3+ ------------------------- + anxn= 0 there exist all scalars a1, a2 ---- an ∈ F
Such that a1 = a2= a3= -------- = an= 0
Linear dependent vectors(L.D): Let V(F) be a vector space , x1, x2, x3 ------------- xn are n vectors in V are said to be linear
Dependent vectors if a1x1+ a2x2+ a3x3+ ------------------------- + anxn= 0 there exist all scalars a1, a2 ---- an ∈ F
Such that at least one ai ≠ 0
Ex: Let R3(R) be a vector space , show that (1, 0, 0) ,(0,1,0), (0,0,1) (1, 1, 1) are linearly dependent. Hence show that any
Three of them are linearly independents.
Solution: Let R3(R) be a vector space
Given vectors are (1, 0, 0) ,(0,1,0), (0,0,1) (1, 1, 1)

⇒ a(1, 0, 0)+b(0,1,0)+ c (0,0,1)+ d (1, 1, 1)= (0,0,0)

⇒ (a+d, b+d, c+d) = (0, 0,0)

⇒ a+ d = 0, b +d = 0, c + d= 0
a b c d
⇒ a = - d, b = - d, c = - d ⇒ = = =
1 1 1 −1

D= -1 then a =1 , b = 1 & c = 1
∴ (1, 0, 0) ,(0,1,0), (0,0,1) (1, 1, 1) are linearly dependent

Now we have to take any three from (1, 0, 0) ,(0,1,0), (0,0,1) (1, 1, 1)
∴ The three vectors are (1,0,0), (0,0, 1) & (1, 1, 1)

⇒ a(1, 0,0 ) + b(0,0,1) +c(1,1, 1) = (0, 0, 0)

⇒ (a+ c, c, b +c) = (0, 0, 0)

⇒ a +c = 0, c =0 & b + c = 0
∴a=b=c=0
∴ (1,0,0), (0,0, 1) & (1, 1, 1) are linearly independent vectors

Question: Determine whether or not the set {(2, - 1 , 0), (1, 2, 5), (7, - 1, 5)}linearly independent in R3 .
Solution: Let R3 be a vector space
Given set is {(2, - 1 , 0), (1, 2, 5), (7, - 1, 5)}

⇒ a(2, -1 , 0) + b(1, 2, 5)+ c(7, - 1 , 5) = (0, 0,0)

⇒(2a+b +7c, -a + 2b – c , 5b +5c) = (0, 0, 0)

⇒ 2a + b +7c = 0 ------ (1) , -a +2b – c =0 ------- (2) & 5b + 5c = 0 ⇒ b = -c-------- (3)

Substitute b = - c in (1) and (2)

⇒ 2a + 6c= 0 then a +3c = 0 ---------- (4) & - a – 3b = 0 i.e a + 3c= 0 ⇒ a = -3c ----- (5)
a b c
From (3) and (5) ⇒ = =
−3 −1 1
∴ a=−3 ,b=−1∧c=1

∴ {(2, - 1 , 0), (1, 2, 5), (7, - 1, 5)} is linearly dependent set

 (or)

| |
2 −1 0
Since 1 2 5 =2 ( 10+5 ) +1 ( 5−35 )=30−30=0
7 −1 5

∴ {(2, - 1 , 0), (1, 2, 5), (7, - 1, 5)} is linearly dependent set

Note: Every non – empty sub set of linear independent set is linear independent set.
Note: Every super set of linearly dependent set is linearly dependent set.
Theorem: Let V(F) be a vector space. Then show that a single term non – zero vector forms a linearly independent set.
Proof: Let V(F) be a vector space
Let S= {x} such that x ≠0
Now we have to prove that S is L.I
Since ax = 0
Since x ≠0

⇒a =0
∴ S is linearly independent set

Theorem: Let V(F) be a vector space. Then show that any set which contains zero vector is linearly dependent in V.
Proof: Let V(F) be a vector space
Suppose S = { 0 , x1, x2, ------ xn} in V
Now we have to prove that S is linearly dependent set
Let a0, a1, a2--------- an in F such that
a00 + a1x1 + ----------- anxn = 0
If all a1= a2=----------- = an= 0
But a00=0

⇒ a0 ≠ 0
∴ S is linearly dependent set i.e any set which contains zero vector is L. D in D

Note : Two vectors in V(F) are L.D iff once scalar multiple of other one.
Theorem: Let V(F) be a vector space and S = {x1, x2, ------------ xk------ xn}be a non zero vector set in V. then S is linearly
Dependent iff one vector xk in S (k ≥ 2) can be expressed as linear combination of its preceding vectors.
Proof: Let V(F) be a vector space and S = {x1, x2, ------------ xk------ xn}be a non zero vector set in V
i.e xi≠ 0 for all i= 1, 2, 3, ------ n
Case(i) : S is linearly dependent set
Now we have to prove that one vector xk in S (k ≥ 2) can be expressed as linear combination of its preceding vectors
Since S is L.D set
 ⇒ There exist not all scalars zeros in F such that
a1x1+ a2x2 + -------------------------- ak-1xk-1 + akxk+ -------------- anxn = 0 ---------------- (1)
Suppose a1, a2 up to ak are not equal to zero

