PROBLEMS

3.1 Assume that the fuel inputs in MBtu per hour for units 1 and 2, which are both
on-line, are given by

𝐻1 = 8𝑃1 + 0.024𝑃12 + 80
𝐻2 = 6𝑃2 + 0.04𝑃22 + 120
where
H n =fuel input to unit in MBtu per hour (millions of Btu per hour)
Pn= unit output in megawatts

a. Plot the input–output characteristics for each unit expressing input in MBtu per hour
and output in megawatts. Assume that the minimum loading of each unit is 20 MW and
that the maximum loading is 100 MW.

b. Calculate the net heat rate in Btu per kilowatt-hour, and plot against output in
megawatts.
c. Assume that the cost of fuel is 1.5 $ /MBtu. Calculate the incremental production cost
in $ /MWh of each unit, and plot against output in megawatts.

3.2 Dispatch with Three-Segment Piecewise Linear Incremental Heat Rate

Function

Given: two generating units with incremental heat rate (IHR) curves specified
as three connected line segments (four points as shown in Figure 3.30).
Unit 1:

Unit 2:
Both units are running. Calculate the optimum schedule (i.e., the unit megawatt output
for each unit) for various total megawatt values to be supplied by the units. Find the
schedule for these total megawatt values:
300 MW, 500 MW, 700 MW, 840 MW

Notes: Piecewise linear increment cost curves are quite common in digital computer
executions of economic dispatch. The problem is best solved by using a “search”
technique. In such a technique, the incremental cost is given a value and the units are
scheduled to meet this incremental cost. The megawatt outputs for the units are added
together and compared to the desired total. Depending on the difference, and whether
the resulting total is above or below the desired total, a new value of incremental cost is
“tried.” This is repeated until the incremental cost is found that gives the correct desired
value. The trick is to search in an efficient manner so that the number of iterations is
minimized.

3.3 Assume the system load served by the two units of Problem 3.1 varies from 50 to
200 MW. For the data of Problem 3.1, plot the outputs of units 1 and 2 as a function of
total system load when scheduling generation by equal incremental production costs.
Assume that both units are operating.

3.4 As an exercise, obtain the optimum loading of the two generating units in Problem
3.1 using the following technique. The two units are to deliver 100 MW. Assume both
units are on-line and delivering power. Plot the total fuel cost for 100 MW of delivered
power as generation is shifted from one unit to the other. Find the minimum cost. The
optimum schedule should check with the schedule obtained by equal incremental
production costs.
3.5 This problem demonstrates the complexity involved when we must commit (turn on)
generating units, as well as dispatch them economically. This problem is known as the
unit commitment problem and is the subject of Chapter 4.

Given the two generating units in Problem 3.1, assume that they are both off-line at the
start. Also, assume that load starts at 50 MW and increases to 200 MW. The most
economic schedule to supply this varying load will require committing one unit first,
followed by commitment of the second unit when the load reaches a higher level.
Determine which unit to commit first and at what load the remaining unit should be
committed. Assume no “start-up” costs for either unit.

3.6 The system to be studied consists of two units as described in Problem 3.1.
Assume a daily load cycle as follows.

Also, assume that a cost of 180$ is incurred in taking either unit off-line and returning it
to service after 12 h. Consider the 24-h period from 0600 one morning to 0600 the next
morning.

a. Would it be more economical to keep both units in service for this 24-h period or to
remove one of the units from service for the 12-h period from 1800 one evening to
0600 the next morning?
b. What is the economic schedule for the period of time from 0600 to 1800 (load = 150
MW)?
c. What is the economic schedule for the period of time from 1800 to 0600 (load = 50
MW)?

3.7 Economic Dispatch Using Different Methods of Solution

Assume that all three of the thermal units described next are running. Find the
economic dispatch schedules as requested in each part. Use the method and starting
conditions given.
a. Use the lambda iteration method to find the economic dispatch for a total demand of
450 MW.
b. Use the base-point and participation factor method to find the economic schedule for
a demand of 495 MW. Start from the solution to part a.
c. Use a gradient method to find the economic schedule for a total demand of 500 MW,
assuming the initial conditions (i.e., loadings) on the three units are
P1 = P3 = 100 MW and P2 = 300 MW
Give the individual unit loadings and cost per hour, as well as the total cost per hour to
supply each load level: (MBtu = millions of Btu; Hj = heat input in Btu/h; Pi = electric
power output in MW; i =1,2,3).

