Research Methods in Management

Unit-1
What is Research?

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or research

problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie,
“research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the
observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research, and
deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis

What are the characteristics of research?

1. Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers

need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing
conclusions.
2. The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
3. Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies
associated with it.
5. It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more
research opportunities.
6. It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in
inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be
accurate and correct. For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to
collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of
instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.

.
Research is conducted with a purpose to:

 Identify potential and new customers

 Understand existing customers
 Set pragmatic goals
 Develop productive market strategies
 Address business challenges
 Put together a business expansion plan
 Identify new business opportunities

What are the characteristics of research?

1. Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers

need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing
conclusions.
2. The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
3. Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies
associated with it.
5. It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more
research opportunities.
6. It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in
inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be
accurate and correct. For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to
collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of
instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.

Research Concepts

Whether or not a particular discipline, such as psychology, is a science has more to do

with the methods used than with the particular subject area studied. An area of inquiry is a
scientific discipline if its investigators use the scientific method—a systematic approach to
researching questions and problems through objective and accurate observation, collection
and analysis of data, direct experimentation, and replication of these procedures. Scientists
emphasize the importance of gathering information carefully and accurately, and researchers
strive to remain unbiased when evaluating information, observing phenomena, conducting
experiments, and recording procedures and results. Researchers also recognize the value of
skepticism and the necessity of having their findings confirmed by other scientists.

Developmental psychology research is the scientific means of acquiring information about

groups and individuals regarding various aspects of human development. A developmental
psychologist begins a research study after developing ideas from a theory, or an integrated
set of statements, that explain various phenomena. Because a theory is too general to test, the
investigator devises a hypothesis—a testable prediction—from the theory and tests the
hypothesis instead of a general theory. The results of the research study either disprove or do
not disprove the hypothesis. If the hypothesis is disproved, it cannot be used to make
predictions, and the investigator must question the accuracy of the theory. If the hypothesis is
not disproved, the scientist can use it to make predictions about the phenomena that he or she
is studying. These predictions may help scientists do one of the following:

 Form explanations of the causes of the phenomena.

 Draw conclusions about how the phenomena will affect groups and individuals.

A goal of developmental research is to discover the developmental similarities, differences,

patterns, and trends of the population group that is under investigation. A population is a
body of persons having qualities or characteristics in common. Members of a population who
participate in a study are referred to as subjects or respondents. When the characteristics of
a portion of the population are representative of the characteristics of the entire population,
scientists can apply, or generalize, their findings from the sample to the population as a
whole. The best and most representative sample is a random sample, in which each member
of a population has an equal chance of being chosen as a subject.

In quantitative research, information is collected from respondents (for example, the

number of years that they have been in college) and converted into numbers (junior equals 3;
senior equals 4). In qualitative research, information collected from respondents takes the
form of verbal descriptions or direct observations of events. Although verbal descriptions and
observations are useful, many scientists prefer quantitative data for purposes of analysis.

When information is collected through a test, researchers try to ensure that the test is

 Valid: Measures what it purports to measure.

 Reliable: Provides consistent results when administered on different occasions.

To analyze data, scientists use mathematical procedures known as statistics to describe and
draw inferences from data. Two types of statistics are most common:

 Inferential: used for making predictions about the population.

 Descriptive: used for describing the characteristics of the population and subjects.
Scientists use both types of statistics to draw general conclusions about their
population and sample.

Types of Research Methods

An area is selected, a specific hypothesis is determined and a defined conclusion is required

to be achieved. But how is this conclusion reached? What is the approach that can be taken

up? As per CR Kothari’s book “Research Methodology Methods and Techniques” (The

Second Revised Edition), the basic types of Research Methods are the following :
 1.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research is a form of research that incorporates surveys as well as different

varieties of fact-finding investigations. This form of research is focused on describing

the prevailing state of affairs as they are. Descriptive Research is also termed as Ex

post facto research.

This research form emphasises on factual reporting, the researcher cannot control the

involved variables and can only report the details as they took place or as they are

taking place.

Researchers mainly make use of a descriptive research approach for purposes such as

when the research is aimed at deciphering characteristics, frequencies or trends.

Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they
cannot control the variables. The descriptive research methods are mainly, observations,
surveys as well as case studies.
 2. Analytical Research

Analytical Research is a form of research where the researcher has to make do with the

data and factual information available at their behest and interpret this information to

undertake an acute evaluation of the data.

This form of research is often undertaken by researchers to uncover some evidence that

supports their present research and which makes it more authentic. It is also undertaken

for concocting fresh ideas relating to the topic on which the research is based.

From conducting meta analysis, literary research or scientific trials and learning public

opinion, there are many methods through which this research is done.

3. Applied Research

When a business or say, the society is faced with an issue that needs an immediate

solution or resolution, Applied Research is the research type that comes to the rescue.

We primarily make use of Applied Research when it comes to resolving the issues

plaguing our daily lives, impacting our work, health or welfare. This research type is

undertaken to uncover solutions for issues relating to varying sectors like education,

engineering, psychology or business.