(1) ⇒ a1x1+ a2x2 + -------------------------- ak-1xk-1 + akxk = 0 ------------------- (2)

Suppose k = 1

⇒ S contains only one non – zero vector i.e S = {x1} where x1 ≠ 0

We know that single term non – zero vector forms a L.I
∴ This contradiction to S is L.D
∴ k >1 i. e k ≥ 2

(2) ⇒ akxk = -a1x1- a2x2 - -------------------------- -ak-1xk-1 --------------------------(3)

Since a k ∈ F and F be a field ⇒ there exist a k−1 ∈ F such that a k ak−1=ak−1 ak =1

Multiplying (3) with a k−1 on both sides

⇒a k−1 ¿ akxk) = -a k−1 ¿ a1x1)- a k−1 ¿ a2x2) - -------------------------- -a k−1 ¿ ak-1xk-1)

⇒ ¿ ak )xk = -¿ ¿ ¿a1 )x1- ¿a2 )x2 - -------------------------- -¿ ¿ ¿ak-1 )xk-1

⇒ xk = -¿ ¿ ¿a1 )x1- ¿a2 )x2 - -------------------------- -¿ ¿ ¿ak-1 )xk-1

Since a k−1 ∈ F ∧ea ch ai ∈ F , F be a field a k−1 ai ∈ F , 1≤ i ≤ k −1

⇒ xk = linear combination of x1, x2, --------- xk-1

∴ xk = linear combination of its preceding vectors

Case(ii): Conversely suppose xk = linear combination of its preceding vectors

⇒ xk = linear combination of x1, x2, --------- xk-1

⇒ xk = b1x1 + b2x2 + ----------------- + bk-1xk-1 where each b i ∈ F ,1 ≤ i≤ k−1

⇒ b1x1 + b2x2 + ----------------- + bk-1xk-1 - xk = 0

⇒ b1x1 + b2x2 + ----------------- + bk-1xk-1 +(-1. xk )= 0

∴−1 ≠ 0

⇒ x1, x2, ------------ xk are linearly dependent vectors

Since every super set of L.D set is L.D
∴ S = {x1, x2, ------------ xk------ xn} is linearly dependent.

Basis: Let V(F) be a vector space and S is any non –empty sub set of V. Then S is said to be a basis of V if
(i) S is linearly independent
(ii) Linear span of V is S i.e L(S) = V
Finite dimensional vector space: A vector space V(F) is said to be a finite dimensional vector space if it has a finite basis.
Question: Show that {(1,0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} be a basis of R3(R ).
Solution: Let R3(R ) be a vector space
 Given set S = {(1,0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}

| |
1 0 0
(i) Since 0 1 0 =1≠ 0
0 0 1

∴ S is linearly independent set

(ii) Now we have to prove that L(S) = R3

We know that L(S) ⊆ R3 ---------------------- (1)
Let (x, y, z) ∈ R 3
⇒ (x, y, z) = x(1, 0, 0) + y(0, 1, 0) + z(0,0, 1)
⇒ (x, y, z)= linear combination of (1,0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)
⇒ (x, y, z) ∈ L( S)
Since (x, y, z) ∈ R 3⇒(x, y, z) ∈ L( S) ∀ (x, y, z) ∈ R 3
∴ R 3 ⊆ L(S) ---------------------------------- (2)
From (1) and (2) L(S) = R3
∴ S is linear independent and L(S) = R3
∴ S = {(1,0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} be a basis of R3

Note: S = {(1,0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} be a standard basis of R3

Question: Show that {(5, 1, 3), (1, 1,1), (1, 0, 0)}be a basis of a vector space R3.
Basis extension theorem: Let V(F) be a finite dimensional vector space and S is any linearly independent sub set of V.
Either S is basis of V or S can be extended to forms a basis of V
Invariance basis size theorem:
Let V(F) be a finite dimensional vector space. Then any two basis of V have the same number of elements.
Proof: Let V(F) be a finite dimensional vector space

Suppose Sm= { x1, x2, --------- xm} and Sn = {y1, y2, ---------------------- yn} be two basis of V
And n(Sm) = m , n(Sn ) = n
Now we have to prove that m = n
Since Sm and Sn are the basis of V

⇒ Sm and Sn are linearly independents and L(Sm) = V, L(Sn ) = V

Let Sm be a basis of V and Sn linearly independent subset of V
By basis extension theorem Sn can be extend to forms a basis of V

⇒ n(Sn) ≤ n(Sm)
∴ n ≤m−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

Let Sn be a basis of V and Sm linearly independent subset of V

By basis extension theorem Sm can be extend to forms a basis of V

⇒ n(Sm) ≤ n(Sn)

∴ m≤ n−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(2)
 From (1) and (2) m = n
i.e n(Sm) ¿ n(Sn)
∴ Any two basis of V have the same number of elements.

