What are Cell Organelles?

The cellular components are called cell organelles. These cell organelles include both
membrane and non-membrane bound organelles, present within the cells and are List of Cell Organelles and their Functions
distinct in their structures and functions. They coordinate and function efficiently for
the normal functioning of the cell. A few of them function by providing shape and Plasma Membrane
support, whereas some are involved in the locomotion and reproduction of a cell.
The plasma membrane is also termed as a Cell Membrane or Cytoplasmic Membrane.
There are various organelles present within the cell and are classified into three
It is a selectively permeable membrane of the cells, which is composed of a lipid
categories based on the presence or absence of membrane.
bilayer and proteins.
Organelles without membrane: The Cell wall, Ribosomes, and Cytoskeleton are
The plasma membrane is present both in plant and animal cells. It functions as the
non-membrane-bound cell organelles. They are present both in the prokaryotic
selectively permeable membrane, by permitting the entry of selective materials in and
cell and the eukaryotic cell.
out of the cell according to the requirement. In an animal cell, the cell membrane
Single membrane-bound organelles: Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus, functions by providing shape and protects the inner contents of the cell. Based on
Endoplasmic Reticulum are single membrane-bound organelles present only in a the structure of the plasma membrane, it is regarded as the fluid mosaic model.
eukaryotic cell. According to the fluid mosaic model, the plasma membranes are subcellular structures,
made of a lipid bilayer in which the protein molecules are embedded.
Double membrane-bound organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast are
double membrane-bound organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell. Also refer to the Difference Between Cell Membrane and Plasma Membrane

Let us learn more in detail about the different cell organelles in brief.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is present both in plant and animal cells. They are jelly-like
substances, found between the cell membrane and nucleus. They are mainly composed
of water, organic and inorganic compounds. The cytoplasm is one of the essential
components of the cell, where all the cell organelles are embedded. These cell
organelles contain enzymes, mainly responsible for controlling all metabolic activity
taking place within the cell and are the site for most of the chemical reactions within a
cell.

Nucleus
 2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are the storage organelle, associated
with the production of lipids, steroids, and also responsible for detoxifying the
cell.

Mitochondria

The nucleus is a double-membraned organelle found in all eukaryotic cells. It is the

largest organelle, which functions as the control center of the cellular activities and is
the storehouse of the cell’s DNA. By structure, the nucleus is dark, round, surrounded
by a nuclear membrane. It is a porous membrane (like cell membrane) and forms a
wall between cytoplasm and nucleus. Within the nucleus, there are tiny spherical Mitochondria are called the powerhouses of the cell as they produce energy-rich
bodies called nucleolus. It also carries an essential structure called chromosomes. molecules for the cell. The mitochondrial genome is inherited maternally in several
organisms. It is a double membrane-bound, sausage-shaped organelle, found in almost
Chromosomes are thin and thread-like structures which carry another important all eukaryotic cells.
structure called a gene. Genes are a hereditary unit in organisms i.e., it helps in the
inheritance of traits from one generation (parents) to another (offspring). Hence, the The double membranes divide its lumen into two distinct aqueous compartments. The
nucleus controls the characters and functions of cells in our body. The primary inner compartment is called a ‘matrix’ which is folded into cristae whereas the outer
function of the nucleus is to monitor cellular activities including metabolism and membrane forms a continuous boundary with the cytoplasm. They usually vary in their
growth by making use of DNA’s genetic information. Nucleoli in the nucleus are size and are found either round or oval in shape. Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic
responsible for the synthesis of protein and RNA. respiration in the cell, produces energy in the form of ATP and helps in the
transformation of the molecules.
Endoplasmic Reticulum For instance, glucose is converted into adenosine triphosphate – ATP. Mitochondria
have their own circular DNA, RNA molecules, ribosomes (the 70s), and a few other
The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous canals filled with fluid. They
molecules that help in protein synthesis.
are the transport system of the cell, involved in transporting materials throughout the
cell.
There are two different types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are composed of cisternae, tubules,

and vesicles, which are found throughout the cell and are involved in protein
manufacture. Plastids
Plastids are large, membrane-bound organelles which contain pigments. Based on the
type of pigments, plastids are of three types:

Ribosomes are non-membrane-bound and important cytoplasmic organelles found in

close association with the endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are found in the form of
tiny particles in a large number of cells and are mainly composed of 2/3rd of RNA and
1/3rd of protein. They are named as the 70s (found in prokaryotes) or 80s (found in
 Chloroplasts – Chloroplasts are double membrane-bound organelles, eukaryotes) The letter S refers to the density and the size, known as Svedberg’s Unit.
which usually vary in their shape – from a disc shape to spherical, discoid, Both 70S and 80S ribosomes are composed of two subunits. Ribosomes are either
oval and ribbon. They are present in mesophyll cells of leaves, which store encompassed within the endoplasmic reticulum or are freely traced in the cell’s
chloroplasts and other carotenoid pigments. These pigments are responsible cytoplasm. Ribosomal RNA and Ribosomal proteins are the two components that
for trapping light energy for photosynthesis. The inner membrane encloses a together constitute ribosomes. The primary function of the ribosomes includes protein
space called the stroma. Flattened disc-like chlorophyll-containing structures synthesis in all living cells that ensure the survival of the cell.
known as thylakoids are arranged in a stacked manner like a pile of coins.
Each pile is called a granum (plural: grana) and the thylakoids of different Golgi Apparatus
grana are connected by flat membranous tubules known as stromal lamella.
Just like the mitochondrial matrix, the stroma of chloroplast also contains a Golgi Apparatus is also termed as Golgi Complex. It is a membrane-bound organelle,
double-stranded circular DNA, 70S ribosomes, and enzymes which are which is mainly composed of a series of flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae.
required for the synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins. This cell organelle is primarily responsible for transporting, modifying, and packaging
proteins and lipids to targeted destinations. Golgi Apparatus is found within the
 Chromoplasts – The chromoplasts include fat-soluble, carotenoid pigments cytoplasm of a cell and is present in both plant and animal cells.
like xanthophylls, carotene, etc. which provide the plants with their
characteristic color – yellow, orange, red, etc.
 Leucoplasts – Leucoplasts are colorless plastids which store nutrients.
Amyloplasts store carbohydrates (like starch in potatoes), aleuroplasts store
proteins, and elaioplasts store oils and fats.

Ribosomes
 Microbodies are membrane-bound, minute, vesicular organelles, found in both plant
and animal cells. They contain various enzymes and proteins and can be visualized
only under the electron microscope.

Cytoskeleton
It is a continuous network of filamentous proteinaceous structures that run throughout
the cytoplasm, from the nucleus to the plasma membrane. It is found in all living cells,
notably in the eukaryotes. The cytoskeleton matrix is composed of different types of
proteins that can divide rapidly or disassemble depending on the requirement of the
cells. The primary functions include providing the shape and mechanical resistance to
the cell against deformation, the contractile nature of the filaments helps in motility
during cytokinesis.

Cilia and Flagella

Microbodies

Cilia are hair-like projections, small structures, present outside the cell wall and work
like oars to either move the cell or the extracellular fluid. Flagella are slightly bigger
and are responsible for the cell movements. The eukaryotic flagellum structurally
differs from its prokaryotic counterpart. The core of the cilium and flagellum is called
an axoneme, which contains nine pairs of gradually arranged
peripheral microtubules and a set of central microtubules running parallel to the axis.
The central tubules are interconnected by a bridge and are embedded by a central
sheath. One of the peripheral microtubular pairs is also interconnected to the central
sheath by a radial spoke. Hence there are a total of 9 radial spokes. The cilia and
flagella emerge from centriole-like structures called basal bodies.
Centrosome and Centrioles Mitochondria is the cell organelle and is called the Powerhouse of the cell as
they carry out the cellular respiration and generate the energy molecules called ATP or
Adenosine Triphosphate.

 Where do we find Chloroplasts and Chromoplast pigments in plants?

