Part-1

a. Bitmap is a collection of pixels that describes an image.

b. Keyboard and Mouse are examples of two input devices.

c. DDA stands for Digital Differential Analyzer, a line drawing algorithm used in computer graphics to
approximate and render straight lines.

d. Aspect ratio is the ratio of an image's width to its height. It is used to describe the proportional
relationship between the horizontal and vertical dimensions of an image or display.

e. The xy-plane is used for 2D transformations.

f. Three types of translation are present in computer graphics: 1) Horizontal translation (along the
x-axis), 2) Vertical translation (along the y-axis), and 3) Arbitrary translation (along both x and y axes).

g. Clipping is used for eliminating or removing objects or parts of objects that are outside the view or
display area in computer graphics.

h. The Cohen-Sutherland algorithm divides a 2D area into nine regions.

Part-2
a. Resolution refers to the number of pixels or dots per inch (DPI) in a digital image or the
sharpness/clarity of a display screen, measured as the number of pixels in width and height (e.g.,
1920x1080).

b. Three display devices: 1) LCD monitors, 2) OLED screens, and 3) Projectors.

LCD monitors use liquid crystal technology to display images with backlighting, providing a thin and
energy-efficient display solution for various applications like computers and TVs.
OLED screens employ organic compounds that emit light when an electric current is applied, offering
high-contrast and vibrant displays found in smartphones and TVs.
Projectors project images or videos onto a screen or surface, making them suitable for presentations,
home theaters, and large-scale displays in events and theaters.
c. Three applications of computer graphics: 1) Video games and simulations, 2) Computer-aided
design (CAD), and 3) Special effects in movies and animations.
Three applications of computer graphics are:

Video games and simulations: Computer graphics are used extensively in the gaming industry to
create immersive and interactive virtual environments for video games and simulations.
Computer-aided design (CAD): CAD software utilizes computer graphics to design and visualize 2D and
3D models for engineering, architecture, and product design.
Special effects in movies and animations: Computer graphics play a crucial role in generating realistic
and fantastical special effects in movies and animations, enhancing visual storytelling.

d. Matrix representation for 2D rotation:

[cosθ -sinθ 0]
[sinθ cosθ 0]
[ 0 0 1]
Matrix representation for 2D rotation:
The given matrix represents a 2D rotation transformation by an angle θ. The cosine and sine terms in
the matrix handle the rotation, while the last row is a homogenous coordinate that is typically used in
3D transformations.

e. Shear transformation:
Shear transformation is a linear transformation that shifts a shape along one of its axes, altering its
form without changing its size or orientation. It is often used in computer graphics to create slanted
or skewed effects on objects.
f. Two line attributes: 1) Line color, and 2) Line thickness.
Two line attributes are:
Line color: It refers to the color used to draw the line, which can be chosen from a wide range of
colors to achieve different visual effects.
Line thickness: It determines the width of the line stroke, allowing for variations in line weight to
emphasize or de-emphasize certain elements in a drawing or image.

g. B-spline curve is a smooth curve defined by a set of control points and blending functions. It is
commonly used in computer graphics and CAD for designing complex curves with local control over
the shape.

h. Vanishing points are the points in a perspective projection where parallel lines appear to converge.
They are essential in creating realistic 3D representations on a 2D plane and help in understanding
spatial depth and perspective.

i. View plane is the imaginary 2D surface or window on which the 3D scene is projected to create a 2D
representation. It is the region of the screen where the objects of the 3D scene are displayed after the
projection transformation.

j. Point clipping is the process of determining whether a point lies inside or outside a specified clipping
region, such as a rectangular window. Points outside the region are discarded, while points inside are
kept for further processing in computer graphics rendering.

Part-3
a. Random scan system: It is a display technique used in older CRT monitors. Instead of refreshing the
entire screen in a sequential manner, only selected areas containing updated information are
refreshed, reducing flickering. It employs a memory buffer to store the display, and a controller scans
randomly to update specific areas.

b. Reflection transformation: In computer graphics, reflection transformation is a geometric operation

that mirrors an object or image over a specified axis. It involves reversing the coordinate values with
respect to the axis of reflection.

c. Hidden edge surface removal techniques: Some techniques include Z-buffering, Depth-sorting,
Painter's algorithm, and Scanline algorithm. These methods determine which surfaces or edges are
not visible from the viewer's perspective and eliminate them to save computation and improve
rendering efficiency.

d. Aliasing and antialiasing: Aliasing is a visual distortion that occurs when a high-frequency signal (e.g.,
sharp edges) is undersampled, causing it to appear as jagged edges or stair-stepping in digital images.
Antialiasing is the process of reducing aliasing effects by smoothing out the jagged edges through
various techniques like filtering or blending neighboring pixels.