Dimension of a vector space: Let V(F)be a finite dimensional vector space and S any basis of V. then the number of
Elements in basis S is called the dimension of vector space V and it is denoted by dimV
Ex: Since {(1,0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} be a basis of R3(R ). Then dim (R3) =3
Ex: since {(1,0) , (0, 1)} be a basis of R2(R). then dim(R2)= 2
Note: Rn(R) be a vector space . Then dim(Rn) = n
Question: Find the basis and dimension of the vector C(R).
Solution: Let C(R) be a vector space

Since C = { x +iy|x , y ∈ R }

Let α ∈ C

⇒ α =x +iy wherex , y ∈ R

⇒ α =x .1+ y . ithere exist x , y ∈ R

Let S = {1, i}

⇒ α ∈ L(S )

∴ α ∈C ⇒ α ∈ L ( S ) ∀ α ∈C

∴ C ⊆ L(S)

But L(S) ⊆ C
∴ L(S) = C

Since x .1+ y . i=0

⇒ x = 0 and y = 0
∴ S= {1, i} is L .I

∴ S = {1, i} be a basis of C(R)

∴ dim[C(R)] = 2

Question: Find the basis and dimension vector space of 3X3 symmetric matrices over R.
Note : Dimension of n X n vector space of symmetric matrix is n(n +1)/2
Note: dim[Cn(R )] = 2n .
Note: If V(F) be a n dimensional vector space then every basis of V containing exactly n number of elements
Note: If V(F) be a n dimensional vector space and S any L.I sub set of V containing exactly n number of elements. Then
S is basis of V
Note: If V(F) be a n dimensional vector space S is non – empty subset of V containing more than n number of elements.
Then S is L.D
Dimension of subspace:
Theorem: Let V(F) be a finite dimensional vector space and W is any subspace of V. Then show that W is also a finite
Dimensional vector space and dimW ≤ dimV.
Proof: Let V(F) be a finite dimensional vector space
Suppose dimV = n
Let W is a subspace of V

⇒ W is itself is a vector space

Suppose S = {x1, x2, x3 --------------- xm } be a largest linearly independent set in W

⇒ S is also linearly independent iv V (since W is a subspace of V)

Since n(S) = m
∴ m≤ n

Now we have to prove that S is a basis of W

Since S largest linearly independent set in W
Let β ∈ W such that S1= {x1, x2, x3 --------------- xm, } is linearly dependent set

⇒ One vector in S1 can be expressed as a linear combination of its preceding vector. If that vector any xi can be
Expressed as linear combination of its preceding vectors then S is linearly dependent
∴ This contradiction to S is linearly independent

∴ The vector must be β

⇒ β = linear combination of its preceding vectors

⇒ β=¿ linear combination of x1, x2, x3 --------------- xm

⇒ β = linear combination of elements of elements in S

⇒ β ∈ L(S )
∴ β ∈W ⇒ β ∈ L ( S ) ∀ β ∈W

∴ W ⊆L(S)

But L(S) ⊆ W
∴ S is linearly independent and L(S) = W
∴ S is basis of W

⇒ dimW = m
Since m ≤n
∴ dimW ≤ dimV

i.e every subspace of finite dimensional vector space V is finite and dimW ≤ dimV

Question: Show that W = { (a , b , c)|a+b=c } where a ,b ,c ∈ R is a subspace of R3(R ). Hence find its basis and dimension.

Solution: Let R3( R) be a vector space

 Since W = { (a , b , c)|a+b=c } where a ,b ,c ∈ R

i.e W = { (a , b , c)|a+b−c=0 } where a , b , c ∈ R

Since 0∈ R such that 0 + 0 – 0 = 0

⇒ (0, 0, 0)∈W
Let α , β ∈W ∧a , b ∈ R

⇒ α =(a1 , b1 , c1 ) such that a1 +b1−c 1=0−−−−−−( 1 ) where a1 , b1 ,c 1 ∈ R

β=(a2 , b2 , c2 ) such that a2 +b 2−c 2=0−−−−−− (2 ) where a2 , b2 , c 2 ∈ R

Now aα +bβ=a ( a1 ,b 1 , c 1 ) +b(a2 , b2 ,c 2 )

= ( aa 1 , ab 1 , a c 1 ) +( ba2 ,b b 2 , bc 2)

∴ aα +bβ=(aa1 +ba2 , ab1 +b b 2 , a c 1 +bc 2)

Now aa 1+ba 2+ ab1 +b b 2−( a c1 +bc 2 )¿=a( a1 +b1−c 1)+b( a2 +b2 −c 2)

= a(0) + b(0) = 0
∴ aα +bβ ∈ W ∀ α , β ∈W ∧a , b ∈ R

∴ W is a subspace of R3(R)

Since W = { (a , b , c)|a+b=c }

= { (a , b , a+b)|a ,b ∈ R }

= { a ( 1 , 0 , 1 )+ b(0 , 1 ,1)|a , b ∈ R }

S = { (1, 0, 1),(0, 1, 1)}

∴ L(S) = W

Since a(1, 0, 1) + b( 0, 1, 1) = (0, 0, 0)