Chloroplasts and Chromoplasts are the plastids present in all plant cells. Chloroplasts
contain the green colour pigments, present in the leaves, green-coloured stems, etc.
Chromoplasts contain thee colourful pigments present in all colourful parts of the plant
like flowers and fruits, etc.
 Why Lysosomes are known as suicide bags?
Lysosomes are called the suicidal bags because they are capable of breaking down or
digesting all the wastes, dead and damaged cells.

 What is Nucleoid?
Nucleoid is a non-membrane, irregular-shaped cell organelle present in all prokaryotic
cells. They are the carriers of the genetic material of a cell.

 The largest membrane-bound organelle in a eukaryotic cell is?

The centrosome organelle is made up of two mutually perpendicular structures known Organelles are special and organized structures seen in living cells. Some of the
as centrioles. Each centriole is composed of 9 equally spaced peripheral fibrils of membrane-bound organelles are vacuoles, nucleus, chloroplasts, lysosomes etc. The
tubulin protein, and the fibril is a set of interlinked triplets. The core part of the nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell.
centriole is known as a hub and is proteinaceous. The hub connects the peripheral
Stay tuned with BYJU’S to learn more about the different types of Cell Organelles,
fibrils via radial spoke, which is made up of proteins. The centrioles from the basal
their functions and other related topics at BYJU’S Biology
bodies of the cilia and flagella give rise to spindle fibres during cell division.

Vacuoles
Vacuoles are mostly defined as storage bubbles of irregular shapes which are found in
cells. They are fluid-filled organelles enclosed by a membrane. The vacuole stores the
food or a variety of nutrients that a cell might need to survive. In addition to this, it
also stores waste products. The waste products are eventually thrown out by vacuoles.
Thus, the rest of the cell is protected from contamination. The animal and plant
cells have different size and number of vacuoles. Compared to the animals, plant cells
have larger vacuoles.

Frequently Asked Questions on Cell Organelles:

Cell Organelles Structure Functions
 Which cell organelle is called the Powerhouse of the cell?
Cell membrane A double membrane composed of Provides shape, protects the inner Plastids Double membrane-bound organelles. Helps in the process of
lipids and proteins. Present both in organelles of the cell and acts as a There are 3 types of plastids: photosynthesis and pollination,
plant and animal cells. selectively permeable membrane. imparts colour to leaves, flowers,
1. Leucoplast –Colourless fruits and stores starch, proteins and
Centrosomes Composed of centrioles and found It plays a major role in organizing the plastids. fats.
only in the animal cells. microtubule and cell division. 2. Chromoplast–Blue, red,
and yellow colour plastids.
Chloroplasts Present only in plant cells and Sites of photosynthesis. 3. Chloroplast – Green
contains a green-coloured pigment coloured plastids.
known as chlorophyll.

Cytoplasm A jelly-like substance, which Responsible for the cell’s metabolic Ribosomes Non-membrane organelles, found Involved in the synthesis of
consists of water, dissolved activities. floating freely in the cell’s cytoplasm proteins.
nutrients and waste products of or embedded within the endoplasmic
the cell. reticulum.

Endoplasmic A network of membranous Forms the skeletal framework of the

Reticulum tubules, present within the cell, involved in the detoxification,
cytoplasm of a cell. production of lipids and proteins. Vacuoles A membrane-bound, fluid-filled Provide shape and rigidity to the
organelle found within the plant cell and help in digestion,
cytoplasm. excretion, and storage of
Golgi apparatus Membrane-bound, sac-like It is mainly involved in secretion and
substances.
organelles, present within the intracellular transport.
cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cells.

