IMPACT OF POLYMERS ON SOCIETY 1.

INTRODUCTION Polymers are a large class of molecules that are formed by linking small chain molecules called monomers (1). As these polymers are large in size, they are classified as macromolecules. Polymers have existed in nature from time immemorial. Various natural polymers like wood, cotton, wool, oil, tar and gum is used by man till date. As man advanced in science and technology, he helped create similar substances. The modern era witnessed the emergence of synthetic polymers like plastics, fibers and elastomers. Synthetic polymers are produced on a very large scale. Plastics are all synthetic polymers. Macromolecular science (1) has paved way into society and polymers have become an essential element in mans daily living. Plastics have been a significant commodity in every day usage and many of the properties like durabilty and versatility contribute immensively towards continual development (2). The major limitation that plastics faced was their disposal. This issue created a social and economic impact on the people. This led to the surfacing of the concept of biodegradable polymers. Biodegradable polymers (3) have largely affected the lives of humans making it a lot easier and convenient. These small molecules shoulder a great deal in different areas of life. Principle fields like medical science, cancer therapy (4) was brought to light with the implementation of polymeric structures like micelles as drug carriers and reservoirs (5). Bone tissues and cartilages (6) were repaired with the help of polyesters and polylactic acid. Bioimaging (7) is a novel technique that gained importance after the incorporation of polysaccharides onto imaging probes for better visualisation of cancer cells. The environment has suffered rather a great deal with issues concerning plastic disposal but with the discovery of green polymers (3), all issues have come to rest. Agriculture has certainly boomed after the

introduction of biodegradable polymers (3). The soil texture was maintained with the help of the solarization approach (8). Superabsorbent polymers (9) were employed to retain and nourish the soil. Polymers have equally taken hold of the automobile, textile and catalytic industries. Nanotechnology and biotechnology are fields of intensive research. DNA sequencing (10) could be performed faster with the employment of polymers. Nanomedicines (11) have provided an alternate path of delivering drugs for cancer therapy (4,5). Each of these sectors with regard to polymer technology have been explained and its impact on society addressed. 2. IMPACT OF POLYMERS IN VARIOUS FIELDS Polymers have multi-faceted uses in daily life. Its impact on society has covered various sectors like medicine, agriculture, industry, environment, biotechnology and nanotechnology. Polymer science has evolved as a promising technology and its advantageous features have been used in the following fields of life. 2.1 MEDICINE 2.11 Polymers used for drug delivery Chemotherapeutic drugs are of constant use by patients suffering from cancer. These drugs showed toxic side effects and were found to be at risk for drug resistance. These drugs were deficient in important pharmaceutical parameters. They were poorly water soluble and lacked affinity to cancer tissue. They also had inefficient mechanisms for cell entry. These deficiencies were combated with polymer-drug conjugates (12). These conjugates were polysuccinimide intermediates, polyamidoamines, and polymer-platinum conjugates. These conjugates act as a pro-drug providing transport of the bioactive agent. They have the ability

to permeate vascular tissues and allow the leakage of polymeric material into the cancerous tissue. Polymer-drug conjugation method is a practical tool for drug delivery (11.12). 2.12 Polymers used in surgery The use of biodegradable polymers has gained attention in the field of orthopaedic surgery. Defective bones and cartilage membranes were repaired using these polymers (3,6). A few examples are polyesters and polylactic acid. They cause reduced inflammatory response and is biocompatible. El Amin et al. examined the expression of the integrin protein by human osteoblast cells placed on biodegradable polymers to analyse the substrate-polymer interaction causing immediate response (6). 2.13 Polymers used for bioimaging Bioimaging is an extensive research for clinical applications. The probes used for clinical imaging lacked in sensitivity and specificity that made the diagnosis and treatment of diseases rather difficult. These problems were encountered with the discovery of polymer based bioimaging probes (7). These probes provided enhanced imaging, biocompatibility and were also biodegradable. They were composed of polysaccharides and could also be found in combinations with natural and synthetic polymers. The imaging process was at molecular levels that enabled better visualisation processes. The development of these probes facilitated live cell imaging, early diagnosis and high throughput while drug screening (4,8). 3. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT The greatest threat to the environment has always been plastic disposal. To ensure environmental protection, biodegradable polymers were developed. They were used as plastic substitutes. These polymers were degraded by the enzymatic action of micro-organisms present in the soil. They are also termed as Green Polymers (1,3).