⇒a=b=0
∴ S is linearly independent and L(S) = W
∴ S= {(1,0, 1), 0, 1, 1)} be a basis of W
∴ dim W = 2

Extension field : A field E is said to be an extension field of a field F if F⊆ E and the operations of F are those of E
Restricted to F. E
F
Ex: C is an extension field of R, R is an extension field of Q -------- etc
Note: Let E is an extension filed of F then E(F) is a vector space.
Theorem: Fundamental theorem of field theory or Kronecke’s theorem:
Let F be a field and f(x) a non – constant and non – zero polynomial in F[x]. There is an extension field E of F
In which f(x) a zero.
Proof: Let F be a field

⇒ F[x] is an unique factorization domain

Let f(x) be a non – zero and non – constant polynomial in F[x]
Now we have to prove that there exist an extension field E of F
Since F[x] is unique factorization domain

⇒ f(x) can be expressed as irreducible factors say p(x) where p(x) is irreducible polynomial
i.e f(x) = 1. P(x)
It is sufficient to prove that there exist an extension field E of F in which p(x) has a zero
Since p(x) is irreducible polynomial in F[x] ,then <p(x)> is a maximum ideal

⇒ F[x]/<p(x)> filed such that F⊆ F[x]/<p(x)>

Let E = F[x]/<p(x)> = { x +¿ p ( x ) >¿ x ∈ F [x ] }

Since ¿
¿

Clearly F⊆ F[x]/<p(x)>
Let x + <P(x)> is non – zero element in E
Let p(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + ------------------------ anxn
Now we have to prove that x + <P(x)> is zero of p(x)
Now consider p(x + <P(x)>) = a0 + a1(x + <P(x)>) + a2(x + <P(x)>)2 + a3(x + <P(x)>)3 + ----- an(x + <P(x)>)n
= a0 + a1x + <p(x)> + a2(x2 + <P(x)>) + a3(x3 + <P(x)>) + ----- an(xn + <P(x)>)
= a0 + a1x + <p(x)> + a2x2 + <P(x)> + a3x3 + <P(x)> + ----- anxn + <P(x)>
= a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + ------------------------ anxn + <p(x)>
= p(x) + <p(x)>
= 0 + <p(x)> (since x ∈ H iff x + H=H ¿
∴ p(x + <p(x)>) = 0 + <p(x)>

∴x + <p(x)> is a zero of p(x) in E

∴ p(x) is a zero in E

∴ f(x) has zero in an extension E of F

Hence the theorem .

Question: Let f(x) = x2 + 1 ∈Q [x ]. Find an extension field Q in which f(x) has a zero .
Solution: Let Q is filed then Q[x] is UFD
Since f(x) = x2 + 1 is an irreducible polynomial in Q[x]

⇒ < x2 + 1> is maximum ideal of Q[x]

∴ Q[x] / < x2 + 1> be a field such that Q ⊆ Q[x] / < x2 + 1>
 Now consider f(x + < x2 + 1>) = (x + < x2 + 1>)2 + 1
= x2 + < x2 + 1> + 1
= x2 + 1 +< x2 + 1>
= f(x) + < x2 + 1>
= 0 +< x2 + 1> (f(x) belongs to <x2 + 1 > )
∴ f(x + < x2 + 1>) = 0 + < x2 + 1>
∴ x + < x2 + 1> is zero of f(x) = x2 + 1

Q[x] / < x2 + 1> is an extension field of Q

Splitting field: Let E is an extension filed of F and f(x) is non – zero, non – constant polynomial in f[x]. we say that f(x)
Split in E if f(x) can factored as a product of linear factors in E[x]. E is said to be a splitting field for f(x) over F
If f(x) is split in E but E has no proper sub fields.
Question: Find the splitting field of x2 – 2 over Q[x].
Solution: Let x2 – 2 ∈ Q[x]

Since x2 – 2 = ( x + √ 2 ) (x−√ 2)

Since Q ( √ 2, ) ={ a+ b √2|a , b∈ Q }

Since ( x + √ 2 ) , ( x− √2 ) ∈Q ( √ 2 )

∴ x2 – 2 is split in Q ( √ 2 )

∴ The splitting field of x2 – 2 over Q is Q ( √ 2 )

Algebraic extension
Algebraic over the field F and transcendental over F: Let E is an extension of the field F and let a ∈ E said to be an algebraic
Over F. If a is the zero of some non - zero polynomial and non – constant polynomial in F[x].
If a is not algebraic over F then a is called Transcendental over F.

Ex: Since Q ( √ 2 ) is an extension of Q and √ 2 is zero of a non – zero polynomial x2 – 2 over Q. then √ 2 is an

Algebraic over Q for the polynomial x2 – 2

Algebraic extension: An extension E of the field F is said to be an algebraic extension of F. if every element in E is an
Algebraic over F. if E is not algebraic extension of F then E is said to be a transcendental extension.
Ex: R be real field is an algebraic extension of Q
Minimal polynomial: If a is a zero of some monic irreducible polynomial of minimum degree polynomial p(x) in F[x]
Where F be a field then the minimum degree polynomial p(x) is called minimal polynomial of a .