Lysosomes A tiny, circular-shaped, single Helps in the digestion and removes

membrane-bound organelles, wastes and digests dead and damaged
filled with digestive enzymes. cells. Therefore, it is also called as the
“suicidal bags”. CELL THEORY

Mitochondria An oval-shaped, membrane-bound The main site of cellular respiration and In 1665, Robert Hooke published Micrographia, a book filled with drawings and
organelle, also called as the also involved in storing energy in the descriptions of the organisms he viewed under the recently invented microscope. The
“Powerhouse of The Cell”. form of ATP molecules. invention of the microscope led to the discovery of the cell by Hooke. While looking at
cork, Hooke observed box-shaped structures, which he called “cells” as they reminded
him of the cells, or rooms, in monasteries. This discovery led to the development of
the classical cell theory.
Nucleus The largest, double membrane-bound Controls the activity of the cell,
organelles, which contains all the helps in cell division and controls
The classical cell theory was proposed by Theodor Schwann in 1839. There are three
cell’s genetic information. the hereditary characters.
parts to this theory. The first part states that all organisms are made of cells. The
second part states that cells are the basic units of life. These parts were based on a
conclusion made by Schwann and Matthias Schleiden in 1838, after comparing their
Peroxisome A membrane-bound cellular Involved in the metabolism of lipids observations of plant and animal cells. The third part, which asserts that cells come
organelle present in the cytoplasm, and catabolism of long-chain fatty
from preexisting cells that have multiplied, was described by Rudolf Virchow in 1858,
which contains the reducing enzyme. acids.
when he stated omnis cellula e cellula (all cells come from cells).
Since the formation of classical cell theory, technology has improved, allowing for
more detailed observations that have led to new discoveries about cells. These findings
led to the formation of the modern cell theory, which has three main additions: first,
that DNA is passed between cells during cell division; second, that the cells of
all organisms within a similar species are mostly the same, both structurally and
chemically; and finally, that energy flow occurs within cells.

Cell Theory

The microscopes we use today are far more complex than those used in the 1600s by
Antony van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch shopkeeper who had great skill in crafting lenses.
Despite the limitations of his now-ancient lenses, van Leeuwenhoek observed the
movements of protista (a type of single-celled organism) and sperm, which he
collectively termed “animalcules. ”

In a 1665 publication called Micrographia, experimental scientist Robert Hooke

coined the term “cell” for the box-like structures he observed when viewing cork tissue
through a lens. In the 1670s, van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa.
Later advances in lenses, microscope construction, and staining techniques enabled
other scientists to see some components inside cells.
 The expanded version of the cell theory can also include:

 Cells carry genetic material passed to daughter cells during cellular division
 All cells are essentially the same in chemical composition
 Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells

Key Points
 The cell theory describes the basic properties of all cells.
 The three scientists that contributed to the development of cell theory are Matthias
Schleiden, Theodor Schwann, and Rudolf Virchow.
 A component of the cell theory is that all living things are composed of one or
more cells.
 A component of the cell theory is that the cell is the basic unit of life.
 A component of the cell theory is that all new cells arise from existing cells.

Key Terms
 cell theory: The scientific theory that all living organisms are made of cells as
the smallest functional unit.
Figure 4.3.14.3
.1: Structure of an Animal Cell: The cell is the basic unit of life and the study of the
cell led to the development of the cell theory.
General Biology
By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann were
studying tissues and proposed the unified cell theory. The unified cell theory states Introduction to Biology, Biomolecules, and Cell
that: all living things are composed of one or more cells; the cell is the basic unit of
Lecture
life; and new cells arise from existing cells. Rudolf Virchow later made important
contributions to this theory. Biology

Schleiden and Schwann proposed spontaneous generation as the method for cell  deals with the central themes that define life
origination, but spontaneous generation (also called abiogenesis) was later disproven.  it takes an in-depth look on the role of energy in life, the perpetuation of
Rudolf Virchow famously stated “Omnis cellula e cellula”… “All cells only arise from life through reproduction and development, evolution or the biological
pre-existing cells. “The parts of the theory that did not have to do with the origin of change over time, the interaction of organisms and their environment,
cells, however, held up to scientific scrutiny and are widely agreed upon by the and the process of science as a way of learning about the world.
scientific community today. The generally accepted portions of the modern Cell
Theory are as follows: Characteristics/Attributes of Living Things:

1. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.  Cellular - the cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living
2. All organisms are made up of one or more cells. things.
- all organisms are made up of cells
3. Cells arise from other cells through cellular division.
- they could be unicellular or multicellular
 Organization - living things have an orderly arrangement of parts as well as Like all matter, living things are built from sub-assemblies called
order in the functioning of these parts molecules.
- there is order or increasing complexity as one goes through Biomolecules - molecules that make up the body of living things - these are
different levels primarily long polymers (long chains of similar units joined together). There
 Irritability/Responsiveness - ability to respond to a particular stimulus are four classes:
 Reproduction - ability to perpetuate (make copies) of its own kind
 Growth and Development- irreversible increase in the number size and/or I. Carbohydrates
number of cells (growth)  includes sugars and their derivatives
- transformation from an immature to a mature,  molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
functional from (development)  important energy source
 Metabolism - acquisition and transformation of energy  three classes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
 Adaptation - structural and behavioral modifications to suit a changing
environment a. Monosaccharides (from the Greek word mono-, single + Latin word
 Evolution - change (of population) through time saccharum, sugar)-also known as simple sugars; the building blocks of a long
 Motility - movement of parts or the whole organism, particularly for carbohydrate chain; contain 3 to 9 carbon atoms
acquisition of food
 Homeostasis - different mechanisms that ensures the maintenance of an Examples: glucose - primary energy fuel of the cell galactose
internal environment in a changing external environment fructose -major sugar in fruits
b. Disaccharides (from Greek word di-two) - also called double sugars: formed by
inking two monosaccharides

Hierarchy of the Biological Organization:

Examples: sucrose- from glucose + fructose; the table sugar
CELL ------TISSUE------- ORGAN------ ORGAN-SYSTEM----- ORGANISM
neuron muscle liver digestive system human lactose- from glucose and galactose; also known as milk sugar
plant cell bone heart circulatory system dog
maltose-from 2 glucose units
Epidermis leaf shoot system rose
c. Polysaccharides (from Greek poly-many) - made from long chains of
POPULATION---------- COMMUNITY---------- ECOSYSTEM ----------BIOSPHERE monosaccharide units (i.e., glucose units)
troops of monkeys lawn forest
Examples:
colony of ants pond lake
Starch - storage form of sugar in plants
corn farm Cellulose - structural polysaccharide in plants; major component of
cell wall
glycogen - storage form of sugar in animals
The Chemical Basis of Life chitin - chief component of fungal cell wall and exoskeleton of insects.
II. Lipids
  big class of molecules that are generally non-polar or hydrophobic Levels of Protein Organization
 made up chiefly of long chains of C-H
 can store a big amount of energy, hence, function as a storage of energy 1. Primary Structure -refers to the sequence and percentage composition of
amino acids in a protein molecule
There are four classes: 2. 2. Secondary Structure -refers to the conformation resulting from
a. Simple Lipids - made up of glycerol and fatty acid molecules differences in the properties of the R groups; may be a-helix or B-pleated
 Fat - solid at room temperature due to saturated fatty acid components sheets
 Oil - liquid at room temperature due to presence of unsaturated fatty acids 3. Tertiary Structure- results from the folding of secondary structures;
stabilized by non-covalent interactions
b. Waxes - made up fatty acids and long chains of alcohol; present as protective 4. Quaternary Structure-the association of different polypeptide subunits
outer covering of plant parts such as leaves and stems to prevent desiccation, together to form a functional protein
mechanical, and physical injury
Protein Denaturation -a process that destroys the secondary, tertiary or
c. Phospholipids - made up of alcohol fatty acids and phosphate groups; major quaternary structures of proteins due to high temperature, extremes of pH, or
component of biological membranes (cell membrane and organelles) chemical agents, usually an irreversible process.
d. Steroids - lipids containing a ring system; examples include some animal hormones IV. Nucleic Acids
like testosterone, estrogen, and adrenocorticoid hormones cholesterol is an
important steroid that serves as membrane component in animals  informational molecules made up of polymers of nucleotides linked together by
phosphodiester bonds
 two types of nucleic acids:
1. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - double-stranded
2. ribonucleic acid (RNA) - single-stranded

 a nucleotide is made up of:

III. Proteins  a. a nitrogenous base - purines and pyrimidines
 made up of long chains of amino acids (polymers of amino acids)  b. a pentose sugar - either a deoxyribose (in DNA) or ribose (in RNA)
 perform various roles/functions:  C. a phosphate group
* structural framework-chief constituents of skin, bone, hair,
fingernails e.g., collagen and keratin  in DNA, the purine bases are adenine (A) and guanine (G), while the pyrimidine
*Biological catalysts – enzymes bases are thymine (T) and cytosine (C); in RNA, the pyrimidine base thymine (T) is
*Movement - muscles (actin and myosin), flagella replaced by uracil (U)
*Transport - hemoglobin of blood; transports oxygen
*Hormones- e.g., insulin, oxytocin, growth hormone protection  base pairing is highly specific, such that A base pairs with T and C base pairs with
antibodies, blood clotting (fibrinogen) G in a DNA molecule: A base pairs with U and C base pairs with G in an RNA
*Protection – antibodies, blood clothing (fibrinogen) molecule
*Storage - casein in milk, albumin in eggs
 prokaryotic cells contain single double helical DNA, usually circular; eukaryotic
* Regulation - controls expression of genes cells contain several double helical DNA molecules which are usually combined
 with basic proteins called histones (these structures, DNA + histones, form (multicellular).
chromosomes and are usually found in the nucleus)
4. Cells come only from pre-existing cells. (Virchow)

CELL: The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life Requirements of a cell:
Robert Hooke (1653-1703) - coined the term "cell" and was responsible for the 1. Specific genetic program that permits the reproduction of new cells of
beginnings of cytology as a sub-discipline in biology the same type
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)- discovered the bacteria and other microscopic 2. Cell membrane that establishes a boundary that regulates all exchanges
organisms and studied the structure of plants and animals’ tissues of substances
3. Metabolic machinery that can use energy trapped by the cell or obtained
Francisco Redi (1626-1697) and Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799)- disproved the from foodstuffs
Theory of Spontaneous Generation 4. A biosynthetic machinery for the synthesis of proteins - in the ribosomes
R. H. Dutrochet (1824) - presented one of the first clear statements of the idea that all Viruses are not considered to be true cells because they only contain DNA or RNA but
living things are composed of cells not both. They are obligate intracellular parasite. They are made up of the following
materials:
Robert Brown (1831)- an English botanist who discovered the presence of nucl- within
cells lei 1. Genetic material - either DNA or RNA
2. 2. Capsid- a protein coat that surrounds the genetic material
Purkinje (1839) - a Bohemian who coined the term protoplasm to refer to the living
part of the cell

They are dependent on the host cells and are regarded as obligatory parasites, relying
on the biosynthetic machinery of the host. The entire viral particle is produced within
Matthias Schleiden (1838) and Theodore Schwann (1939) - botanist and zoologist,
the host cell by a process of macromolecular assembly.
respectively, who introduced the concept that all plants and animals are made up of
cells Two Types of Cells
Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902) - found that cells divide to form new cells and concluded
1. Prokaryotic - without nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; has nucleoid
that cells come from pre-existing cells
or nuclear region where the genetic material is concentrated
Louis Pasteur (1862) - a French chemist who supplied the proof for Virchow's Theory 2. Eukaryotic - with true nucleus and membrane bound organelles
of Biogenesis
Characteristics Prokaryote Eukaryote