e. Scanline algorithm: It is a rasterization technique used in computer graphics to convert 2D vector

shapes into a raster image. The algorithm processes one scanline (horizontal row of pixels) at a time,
determining intersections with the shape edges to fill the interior with appropriate colors.

f. Boundary fill algorithm: It is a seed-fill algorithm used in computer graphics to fill a closed area with
a specified color. Starting from a seed point inside the area, the algorithm checks neighboring pixels'
colors and recursively fills the area until the boundary is reached.

g. Properties of Bezier curve: Bezier curves are widely used in computer graphics and modeling. Some
important properties include: (1) Deformation control by adjusting control points, (2) Smoothness and
continuity, (3) Conciseness of representation, (4) Invariance under affine transformations, (5) Convex
hull property, (6) Interpolation property, and (7) Subdivision property.
h. 3D rotation: In computer graphics, 3D rotation is the process of rotating a 3-dimensional object
around a specific axis or point. It involves modifying the object's coordinates to achieve the desired
rotation in 3D space.

i. 2D viewing transformation: It is the process of transforming objects from the world coordinate
system to the view or screen coordinate system in 2D graphics. This transformation involves scaling,
translation, and rotation to adjust the position and size of objects on the screen.

j. Viewport vs. Window: In computer graphics, a viewport is the visible area on the screen where the
final image is displayed. It represents a subset of the entire image called the window. The window is
the user-defined area of interest, and the viewport is the region where the contents of the window
are displayed.

Part-4

Computer Graphics and its Applications:

Computer graphics refers to the creation, manipulation, and representation of visual images using
computers. It involves various algorithms and techniques to display and interact with images, videos,
and 3D models. Computer graphics have become an essential component of modern technology and
find applications in diverse fields.

Applications of Computer Graphics:

Entertainment Industry: One of the primary applications of computer graphics is in the entertainment
industry, including video games, movies, and animations. Advanced graphics techniques are used to
create realistic and visually stunning virtual worlds, characters, and special effects.

Design and Visualization: Computer graphics play a vital role in various design fields, such as
architecture, interior design, industrial design, and fashion. It enables designers to create and
visualize 3D models of their ideas, allowing them to iterate and refine their designs more efficiently.

Simulation and Training: Computer graphics are extensively used in simulations for training purposes.
For example, flight simulators provide a realistic training environment for pilots to practice flying
without the risks associated with actual flight.

Medical Imaging: Computer graphics are utilized in medical imaging technologies like MRI, CT scans,
and ultrasound. It allows medical professionals to visualize and analyze complex anatomical
structures and assist in diagnosis and treatment planning.

Advertising and Marketing: Computer graphics are widely used in advertising and marketing
campaigns to create eye-catching visuals and animations that attract and engage consumers.

Education: Computer graphics are employed in educational applications, ranging from interactive
learning tools to virtual classrooms, enhancing the learning experience for students.

Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): Computer graphics are fundamental to VR and AR
technologies, creating immersive and interactive experiences that merge digital content with the real
world.

Data Visualization: Computer graphics are utilized in data visualization to represent complex data sets
in a visually comprehensible manner, aiding in data analysis and decision-making.

Gaming and Interactive Simulations: Computer graphics enable the creation of interactive simulations
for training and educational purposes, such as driving simulators, military training, and virtual
laboratories.
Art and Creative Expression: Computer graphics have opened up new avenues for artists to explore
and express their creativity through digital art, digital painting, and generative art.

Virtual Prototyping and Product Development: In industries like automotive and aerospace, computer
graphics are used for virtual prototyping and product development, reducing costs and time
associated with physical prototypes.

Overall, computer graphics have a profound impact on various industries, revolutionizing the way we
visualize, communicate, and interact with digital content.

Raster Scan System:

The raster scan system is a display technique used in most modern computer monitors and televisions.
It involves scanning the screen from top to bottom, one line at a time, and refreshing each pixel on
the screen in a sequential order.

Working Principle:

The screen is divided into a grid of pixels, and each pixel is assigned a specific address in memory.
The electron beam in the cathode ray tube (CRT) or the equivalent technology in modern displays
starts at the top-left corner and moves horizontally, illuminating each pixel row by row.
Once the entire row is scanned, the beam returns to the left side and moves down to start scanning
the next row.
This process repeats many times per second to create a flicker-free continuous display.
Advantages:

Simple and efficient scanning process.

Allows easy synchronization with the computer's video output.
Works well with real-time graphics and animations.
Disadvantages:

Limited resolution and refresh rates compared to other display techniques.