Question: Find the minimal polynomial of √ 2+ √3 5 over Q.

Solution: Let Q be a field

 Let x=√ 2+ √3 5

⇒ x−√ 2= √3 5

Cubing on both sides

3
⇒ (x−√ 2) =5

⇒ x 3−23 /2−3 x 2 √2+6 x=5

⇒ x 3+ 6 x−5= √ 2 ( 2+3 x 2)

Squaring on both sides

⇒ x 6 +36 x 2+25+12 x 4 −10 x 3−60 x=2 ( 4+12 x 2+ 9 x 4 )

⇒ x 6−6 x 4 −10 x 3 +12 x2 −60 x+17=0

∴ The minimal polynomial of √ 2+ √3 5 over Q is

6 4 3 2
x −6 x −10 x +12 x −60 x+17=0 .
Question: Find the minimal polynomial of √ 2+ √ 3 over Q.

Question: Find the minimal polynomial of √ 2+ √ 7 over Q.

Question: Find the minimal polynomial of √3 5+ √3 7 over Q.

Degree of extension: Let E is an extension field of the field F. then the dimension of the vector space of E(F) is said to be
A degree of the extension of E over F and it is denoted by [ E:F] = dim E(F) = n
Note: If the degree of extension E over F is finite. Then E is a finite extension of F.
Ex: Since dim[C(R)] = 2 i.e the complex numbers has degree 2 over the real numbers.

{ }
1 2 3 4 5
Ex: Q ( √6 2 )= 1 , 2 6 ,2 6 , 2 6 ,2 6 , 2 6 be an extension over the field Q of degree 6.

Q(√ 2 ¿ Q(√ 3 ¿ Q(√6 2 ¿

2 2 6

Q Q Q
Theorem: Let K be a finite extension of the field E and E is a finite extension of the field F. Then K is a finite extension of the
Field F and [K:F] = [K:E][E:F].
Proof: Let K is a finite extension of the field E
Suppose degree of the extension K of E is n i.e K(E) be a finite dimensional vector space of dimension n

⇒ [K:E] = n i.e dim[K(E)] = n

Suppose X = { x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ,−−−−−−x n } be a basis of K over E

Let a ∈ K then there exist b 1 , b2 , b3 ,−−−−−−bn ∈ E such that

 n
a=b1 x 1+ b2 x 2 +b3 x 3 ,±−−−−+ bn x n =∑ bi xi −−−−−−−−−−−(1)
i=1

Since E is a finite extension of the field F

⇒ Degree of the extension E of F is finite

Suppose degree of the extension E of F is m i.e [E:F] = m
i.e the dimension of the vector space E(F) = m

Let Y = { y 1 , y 2 , y 3 ,−−−−−− y m } be a basis of E over F

Let b ∈ E then there exist c 1 , c2 , c 3 ,−−−−−−c m ∈ F such that

m
b=c 1 y 1 +c 2 y 2+ c 3 y 3 ,±−−−−+c m y m=∑ c j y j−−−−−−−−−−−(2)
j=1

Since K is a finite extension of the field E and E is a finite extension of the field F. Then K is a finite extension of F
Now we have prove that [K:F] = [K:E][E:F]= nXm

It is sufficient to prove that YX = { y j x i|1≤ i≤ n , 1≤ j≤ m }be a basis of the vector space K(F)

Now we have to prove that XY is linearly independent

n m
Let ∑ ∑ c ij ( y j x i )=0
i=1 j=1

n m
⇒ ∑ ∑ (c ¿ ¿ ij y j )x i=0 ¿
¿ 1 j=1

Since each x i is linearly independent

m
⇒ ∑ cij y j=0
j=1

Since each y jis linearly independent

⇒ c ij =0 for all 1 ≤i ≤n , 1 ≤ j≤ m
n m
∴ ∑ ∑ c ij ( y j x i )=0
¿1 j=1

Such that c ij =0 for all 1 ≤i ≤n , 1 ≤ j≤ m

∴ YX is linearly independent

Now we have to prove that L(YX) = K

Let a ∈ K then there exist b 1 , b2 , b3 ,−−−−−−bn ∈ E such that

n
a=b1 x 1+ b2 x 2 +b3 x 3 ,±−−−−+ bn x n =∑ bi xi −−−−−−−−−−−( 3 )
i=1

Since each b i ∈ E and Y = { y 1 , y 2 , y 3 ,−−−−−− y m } be a basis of E over F

m
⇒ b i=c i 1 y 1 +c i 2 y 2 +c i 3 y 3 ,±−−−−+c ℑ y m=∑ cij y j−−−−−−−− ( 4 )
j=1
 There exist c i ,1 , c i ,2 , ci , 3 ,−−−−−−ci , m ∈ F