Organism bacteria and protists, fungi, plants,

Cell Theory (by Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow) cyanobacteria animals
Cell Size Generally 1 to 10 um in Generally 10 to 100 um
1. Cell is the basic functional and structural unit of all living things. linear dimension in linear dimension
Metabolism anaerobic or aerobic anaerobic or aerobic
2. All living things are made up of one (unicellular) or more cells Organelles generally none nucleus, mitochondria,
 endoplasmic reticulum, 5. mitochondria - sausage-shaped structure known as the "powerhouse" of the cell: it
chloroplast, Golgi is the site of aerobic cellular respiration that generates ATP
apparatus, etc.
DNA circular, single-stranded; Organized into 6. ribosomes - protein factory of the cell
in the cytoplasm (nucle chromosomes with many 7. endoplasmic reticulum (ER) - serves as passageway for food and substances to
non-coding regions;
other parts of the cells
bounded by a nuclear
membrane Two kinds:
RNA and protein Both synthesized and RNA synthesized in the
processed in the nucleus, proteins a. rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) - with ribosomes for protein synthesis
cytoplasm synthesized in the
b. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER) - site of lipid synthesis
cytoplasm
Cytoplasm no cytoskeleton, Cytoskeleton composed 8. Golgi bodies/apparatus - packaging center of the cell; vesicles detach from this
cytoplasmic streaming, of protein filaments with apparatus surrounding the processed proteins and carried them to the plasma
endocytosis nor cytoplasmic streaming membrane
exocytosis with endocytosis and
exocytosis 9. cytoskeleton - internal framework of the cell; microtubules, microfilaments and
Cell Division Binary fission Mitosis, meiosis intermediate filaments
Cellular organization All unicellular Unicellular or
multicellular with 10. centrioles - located at the centrosome; duplicate and form spindle fibers during
differentiation cell division, present in animal cells only
Nuclear membrane absent present
11. lysosomes -'suicidal bag' of the cell; contains hydrolytic enzymes
Cell Structures
12. cell wall - rigid; lies outside the plasma membrane and is composed of cellulose in
1. cell membrane or plasma membrane - outermost covering of most cells that plants, chitin in fungi; absent in animals cells 13. chloroplasts - contains chlorophyll
regulates what enters and leaves the cell responsible for trapping sunlight; present in plants and some cyanobacteria
2.nucleus - control center of the cell; contains the genetic material within the 14. vacuoles - fluid filled cavities surrounded by membranes (tonoplast); stores water
chromosomes and other waste products
3. nucleolus -dark-staining, spherical body in the cell nucleus that produces ribosomal
subunits
Cell Cycle - an ordered sequence of events in the life of a dividing cell
4. protoplasm - jelly-like material enclosed by the plasma membrane
1. Interphase - when the cell is not dividing; inactive, but the cell is
Two kinds:
performing similar important functions; made up of:
a. cytoplasm - protoplasm outside the nucleus  Gap 1 or G, phase - growth phase; duplication of organelles, increase in
size
b. nucleoplasm- protoplasm inside the nucleus
 Synthesis of S phase - where duplication of DNA occurs in preparation for
cell division
  Gap 2 or G, phase -synthesis of important proteins needed for cell 1. Diffusion - movement of substances from higher to lower concentration
division
2. Osmosis - diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane;
2. Cell Division - the cell divides and distributes the genetic material to
daughter movement of water is dictated by the solute concentration; water
cells
generally moves from low solute to high solute concentration.
Two Modes of Cell Division
 Hypotonic - an environment that haś lower solute concentration
MITOSIS- produces two (2) identical daughter cells, each one contains the same than the cell
chromosome number as parent cell; as means of reproduction by unicellular  Hypertonic - an environment that has higher solute concentration
organisms, for growth of multicellular organisms, and for replacement of worn-out than the cell
tissues  Isotonic-when the inside of the cell and the environment has equal
concentration
Stages of Mitosis
3. Facilitated Diffusion - diffusion of substances via specific protein
Prophase - The phase directly after interphase, the chromosomes become gates/channels
thicker and the microtubules forming the spindle increase in size in the cytoplasm just 4. Active Transport - movement against concentration gradient (low to high
outside the nuclear membrane. The end of prophase is signaled by the disruption of concentration); requires energy