3.8 Thermal Scheduling with Straight-Line Segments for Input–Output Curves

The following data apply to three thermal units. Compute and sketch the input– output
characteristics and the IHR characteristics. Assume the unit input–output curves
consist of straight-line segments between the given power points.
Fuel costs are

Compute the economic schedule for system demands of 300, 460, 500, and 650 MW,
assuming all three units are on-line. Give unit loadings and costs per hour as well as
total costs in $ per hour.

3.9 Environmental Dispatch

Recently, there has been concern that optimum economic dispatch was not the best
environmentally. The principles of economic dispatch can fairly easily be extended to
handle this problem. The following is a problem based on a real situation that occurred
in the Midwestern United States in 1973. Other cases have arisen with “NOx” emission
in Los Angeles.Two steam units have input– output curves as follows:

𝐻1 = 400 + 5𝑃1 + 0.01𝑃12 , 𝑀𝐵𝑡𝑢⁄ℎ , 20 ≤ 𝑃1 ≤ 200 𝑀𝑊

𝐻2 = 600 + 4𝑃2 + 0.015𝑃22 , 𝑀𝐵𝑡𝑢⁄ℎ , 20 ≤ 𝑃2 ≤ 200 𝑀𝑊

The units each burn coal with a heat content of 11,500 Btu/lb that costs $13.50t (2,000
lb). The combustion process in each unit results in 11.75% of the coal by weight going
up the stack as fly ash.
a. Calculate the net heat rates of both units at 200 MW.
b. Calculate the IHRs; schedule each unit for optimum economy to serve a total load of
250 MW with both units on-line.
c. Calculate the cost of supplying that load.
d. Calculate the rate of emission of fly ash for that case in pounds (lb) per hour,
assuming no fly ash removal devices are in service.
e. Unit 1 has a precipitator installed that removes 85% of the fly ash; unit 2’s
precipitator is 89% efficient. Reschedule the two units for the minimum total fly ash
emission rate with both on-line to serve a 250-MW load.
f. Calculate the rate of emission of ash and the cost for this schedule to serve the 250-
MW load. What is the cost penalty?
g. Where does all that fly ash go?

3.10 Take the generation data shown in Example 3A. Ignore the generation limits and
solve for the economic dispatch using the gradient method and Newton’s method.
Solve for a total generation of 900 MW in each case.
3.11 You have been assigned the job of building an oil pipeline from the West Coast of
the United States to the East Coast. You are told that any one of the three West Coast
sites is satisfactory and any of the three East Coast sites is satisfactory. The numbers
in Figure 3.31 represent relative cost in hundreds of millions ($ × 108). Find the
cheapest West Coast to East Coast pipeline.

3.12 The Stagecoach Problem

A mythical salesman who had to travel west by stagecoach, through unfriendly country,
wished to take the safest route. His starting point and destination were fixed, but he
had considerable choice as to which states he would travel through en route. The
possible stagecoach routes are shown in Figure 3.32. After some thought, the
salesman deduced a clever way of determining his safest route. Life insurance policies
were offered to passengers, and since the cost of each policy was based on a careful
evaluation of the safety of that run, the safest route should be the one with the
cheapest policy. The cost of the standard policy on the stagecoach run from state i to
state j, denoted as Cij, is given in Figure 3.33. Find the safest path(s) for the salesman
to take.
3.13 Economic Dispatch Problem
Consider three generating units that do not have convex input–output functions. (This
is the type of problem one encounters when considering valve points in the dispatch
problem.)
Unit 1:

80 + 8𝑃1 + 0.024𝑃12 , 20 ≤ 𝑃1 ≤ 60 𝑀𝑊
𝐻1 (𝑃1 ) {
196.4 + 3𝑃1 + 0.075𝑃12 , 60 ≤ 𝑃1 ≤ 100 𝑀𝑊

Generation limits are 20 MW ≤ P1 ≤ 100 MW.

Unit 2:

120 + 6𝑃2 + 0.004𝑃22 , 20 ≤ 𝑃2 ≤ 40 𝑀𝑊

𝐻2 (𝑃2 ) {
157.335 + 3.3333𝑃1 + 0.08333𝑃12 , 40 ≤ 𝑃2 ≤ 100 𝑀𝑊

Generation limits are 20 MW ≤ P2 ≤ 100 MW.