3.1 Polymers used in the field of agriculture Soil texture and conditioning has been a constant issue of debate. Parasites and unwanted plants like weeds destroy soil texture. Various co-polymers were produced by binding natural polymers like starch, cellulose and agar with polycaprolactone and polyvinyl alcohol (8). These co-polymers were then applied onto the soil. Solarization (8) was another method that was used to retain soil nourishment. Biodegradable polymer films were used to cover the soil. These films provide a greenhouse effect that help the retain soil texture. In dry and arid regions, superabsorbent polymers (9) help absorb and retain water. This water absorption and retention properties have resulted in improved fertiliser retention rates, greater plant growth and lesser irrigation water consumption. 3.2 Polymers used in food packaging Polymers like polyolefins and poly (3-hydroxybutyrate) are used as packaging materials (13). They enable the storage of fat rich products controlling the rates of peroxidation and provide long shelf life. 4. INDUSTRIAL IMPACT 4.1 Polymers used as battery components Nickel hydride was combined with polymer gel electrolyte to help improve the chargedischarge and also the retention of charge capacity. This combination improved the ionic conductivity of the battery making it durable and safe to use (14).

4.2 Polymers used to form homogeneous Catalysts The recycling of catalysts has been a problem after every chemical process. To avoid polluting the environment, catalysts with properties like solubility and homogeneity was used. Polymers with chiral centres bound to urea or thiourea combine to form a resin. These polymers are soluble and possess the ability to enter active sites. They show enhanced resolution in catalytic activities (15). 4.3 Polymers designed on fabrics Conducting polymers have been incorporated into fabrics that enable sensing and motion detections. The polymeric conductors distribute temperature and strain throughout the fabric. Gloves containing these conductors have been sensorised to attain maximum potential in its instrumental functions like power and temperature. They have been tested for wearabilty and sensing properties (16).

Fig1: Micrograph of the polyester fabric. Picture adapted from www.jlab.org 4.4 Polymers used in the automobile industry With environmental issues on a rise, even the automobile industry has commenced work on vehicle body designs using reinforced fiber composite materials. This type of a design was to bring forth the light-weight concept (17). This concept was used as an alternative to economical vehicle body applications. Nevertheless, the use of polymers on seat belt buttons

was rather a failure. The biodegradability of the polymers caused faster degradation due to contact with oxygen and ultra-violet radiation (18). 5. AREAS OF RESEARCH 5.1 BIOTECHNOLOGY The field of biotechnology approaches a more favourable multi-disciplinary context and its concepts have fostered the emergence of polymer processing. 5.11 DNA sequencing DNA sequencing is a tedious process which was made easier with the incorporation of polymers. Song et al. performed DNA sequencing by capillary electrophoresis with application of a polymeric mixture, polyacrylamide and poly (N,N-dimethylacrylamide) (PDMA) (10). The separation medium was replaced by polymer solutions. There were many advantages with the use of this polymeric mixture. The DNA sequence analysis was successful up to 1000 bases in less than an hour and 1300 bases in 2 hours. This method was explained by Zhou and his co-workers (19). Polyethylene oxide is another polymer which has the ability to read up to 1000 bases in 7 hours. Madabhushi suggested the polymeric mixture of PAM and PDMA. PDMA possesses better coating ability and PMA can be used as a good separation medium (20). By combining the two properties, the co-polymer formed was used in DNA sequencing. Thus, polymeric mixtures were found to be favourable to the separation of a broad range of DNA fragments. 5.2 NANOTECNHNOLOGY With the advance in technology, nanoparticles have contributed immensely to the field of science. The large surface present on these particles provide various opportunities to place active functional groups on the surface. The combination of nanoparticles and polymeric

materials has employed various strategies to develop new levels of product performance (4, 5, 11).

Fig2: Polymeric nanoparticles that transport drugs to specific target site. Picture adapted from www.people.bu.edu 5.21 Carbon nanotubes and nanocomposites A carbon nanotube (CNT) (21) is made up of carbon and shaped like a tube. The diameter is measured in nanometer scale. These nanotubes have varying structures, lengths and thickness. They have the ability to act as metals or semi-conductors. Polymers serve as practical tools for enhancing the behaviour of CNT. They allow the maximisation of dispersion, separation of CNT in different media. The mechanical and electrical properties of CNT have been employed in nano-switches and nano-transistors. Polymers interact with these nanotubes on long range forces like Vanderwaals forces of attraction. The interaction between the CNT and the polymeric structure enable strong coupling between the two materials.

Fig 3: Structure of a polymeric carbon nanotube (CNT) that are coated with specific proteins to improve sensitivity. Picture adapted from 3dchem.com Nanocomposites (22) are a new class of light weight, robust functional materials that combines the advantageous properties of polymers to enhance its use in space and air applications. 5.22 Nanomedicine Nanomedicine (11) is the outcome of this huge field of nanotechnology. It aims at molecular levels of involvement in treating disease or repairing a damaged tissue. Cancer therapy has been established on the grounds of nanomedicine. These medicines are small in size and are biocompatible. They have the ability to circulate within the tissue and reach specific target sites. Despite the growing need for nanomedicines, they had a few limitations. They were highly toxic and unstable as soon as they came in contact with the cancerous tissues (4,12). In order to overcome these limitations, biodegradable polymers were introduced. The biodegradable polymers that were used were polyethylene glycol and chitosan. Polyethylene glycol (23) reduced the interfacial energy between surfaces in an aqueous environment preventing any sort of collection of particles due to secondary or tertiary interactions. Another promising example of a biodegradable polymer is chitosan (23).