Can lead to motion artifacts, especially in fast-moving scenes.
Not suitable for high-definition displays.
Two Line Drawing Algorithms:

DDA Algorithm (Digital Differential Analyzer): DDA is a simple and efficient algorithm used for
rasterizing straight lines. It uses the idea of incremental changes in coordinates to approximate the
line.
Working Principle:

Given two endpoints (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) of a line, the algorithm calculates the differences in x and y
coordinates (dx and dy).
It then calculates the slope of the line, m = dy / dx.
Starting from (x1, y1), the algorithm increments x and calculates y based on the slope m. The new x is
incremented by 1, and the corresponding y is calculated as y = y1 + m.
The process is repeated until the final endpoint (x2, y2) is reached.
Advantages:

Simple and easy to implement.

Requires only integer arithmetic operations, making it efficient for digital systems.
Disadvantages:

May introduce rounding errors leading to pixel inaccuracies, especially for steep or shallow slopes.

Inefficient for long lines with a large number of pixels.

Bresenham's Line Algorithm: Bresenham's algorithm is another popular and efficient line drawing
algorithm that avoids the need for floating-point calculations, making it faster than DDA.

Working Principle:

Given two endpoints (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) of a line, the algorithm calculates the differences in x and y
coordinates (dx and dy).
It uses an initial decision parameter (P) to determine which pixel to choose at each step based on the
distance between the actual line and the ideal line (represented by a function).
The algorithm increments x and updates the decision parameter at each step to select the next pixel.
Advantages:

Faster and more efficient than DDA due to integer-only calculations.

Produces accurate and pixel-perfect results.
Disadvantages:

More complex implementation compared to DDA.

Limited to drawing lines with a slope between 0 and 1.
Area Filling Technique:

One common area filling technique is the Scanline Fill Algorithm, used to fill closed areas bounded by
a set of connected line segments.

Working Principle:

Identify the topmost scanline (the highest y-coordinate) that intersects the polygon.
Scan the polygon from top to bottom, tracking the intersections of the scanline with the polygon
edges. Use a data structure like an active edge list (AEL) to keep track of the edges intersecting the
current scanline.
Fill the region between consecutive intersections on the scanline with the desired color or pattern.
Move to the next scanline and update the AEL to remove edges that are no longer intersecting the
scanline and add new edges that are encountered.
Advantages:

Efficient for filling complex polygons with a large number of vertices.

Handles polygons with holes and overlapping areas effectively.
Disadvantages:

Inefficient for concave polygons with many edges.

Not suitable for polygons with self-intersections or non-simple polygons.
2D Scaling with an Example:

2D scaling is the process of resizing an object in the x and y dimensions. The scaling factor determines
how much the object should be expanded or contracted.

Example:
Let's consider a square with its vertices at coordinates (0, 0), (2, 0), (2, 2), and (0, 2). We want to scale
the square by a factor of 2 in both the x and y directions.

Step 1: Calculate the center of the square:

Center = [(0 + 2) / 2, (0 + 2) / 2] = [1, 1]

Step 2: Apply scaling to each vertex relative to the center:

Scaled Vertex (0, 0):

x' = (0 - 1) * 2 + 1 = -1
y' = (0 - 1) * 2 + 1 = -1
Scaled Vertex (2, 0):
x' = (2 - 1) * 2 + 1 = 3
y' = (0 - 1) * 2 + 1 = -1

Scaled Vertex (2, 2):

x' = (2 - 1) * 2 + 1 = 3
y' = (2 - 1) * 2 + 1 = 3

Scaled Vertex (0, 2):

x' = (0 - 1) * 2 + 1 = -1
y' = (2 - 1) * 2 + 1 = 3
Step 3: The scaled square has vertices at (-1, -1), (3, -1), (3, 3), and (-1, 3).

3D Transformation:

3D transformation is a fundamental concept in computer graphics and computer-aided design (CAD)

that allows the manipulation of 3D objects in a virtual 3D space. It involves applying a sequence of
mathematical operations to move, rotate, scale, and shear 3D objects, thereby changing their
position, orientation, and size. These transformations are critical for creating realistic 3D scenes,
animations, and interactive experiences in various applications.

Types of 3D Transformations:

Translation: Translation involves moving an object along the x, y, and z axes of the 3D coordinate
system. Each point of the object is shifted by a certain amount in each direction, effectively
changing its position in 3D space. Translation is essential for relocating objects within a scene.

Rotation: Rotation transforms an object around a specified axis passing through a reference point.
It changes the orientation of the object in 3D space. Rotations can be performed around the x, y,
and z axes, as well as arbitrary axes. Rotation is commonly used for animating objects and creating
dynamic visual effects.

Scaling: Scaling modifies the size of an object along the x, y, and z axes independently. It can
enlarge or shrink the object uniformly or non-uniformly. Scaling is useful for zooming in or out on
objects and creating variations in their size.