the nuclear membrane 5. Bulk Transport - either by:
 Exocytosis - when a cell takes out a big molecule outside
Metaphase- The chromosomes line up at the center of the cell (equatorial  Endocytosis- when a cell takes in a big molecule or a whole
plate or metaphase plate); microtubules attach to the kinetochores at the side of cell; maybe by phagocytosis (cell eating"/engulfment) or
each sister chromatid. The region of the chromosome where the kinetochores are pinocytosis (cell "drinking'")
located is called the centromere
Telophase - A new nuclear membrane (nucleus) begins to form at the surface
Anaphase - The connection between the sister chromatids is broken when the of each of the two separated sets of chromosomes. The chromosomes also uncoil and
microtubules contract and move towards the poles, separating the two sister return to an extended (and diffused) interphase state.
chromatids (now the chromosomes). The chromosomes are then dragged to the two
opposite poles. Cytokinesis - Cell division is completed when the cell cytoplasm divides
following the division of the nucleus. The mechanism of cytoplasm division
Difference between plant and animal cells (cytokinesis) differs between plants and animals. In animals, where no rigid cell wall
exists, the cytoplasm becomes shaped like dumbbell as the result of construction
Plant Cells Animal Cells
(cleavage furrow) initiated at the cell's surface, which extends inward. In plants, a
with cell wall - outermost layer, for No cell wall
new cell wall (cell plate) is built by vesicles across the middle of the cell and gradually
protection
extends outward.
With chloroplasts – for photosynthesis No chloroplast
With large central vacuole No large central vacuole MEIOSIS - produces four (4) daughter cells, each one contains only half the
Without centriole With centriole that are involved during chromosome number as that of the parent cell; for the production of gametes or sex
cell division
cells for sexually-reproducing organisms.
Cell Transport - different ways by which substances are carried in or out of the cell
Stages of Meiosis:
 Meiosis I
 Prophase I - pairing of homologous chromosomes called
synapsis; a four-chromosome structure called a tetrad is formed;
crossing over may occur in segments called chiasmata
 Metaphase I- spindle apparatus moves homologous
chromosomes until they are lined up at the spindle equator
 Anaphase I- each homologue is separated from its partner and
the two are moved to opposite poles of the spindle
 Telophase I - haploid number of chromosomes (still duplicated)
ends up at each poles of the spindle
 Meiosis II - proceeds like mitosis; the most important event is the separation
of two sister chromatids at anaphase II
- the two daughter cells produced during Meiosis I divide into two
to form four daughter cells with each having half the chromosome number
present in the parent cell
6
found in the nucleus.
Within the
chromosomes are DNA
that make up the
gene that bears the
hereditary traits.
The cell theory states
that the cell is the basic
unit of life. To be able to
perform
its function, the cell adenosine triphosphate
contains cytoplasm or ATP, which is the
structures called main source of energy in
organelles. the
The following are the body.
basic organelles found in • Ribosomes are the sites
the cytoplasm. of protein synthesis. The
• Mitochondria are the coded message from
sites for the breakdown DNA
of sugar molecules into as to what kind of
protein is to be
synthesized is carried by structurally continuous
the mRNA from with the nuclear
the nucleus to the membrane, and it
ribosome. specializes in the
• Endoplasmic reticulum transport of lipids and
(ER) consists of flattened membrane proteins.
sheets, sacs, and tubes of • A system of flattened,
membranes that extend membrane-bound sacs
throughout the that looks like stack of
cytoplasm of eukaryotic pancakes is the Golgi
cells. It is apparatus. Its function is
to modify, sort, and flattened sacs and carry
pack the materials to other
macromolecules for parts of the cell.
secretion or for transport • Lysosome is also
to other organelles. produced by the Golgi
Rounded apparatus. It is a
vesicles are associated membrane-bound
to the Golgi apparatus organelle that comes in
that pinched off from various sizes and
its shapes. Lysosomes
contain
numerous hydrolytic or • Another membrane-
digestive enzymes for bound vesicles that
the breakdown of contain oxidative
carbohydrates, proteins, enzymes are the
and fats within the cell. peroxisomes. Enzymes
Thus, they are known as responsible for
<digestive sacs.= oxidizing certain
Destruction or repair of molecules to form
defective parts of the
cell is
another function of
lysosomes.