Now substitute (4) in (3)

n m n m
a=∑ ∑ ( cij y j ) x i=∑ ∑ c ij (¿ ¿ y j x i)∃ cij ∈ F for all 1 ≤i ≤n , 1 ≤ j≤ m¿ ¿
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1

∴ a ∈ K ⇒ a ∈ L ( YX ) ∀ a∈ K

∴ K⊆ L(YX)

But L(YX) ⊆ K
∴ L(YX) = K

∴ YX is linearly independent and L(YX) = K

∴ YX = { y j x i|1≤ i≤ n , 1≤ j≤ m }be a basis of the vector space K(F)

⇒ dim[K(F)] = nXm

⇒ [K:F] = nXm
∴ [K:F] = [K:E][E:F]

Hence the theorem

Question: Show that [ Q ( √3 2 , 4√ 3 ) :Q ] =12. Hence find its basis.

Solution: Let Q(√4 3 ) be a finite extension of Q of degree

Since {1, 31/4, 32/4, 33/4} be basis of Q(√4 3 )

∴ [Q(√4 3 ):Q] = 4

Since Q ( √3 2 , √4 3 )be a finite extension of Q(√4 3 ) and its basis is {1, 21/3, 22/3}

∴ [Q ( √3 2 , √4 3 ) :Q( √4 3)¿=3

Since Q ( √3 2 , √4 3 ) is an extension of Q( √4 3) and Q( √4 3) is an extension of Q

⇒ Q ( √3 2 , √4 3 )is an extension of Q

∴ [Q ( √3 2 , √4 3 ) :Q ¿=[ Q ( √3 2 , √4 3 ) : Q ( 4√ 3 ) ][ Q ( √4 3 ) :Q ]=3 X 4=12

Since the basis of [Q ( √3 2 , √4 3 ) :Q ¿ is {1, 21/3, 22/3}.{1, 31/4, 32/4, 33/4}

= { 1, 21/3, 22/3, 31/4, 32/4, 33/4, 21/331/4, 21/332/4, 21/333/4, 22/331/4, 22/332/4, 22/333/4}

Q (√ 2 ,√ 3)
3 4

4 3
 Q(√3 2 ) 12 Q(√4 3 )

3 4
Q

Question: Show that Q (√ 2 , √ 3) = Q (√ 2 ,+ √ 3 )

Solution: Since Q (√ 2 , √3) =Q (√ 2 ¿ ( √ 3 )= {1, 21/2, 31/2, 61/2 }

Now we have to prove that Q (√ 2 , √3) = Q (√ 2 ,+ √ 3 )

Since √ 2 , √ 3 ∈Q( √ 2 ,+ √ 3)

⇒ Q ( √ 2, √ 3 ) ⊆ Q ( √2 ,+ √ 3 )−−−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

Let x=√ 2 ,+ √ 3∈ Q ( √2 ,+ √ 3 )

⇒ x 2=5+2 √ 6−−−−−−−−−−−−(2)

Since √ 2 , √ 3 ∈Q( √ 2 , √3)

⇒√ 6 ∈Q( √ 2 , √ 3)

⇒2 √ 6∈ Q ( √2 , √ 3 ) where 2 ∈Q ( √ 2 , √ 3 )

⇒5+2 √ 6 ∈Q ( √ 2 , √ 3 ) where 5 ∈ Q ( √2 , √3 )

⇒ x 2 ∈ Q ( √2 , √ 3 ) ( since by ( 2 ) )

∴ x ∈Q ( √ 2 , √3 )

⇒ √ 2+ √ 3∈ Q ( √ 2 , √3 )

∴ Q ( √ 2+ √ 3 ) ⊆Q ( √ 2 , √3 )−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 3 ) From (2) and (3)

Q ( √ 2+ √3 )=Q ( √ 2, √ 3 )

Q ( √ 2, √ 3 )=Q ( √ 2 ,+ √ 3 )

2 4 2

Q (√ 2) Q (√ 3)

2 2
Q
Theorem: Every finite extension is an algebraic extension.
Proof: Let E is a finite extension of the field F

⇒ The degree of extension E over F is finite

Suppose [E:F] = n i.e E(F) be a n dimensional vector space

Let a ∈ E such that { 1 , a , a2 , a3 ,−−−−−−−a n−1 , an }should be linearly dependent

⇒ a 0+ a1 a+a 2 a 2+ a3 a3 +−−−−−−−an−1 an−1 +a n a n=0 there exist not all scalars zero such that

a i ∈ F ∀ 1 ≤i ≤ n
 ⇒ a ∈ E is a zero of the polynomial

f(x) = a 0+ a1 x + a2 x 2 +a3 x 3+−−−−−−−an−1 x n−1 +an x n

∴ a ∈ E is an algebraic over F[x] for the polynomial f(x)

Similarly we can prove that every element in E is an algebraic over F[x].