Shearing: Shearing distorts an object by moving its vertices parallel to a specific plane. This
transformation affects the shape of the object while preserving its volume. Shearing is often used
to create slanted or skewed perspectives.

Applications of 3D Transformations:

Computer Graphics: In computer graphics, 3D transformations are utilized to animate objects,

simulate realistic movement, and create complex 3D scenes. They form the basis for rendering 3D
models in a virtual environment.

Computer-Aided Design (CAD): CAD software extensively employs 3D transformations for designing
and manipulating 3D models of products, buildings, and other objects. Engineers and architects use
these tools to visualize and iterate their designs before production.

Video Games: 3D transformations are crucial for rendering characters, environments, and objects in
video games. They enable the interactive movement and actions of game elements, immersing
players in a lifelike gaming experience.
Virtual Reality (VR): VR applications rely heavily on 3D transformations to create immersive virtual
environments. Users can explore and interact with these environments in real-time, providing a
sense of presence and interaction.

Special Effects in Movies: The film industry uses 3D transformations to produce realistic special
effects and computer-generated imagery (CGI). They enable the integration of virtual elements into
live-action footage seamlessly.

Medical Visualization: 3D transformations are employed to visualize medical data, such as CT scans
and MRI images, in 3D space. This assists medical professionals in better understanding complex
structures and planning surgeries.

Simulation and Training: In simulators, 3D transformations simulate real-world scenarios and

training environments, allowing trainees to practice tasks in a safe and controlled setting.

2D Viewing:

2D viewing is the process of converting a 3D scene into a 2D representation to be displayed on a 2D

screen or output device. It involves a series of transformations, including perspective projection, to
create a realistic and accurate 2D rendering of the 3D objects from a specific viewpoint.

Steps in 2D Viewing:

Viewing Coordinates: In 2D viewing, a viewpoint or camera position is established in the 3D scene.

The viewpoint determines the observer's position and orientation relative to the scene.

Viewing Transformation: The 3D scene is transformed based on the viewer's position and
orientation to align it with the view plane (the virtual screen). This transformation moves the
viewpoint to the origin and aligns the view direction with the coordinate axes.

Perspective Projection: Perspective projection is applied to convert the 3D coordinates of objects

into 2D coordinates on the view plane. This process simulates how objects appear smaller as they
move away from the viewer, creating the illusion of depth.

Clipping: Clipping is performed to remove any parts of objects that are outside the view volume or
view frustum. This ensures that only the visible portion of the scene is displayed on the screen.

Viewport Transformation: The resulting 2D coordinates are mapped to the actual screen or
viewport dimensions, accounting for any scaling or translating required to fit the image on the
display.

Applications of 2D Viewing:

Computer Graphics: 2D viewing is fundamental to computer graphics, allowing 3D scenes to be

displayed on 2D screens and enabling the interaction with graphical elements.

Computer-Aided Design (CAD): CAD software uses 2D viewing to display 3D models on 2D screens,
providing designers with a visual representation of their designs.

Visualization and Simulation: 2D viewing is used in data visualization and simulation applications,
where complex 3D data is projected onto a 2D plane for analysis and understanding.

User Interfaces: 2D viewing is integral to user interfaces and graphical user interfaces (GUIs) that
enable users to interact with software applications through 2D displays.

Game Development: In 2D games, the scenes and game elements are viewed from a fixed
perspective, and 2D viewing is used to render the game environment.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS): GIS applications use 2D viewing to display geographical
maps and data on 2D screens, enabling users to explore and analyze spatial information.
Line Clipping Algorithm:

Line clipping algorithms are used to determine which portions of a line segment lie within a specified
clipping window (a rectangular region) and should be displayed or processed. One of the widely used
line clipping algorithms is the Cohen-Sutherland algorithm.

Cohen-Sutherland Algorithm:

1. The algorithm divides the 2D area into nine regions using four lines that form a 3x3 grid around the
clipping window. These regions are identified by a four-bit code assigned to each endpoint of the line
segment, indicating its position relative to the clipping window.

2. If both endpoints are inside the window (code=0000), the entire line segment lies inside the
window and is retained for display.

3. If both endpoints are in the same region (e.g., above or below the window), the line segment lies
entirely outside the window and is discarded.

4. For endpoints in different regions, the algorithm calculates the intersection points of the line
segment with the window edges and updates the endpoints accordingly.

5. Steps 2 to 4 are repeated until the line segment lies entirely inside the window or is determined to
be outside and should be discarded.

6. The Cohen-Sutherland algorithm efficiently handles line clipping with a small number of iterations,
reducing the computation time required for determining the visible portion of a line segment on the
screen.