Unit 3:

100 + 4.6666𝑃3 + 0.13333𝑃32 , 20 ≤ 𝑃3 ≤ 50 𝑀𝑊

𝐻3 (𝑃3 ) {
316.66 + 2𝑃3 + 0.1𝑃32 , 50 ≤ 𝑃3 ≤ 100 𝑀𝑊

Generation limits are 3 20 MW ≤ P ≤ 100 MW. Fuel costs = 1.5 $/MBtu for all units.
a. Plot the cost function for each unit (see Problem 3.1).
b. Plot the incremental cost function for each unit.
c. Find the most economical dispatch for the following total demands assuming all units
are on-line:
PD=100 MW
PD=140 MW
PD=180 MW
PD=220 MW
PD=260 MW
where
PD = P1 + P2 + P3
Solve using DP and discrete load steps of 20 MW, starting at 20 MW through 100 MW
for each unit.
d. Can you solve these dispatch problems without DP? If you think you know how, try
solving for PD = 100 MW.

3.14 Composite Generating Cost Function

Refer to Example 3F, where three generating units are combined into a single
composite generating unit. Repeat the example, except develop an equivalent
incremental cost characteristic using only the incremental characteristics of the three
units. Using this composite incremental characteristic plus the zeroload intercept costs
of the three units, develop the total cost characteristic of the composite. (Suggestion:
Fit the composite incremental cost data points using a linear approximation and a least-
squares fitting algorithm.)

3.15 Refer to Problem 3.8, where three generator units have input–output curves
specified as a series of straight-line segments. Can you develop a composite input–
output curve for the three units? Assume all three units are on-line and that the
composite input–output curve has as many linear segments as needed.

3.16 Given: the two generating units in the following with piecewise linear cost
functions F(P) as shown.
Unit 1:
Unit 2:

Find the optimum generation schedule for a total power delivery of 350 MW (assume
both generators are on-line).

3.17 Given: two generator units with piecewise linear incremental cost functions as
shown.
Unit 1:

Unit 2:

Find the optimum schedule for a total power delivery of 500 MW.
9.10. In a power plant, the power loss coefficients for the two power generation units
are 𝐿1 = $1.5/MW , 𝐿2 = $1.8/MW .
Calculate the total generation of the units if Lagrange Multiplier (λ) is about $300/MWh,
and the generation cost functions of the units are as follows:

2
𝐶 = 0.2𝑃𝐺1 + 100𝑃𝐺1 + 5500
{ 1 2
𝐶2 = 0.1𝑃𝐺2 + 100𝑃𝐺1 + 4000

Difficulty level ○ Easy ● Normal ○ Hard

Calculation amount ○ Small ● Normal ○ Large
1) 250 MW
2) 583.3 MW
3) 425.5 MW
4) 720 MW

10.10. Based on the information given in the problem, we have:

𝐿1 = $1.5/MW , 𝐿2 = $1.8/MW

𝜆 = $300/MW

2
𝐶 = 0.2𝑃𝐺1 + 100𝑃𝐺1 + 5500
{ 1 2
𝐶2 = 0.1𝑃𝐺2 + 100𝑃𝐺2 + 4000

If power loss exists in a power generation system, the conditions to have an economic
load dispatch are as follows:

𝜕𝐶1 𝜕𝐶2
𝜆 = 𝐿1 = 𝐿2
𝜕𝑃𝐺1 𝜕𝑃𝐺2

Solving (1)–(5):

300 = 1.5(0.4𝑃𝐺1 + 100) = 1.8(0.2𝑃𝐺1 + 100)

300 = 1.5(0.4𝑃𝐺1 + 100) → 0.4𝑃𝐺1 + 100 = 200 → 𝑃𝐺1 = 250 𝑀𝑊

→{
300 = 1.8(0.2𝑃𝐺2 + 100) → 0.2𝑃𝐺2 + 100 = 166 → 𝑃𝐺2 = 333.3𝑀𝑊
 𝑃𝐺𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 = 250 + 333.3 = 583.3 𝑀𝑊

Choice (2) is the answer

9.11. In a power plant, the generation cost functions of the units are as follows:

2
𝐶1 = 0.0075𝑃𝐺1 + 50𝑃𝐺1 + 1000
{ 2
𝐶2 = 0.005𝑃𝐺2 + 45𝑃𝐺1 + 3000

Solve the economic load dispatch problem for the load demand of 1000 MW.
Difficulty level ○ Easy ● Normal ○ Hard
Calculation amount ○ Small ● Normal ○ Large
1) PG1 ¼ 900 MW, PG2 ¼ 100 MW
2) PG1 ¼ 750 MW, PG2 ¼ 250 MW
3) PG1 ¼ 600 MW, PG2 ¼ 400 MW
4) PG1 ¼ 200 MW, PG2 ¼ 800 MW