6. CONCLUSION The implementation of polymers in various levels of life bears witness to the advancement in science and technology. Poly biomaterials have been widely used because of its biostability and performance. This progress is paved towards the discovery of new polymeric materials in the near future. There is countless number of areas where biodegradable polymers could be used. The areas of medicine, industry and agriculture require eco-friendly materials and it has become a necessity to use biodegradable polymers. Biopolymers have the ability to control the liberation of carbon-dioxide during formation and decompose to organic matter after disposal. The field of bioimaging provides opportunities to improve cancer therapy. Imaging probes are used to visualise cancerous tissue to improve the chances of an early diagnosis. The current progress in this technique enables individual monitoring of patients but the implementation of this technique on a clinical level is still under debate. The incorporation of polymeric materials into these bioimaging probes (4, 8) has increased its efficiency. Effective drug delivery methods have been employed in combinations with polymeric materials. These were also recognised as effective carriers of viral DNA. Polymeric nanomedicines (4) are practical tools to the conservative form of chemotherapy. Furthermore, nanotechnology and polymer science together may lead to the development of a nano drug that could potentially eradicate cancereous tissues (11). A perfect example of a polymer used in nanomedicine is polyethylene glycol that has the ability to reach specific target sites (23). The use of polymers is an everyday approach. They are a part of this vicious cycle called life be it the environment, the industry or in areas of research. Societys recent notions on responsibility to the environment makes this is the principle period for the progress of biopolymers.

7. REFERENCES 1 Mark JE, Polymer Data Handbook, ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1999. 2 Scott G, Doi Y, Fukuda K. Biodegradable plastics and polymers. Elsevier 1994; 79-91. 3 Scott G. Green polymers. Polymer Degradation and Stability. 2000; 68:1-7. 4 Kopeck J. Polymer conjugates for cancer therapy. Advanced drug delivery reviews. 2002; 54: 611. 5 Kataoka K, Kwon GS, Yokoyama T et al. Block copolymer micelles as vehicles for drug delivery. J. Control Release. 1993; 24: 119-132. 6 El-Amin S, Attawia M, Lu H t al. Integrin expression by human osteoblasts cultured on degradable polymeric applications for tissue engineered bone. Journal of Orthopaedic Research. 2002; 20: 20-28. 7 Kim JH, Park K, Nam H et al. Polymers for bioimaging. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2007; 32: 10311053. 8 Vita T. Agriculture: with solarisation, heres no need for fumigants. Focus on Polyvinyl chloride. 2002; 43:70-71. 9 Chandra R and Rustgi R. Biodegradable polymers: Progress in polymer science. 1998; 23: 1273-1335. 10 Song L, Liang D, Chen Z et al. DNA sequencing by capillary electrophoresis using mixtures of polyacrylamide and poly (N,N-dimethylacrylamide). J. of Chromatography. 2001; 915: 213-239. 11 Ferrari M. Cancer nanotechnology: opportunities and challenges. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2005; 5: 161-171.

12 Duncan R. Dawning era of polymer therapeutics. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2003; 2: 347360. 13 Bucci DZ, Tavares LB, Sell T. PHB packaging for the storage of food producs. Polymer testing. 2005; 24: 564-571. 14 Iwakura C, Nohara S, Furukuwa N. The possible use of polymer gel electrolytes in nickel/ metal hydride battery. Solid State ionics. 2002; 148: 487-492. 15 Saluzzo C, Halle R, Touchard F et al. Recent progress in asymmetric heterogeneous catalysis: use of polymeric supported catalysis. J of organomettalic chemistry. 2000; 603: 3039. 16 Rossi D, Santa A, Mazzoldi A. Dressware: Wearable hardware. Material Science and Engneering. 1999; 7: 31-35. 17 Gupta S, Isaacs J. Value analysis of disposal strategies for automobiles. Comp. And Ind. Eng. 1997; 33: 325-328. 18 Dunn R, Swan R, Mules T. Failure of plastic press release buttons in automobile seat belts. Engineering Failure Analysis. 2005; 12:81-98. 19 Zhou H, Miller A, Sosic Z et al. Anal. Chem. 2000; 72: 1045. 20 Madabhushi RS, Electrphresis. 1998; 19:224. 21 Szleifer I, Rozen R. Polymer and Carbon nanotubes-dimensionality, interactions and nanotechnology. Polymer. 2005; 46: 7803-781. 22 Valentini L, Biagiotti J, Kenny JM et al. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2002; 87: 708-713.

23 Hu F, Meng P, Dai Y et al. PEGylated chitosan based polymeric micelle as an intracellular delivery carrier for anti-tumor targeting therapy. European Journal of Pharmaceuticals and Biopharmaeuticals. 2008; 70: 749-757. www.jlab.org www. people.bu.edu www.3dchem.com