∴ E is an algebraic extension. i.e every finite extension is an algebraic extension

Finite field: For each prime p and each positive integer n there is, up to isomorphism, a unique field of order pn.

i.e F p ={f ( x ) /deg {f ( x } <n where f ( x ) ∈ Z p [ x ] } in general it is cyclic group of order pn

n

Question: Construct a field containing 8 elements .

Solution: Since 8 = 23
The finite field F8 = F23 = {deg{f(x)} <3/ f(x)∈Z2[x] } where Z2 = {0, 1}
Let F = {0,1, x, x2, x3, x4, x5, x6, x7}

Let π ( x ) =x3 + x +1is irreducible polynomial in Z2[x]

Now define multiplication of two polynomials in Z2[x] is

f(x).g(x) modulo π ( x )

since x=x
x2 = x2
x3 = x +1
x4 = x2 + x
x5 = x3 + x2 = x + 1+ x2 = x2 + x + 1
x6 = x3 + x2 + x = x + 1 + x2+ x = x2 + 1
x7 = x3+ x = x + 1 + x = 1
∴ F = {0, 1, x, x2, x + 1, x2 + x, x2 + x + 1, x2 + 1}

Question: Construct a field of 16 elements (or ) construct GF(16)

Question: Construct GF(27) .

Question: Show that R2(R) be a vector space with respect to vector addition and scalar multiplications are defined as

( x 1 , y 1 ) ⊕ ( x 2 , y 2 )=( x1 + x 2+ 1, y 1 + y 2 +1 ) ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ) ∈ R2
a ( x , y )=( ax +a−1 , ay+ a−1 ) ∀ ( x , y ) ∈ R2∧a∈ R

Solution: Let R2= {( x , y )|x , y ∈ R }

Let define vector addition and scalar multiplications in R2(R)

( x 1 , y 1 ) ⊕ ( x 2 , y 2 )=( x1 + x 2+ 1, y 1 + y 2 +1 )−−−−−−−(1)∀ ( x1 , y 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ) ∈ R 2
 a ( x , y )=( ax +a−1 , ay+ a−1 ) −−−−−−−(2) ∀ ( x , y ) ∈ R2 ∧a ∈ R

I. To prove (R2, +) is an abilean group:

1. Closer property: By (1) ( x 1 , y 1 ) ⊕ ( x 2 , y 2 )=( x1 + x 2+ 1, y 1 + y 2 +1 ) ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ) ∈ R2

∴ ¿ ¿ is satisfying closer property

2. Associative property: Let ( x 1 , y 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ) , ( x3 , y 3 ) ∈ R2

Now consider ( x 1 , y 1 ) ⊕ ( ( x 2 , y 2 ) ⊕ ( x 3 , y 3 ) ) =( x 1 , y 1 ) ⊕ ( x 2+ x3 +1 , y 2+ y 3+1 )

= ( x 1 + ( x 2 + x3 +1 ) +1 , y 1 + ( y 2 + y 3+ 1 ) +1 )

= ( x 1 + ( x 2 + x3 ) + 1+1 , y 1 + ( y 2 + y 3 ) +1+1 )

= ( ( x1 + x 2 ) + x 3+ 1+1 , ( y 1 + y 2 ) + y 3 +1+1 )

= ( ( x1 + x 2 +1 ) + x 3+1 , ( y 1 + y 2 +1 ) + y 3 +1 )

= ( x 1 + x2 +1 , y 1+ y 2+1 ) ⊕ ( x 3 , y 3 )

= ( ( x1 , y 1 ) ⊕ ( x 2 , y 2 ) ) ⊕ ( x 3 , y 3 )

∴ ( x1 , y 1 ) ⊕ ( ( x 2 , y 2 ) ⊕ ( x3 , y 3 ) ) =( ( x 1 , y 1 ) ⊕ ( x 2 , y 2 ) ) ⊕ ( x 3 , y 3 ) ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2) , ( x 3 , y 3 ) ∈ R 2

∴ ¿ ¿ is satisfying associative property

3. Identity property: Let ( x , y ) ∈ R2 there exist identity element ( e 1 , e2 ) ∈ R2 such that

( x , y ) ⊕ ( e 1 , e 2 )=( e1 , e2 ) ⊕ ( x , y ) =( x , y )

Now consider ( x , y ) ⊕ ( e 1 , e 2 )=( x , y )

⇒ ( x +e 1+ 1, y +e 2+ 1 )=( x , y )

⇒ x +e 1+1=x∧¿ y +e 2 +1= y

⇒ e 1+ 1=0∧e 2+1=0

⇒ e 1=−1∧e2 =−1

∴ ( e 1 , e 2 )=(−1 ,−1)

∴ ( x , y ) ⊕ (−1 ,−1 )=(−1 ,−12 ) ⊕ ( x , y )=( x , y ) there exist (−1 ,−1 ) ∈ R 2 , ∀ ( x , y )∈ R2