10.11. Based on the information given in the problem, we have:

𝑃𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1000 MW

2
𝐶1 = 0.0075𝑃𝐺1 + 50𝑃𝐺1 + 1000
{ 2
𝐶2 = 0.005𝑃𝐺2 + 45𝑃𝐺1 + 3000

If power generation system is lossless, the conditions to have an economic load

dispatch are as follows:

𝜕𝐶1 𝜕𝐶2
𝜆 = 𝐿1 = 𝐿2
𝜕𝑃𝐺1 𝜕𝑃𝐺2

Solving (2)–(4):

0.015𝑃𝐺1 + 50 = 0.01𝑃2 + 45 → 0.015𝑃𝐺1 − 0.01𝑃2 = −5

Using (1) and considering the fact that the total power generation must be equal to the
total load demand, we can write:

𝑃𝐺𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 = 1000 𝑀𝑊

Solving (5) and (6):

𝑃𝐺1 = 200𝑀𝑊 , 𝑃𝐺2 = 800 𝑀𝑊

Choice (4) is the answer

9.12. In a power plant, the generation cost functions of the units are as follows:

2
𝐶 = 0.05𝑃𝐺1 + 50𝑃𝐺1 + 1500
{ 1 2
𝐶2 = 0.075𝑃𝐺2 + 40𝑃𝐺1 + 2000

Solve the economic load dispatch problem for the total load of 1400 MW.
Difficulty level ○ Easy ● Normal ○ Hard
Calculation amount ○ Small ● Normal ○ Large
1) PG1 ¼ 400 MW, PG2 ¼ 1000 MW
2) PG1 ¼ 500 MW, PG2 ¼ 900 MW
3) PG1 ¼ 800 MW, PG2 ¼ 600 MW
4) PG1 ¼ 700 MW, PG2 ¼ 700 MW

10.12. Based on the information given in the problem, we have:

𝑃𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1400 MW

2
𝐶 = 0.05𝑃𝐺1 + 50𝑃𝐺1 + 1500
{ 1 2
𝐶2 = 0.075𝑃𝐺2 + 40𝑃𝐺1 + 2000

If power generation system is lossless, the conditions to have an economic load

dispatch are as follows:

𝜕𝐶1 𝜕𝐶2
𝜆 = 𝐿1 = 𝐿2
𝜕𝑃𝐺1 𝜕𝑃𝐺2
Solving (2)–(4):

0.1𝑃𝐺1 + 50 = 0.15𝑃2 + 40 → 0.1𝑃𝐺1 − 0.15𝑃2 = −10

Using (1) and considering the fact that the total power generation must be equal to the
total load demand, we can write:

𝑃𝐺𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 = 1400 𝑀𝑊

Solving (5) and (6):

𝑃𝐺1 = 800𝑀𝑊 , 𝑃𝐺2 = 600 𝑀𝑊

Choice (3) is the answer

9.13. In a power plant, the generation cost functions of the units are as follows:

2
𝐶 = 135𝑃𝐺1 + 100000𝑃𝐺1
{ 1 2
𝐶2 = 115𝑃𝐺2 + 85000𝑃𝐺1

Solve the economic load dispatch problem for the total load of 1000 MW.
Difficulty level ○ Easy ● Normal ○ Hard
Calculation amount ○ Small ● Normal ○ Large

1) PG1 ¼ 430 MW, PG2 ¼ 570 MW

2) PG1 ¼ 570 MW, PG2 ¼ 430 MW
3) PG1 ¼ 500 MW, PG2 ¼ 500 MW
4) PG1 ¼ 536 MW, PG2 ¼ 464 MW

10.13. Based on the information given in the problem, we have:

𝑃𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1000 MW

2
𝐶 = 1355𝑃𝐺1 + 100000𝑃𝐺1
{ 1 2
𝐶2 = 115𝑃𝐺2 + 85000𝑃𝐺2
If power generation system is lossless, the conditions to have an economic load
dispatch are as follows:

𝜕𝐶1 𝜕𝐶2
𝜆 = 𝐿1 = 𝐿2
𝜕𝑃𝐺1 𝜕𝑃𝐺2

Solving (2)–(4):

270𝑃𝐺1 + 100000 = 230𝑃2 + 85000 → 270𝑃𝐺1 − 230𝑃2 = −15000

Using (1) and considering the fact that the total power generation must be equal to the
total load demand, we can write:

𝑃𝐺𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 = 1000 𝑀𝑊

Solving (5) and (6):

𝑃𝐺1 = 430𝑀𝑊 , 𝑃𝐺2 = 570 𝑀𝑊

Choice (3) is the answer