∴ ¿ ¿ is satisfying identity property

4. Inverse property: ( x , y ) ∈ R2 there exist inverse of (x, y) is ( a , b ) ∈ R 2 such that

( x , y ) ⊕ ( a , b ) =( a , b ) ⊕ ( x , y )= (−1 ,−1 )
Now consider ( x , y ) ⊕ ( a , b ) =(−1 ,−1)
⇒ ( x +a+1 , y +b+1 ) =(−1 ,−1)
⇒ x +a+1=−1∧ y +b+ 1=−1
⇒ x +a=−2∧ y +b=−2
∴ a=−2−x b=−2− y
∴ ( a , b )=(−2− x ,−2− y )
∴ ( x , y ) ⊕ (−2−x ,−2− y )=(−2−x ,−2− y ) ⊕ ( x , y )=(−1 ,−1) there exist
(−2−x ,−2− y ) ∈ R2 ∀ ( x , y ) ∈ R 2
 ∴ ¿ ¿ is satisfying inverse property
5. Commutative property: Let ( x 1 , y 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ) ∈ R2
Now consider ( x 1 , y 1 ) ⊕ ( x 2 , y 2 )=(x 1+ x 2 +1 , y 1+ y 2 +1)
= (x 2+ x1 +1 , y 2+ y 1+1)
= ( x2 , y2 ) ⊕ ( x1 , y1 )
∴ ( x1 , y 1 ) ⊕ ( x 2 , y 2) =( x 2 , y 2 ) ⊕ ( x 1 , y 1 ) ∀ ( x 1 , y1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ) ∈ R2
∴ ¿ ¿ is satisfying commutative property
∴ ¿ ¿ is an abilean group
II. To scalar properties :
1. Since by the equation (2) implies

a ( x , y )=( ax +a−1 , ay+ a−1 ) ∀ ( x , y ) ∈ R2∧a∈ R

∴ a ( x , y ) ∈ R2 , ∀ ( x , y ) ∈ R 2∧a ∈ R

2. Let ( x 1 , y 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ) ∈ R2∧a∈ R

Now a [ ( x 1 , y 1) ⊕ ( x 2 , y 2 ) ]=a( x1 + x 2+ 1, y 1 + y 2 +1)

= (a ( x 1 + x 2+1 )+ a−1, a ( y 1 + y 2 +1 ) +a−1)

= (a x 1 +a x 2+ a+a−1 , a y1 + a y 2 + a+a−1)

= (a x 1 +a x 2+ a+a−1−1+1 , a y 1+ a y 2+ a+a−1−1+1)

= (a x 1 +a−1+ a x 2+ a−1+1 , a y 1+ a−1+ a y 2+ a−1+1)

= ( a x 1 +a−1 ,a y 1 +a−1 ) ⊕ ( a x 2+ a−1 , a y 2 +a−1 ) ( since by ( 1 ) )

= a ( x 1 , y 1 ) ⊕a ( x 2 , y 2 )

∴ a [ ( x 1 , y 1 ) ⊕ ( x 2 , y 2 ) ]=a ( x1 , y 1 ) ⊕ a ( x2 , y 2 ) ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ) ∈ R2∧a∈ R

3. Let ( x , y ) ∈ R2 an da , b ∈ R

Now consider ( a+ b ) ( x , y )=( ( a+ b ) x +a+ b−1, ( a+ b ) y+ ( a+b )−1)

= ( ax +bx +a+ b−1−1+ 1, ay +by + a+b−1−1+1 )

= (ax +a−1+bx +b−1+1 ,ay + a−1+by +b−1+1)

= ( ax +a−1 , ay+ a−1 ) ⊕ ( bx +b−1 ,by + b−1 ) ( since by ( 1 ) )

= a ( x , y ) ⊕b ( x , y ) ( since by ( 2 ) )

∴ ( a+b )( x , y )=a ( x , y ) ⊕b ( x , y ) ∀ ( x , y ) ∈ R2∧a , b ∈ R

4. Let ( x , y ) ∈ R2 ∧a , b ∈ R

Now consider a ( b ( x , y ) )=a (bx +b−1, by +b−1)

= (a ( bx +b−1 ) +a ,−1 ,a ( by + b−1 ) + a−1)

 = (a ( bx ) +ab−1 , a ( by ) +ab−1)

= ( ( ab ) x +ab−1 , ( ab ) y +ab−1 )= ( ab ) (x , y)

∴ a ( b ( x , y ) ) =ab ( x , y ) ∀ ( x , y ) ∈ R2∧a ,b ∈ R

5. Let ( x , y ) ∈ R2 ∧1∈ R

1. ( x , y )=( x +1−1 , y +1−1 )= ( x , y )

1. ( x , y )=( x , y ) ∀ ( x , y ) ∈ R2∧1 ∈ R

∴ R2(R) be a vector space with respect to vector addition and scalar multiplications are defined as

( x 1 , y 1 ) ⊕ ( x 2 , y 2 )=( x1 + x 2+ 1, y 1 + y 2 +1 ) ∀ ( x 1 , y 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ) ∈ R2
a ( x , y )=( ax +a−1 , ay+ a−1 ) ∀ ( x , y ) ∈ R2∧a∈ R