For instance, a company might employ an applied researcher for concluding the best
possible approach of selecting employees that would be the best fit for specific

positions in the company.

The crux of Applied Research is to figure out the solution to a certain growing practical

issue.

The 3 Types of Applied Research are mainly

1. Evaluation Research - Research where prevailing data regarding the topic is

interpreted to arrive at proper decisions

2. Research and Development - Where the focus is on setting up fresh products or

services which focus on the target market requirements

3. Action Research - Which aims at offering practical solutions for certain business

issues by giving them proper direction, are the 3 types of Applied Research.

4. Fundamental Research

This is a Research type that is primarily concerned with formulating a theory or

understanding a particular natural phenomenon. Fundamental Research aims to

discover information with an extensive application base, supplementing the existing

concepts in a certain field or industry.

Research on pure mathematics or research regarding generalisation of the behavior of

humans are also examples of Fundamental Research. This form of research is mainly

carried out in sectors like Education, Psychology and Science.

For instance, in Psychology fundamental research assists the individual or the company

in gaining better insights regarding certain behaviors such as deciphering how

consumption of caffeine can possibly impact the attention span of a student or how

culture stereotypes can possibly trigger depression.

5. Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research, as the name suggests, is based on the measurement of a

particular amount or quantity of a particular phenomenon. It focuses on gathering and

interpreting numerical data and can be adopted for discovering any averages or patterns

or for making predictions.

 This form of Research is number based and it lies under the two main Research Types.

It makes use of tables, data and graphs to reach a conclusion. The outcomes generated

from this research are measurable and can be repeated unlike the outcomes of

qualitative research. This research type is mainly adopted for scientific and field based

research.

Quantitative research generally involves a large number of people and a huge section

of data and has a lot of scope for accuracy in it.

These research methods can be adopted for approaches like descriptive, correlational

or experimental research.

Descriptive research - The study variables are analyzed and a summary of the same is

seeked.

Correlational Research - The relationship between the study variables is analyzed.

Experimental Research - It is deciphered to analyse whether a cause and effect

relationship between the variables exists.

Quantitative research methods

 Experiment Research - This method controls or manages independent variables for

calculating the effect it has on dependent variables.

 Survey - Surveys involve inquiring questions from a certain specified number or set of
people either online, face to face or over the phone.

 (Systematic) observation - This method involves detecting any occurrence and

monitoring it in a natural setting.
 Secondary research : This research focuses on making use of data which has been
previously collected for other purposes such as for say, a national survey.

6. Qualitative Research

As the name suggests, this form of Research is more considered with the quality of a

certain phenomenon, it dives into the “why” alongside the “what”. For instance, let’s

consider a gender neutral clothing store which has more women visiting it than men.

Qualitative research would be determining why men are not visiting the store by

carrying out an in-depth interview of some potential customers in this category.

This form of research is interested in getting to the bottom of the reasons for human

behaviour, i.e understanding why certain actions are taken by people or why they think

certain thoughts.

Through this research the factors influencing people into behaving in a certain way or
which control their preferences towards a certain thing can be interpreted.

An example of Qualitative Research would be Motivation Research. This research

focuses on deciphering the rooted motives or desires through intricate methods like in

depth interviews. It involves several tests like story completion or word association.

Another example would be Opinion Research. This type of research is carried out to

discover the opinion and perspective of people regarding a certain subject or

phenomenon.
 This is a theory based form of research and it works by describing an issue by taking

into account the prior concepts, ideas and studies. The experience of the researcher

plays an integral role here.

The Types of Qualitative Research includes the following methods :

Qualitative research methods

 Observations: In this method what the researcher sees, hears of or encounters is

recorded in detail.

 Interviews: Personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.

 Focus groups: This involves asking questions and discussions among a group of
people to generate conclusions from the same.

 Surveys: In these surveys unlike the quantitative research surveys, the questionnaires
involve extensive open ended questions that require elaborate answers.

 Secondary research: Gathering the existing data such as images, texts or audio or
video recordings. This can involve a text analysis, a research of a case study, or an In-
depth interview.

7. Conceptual Research

This research is related to an abstract idea or a theory. It is adopted by thinkers and

philosophers with the aim of developing a new concept or to re-examine the existing

concepts.
 Conceptual Research is mainly defined as a methodology in which the research is

conducted by observing and interpreting the already present information on a present

topic. It does not include carrying out any practical experiments.

This methodology has often been adopted by famous Philosophers like Aristotle,

Copernicus, Einstein and Newton for developing fresh theories and insights regarding

the working of the world and for examining the existing ones from a different

perspective.

The concepts were set up by philosophers to observe their environment and to sort,

study, and summarise the information available.

8. Empirical Research

This is a research method that focuses solely on aspects like observation and

experience, without focusing on the theory or system. It is based on data and it can

churn conclusions that can be confirmed or verified through observation and

experiment. Empirical Research is mainly undertaken to determine proof that certain

variables are affecting the others in a particular way.

This kind of research can also be termed as Experimental Research. In this research it

is essential that all the facts are received firsthand, directly from the source so that the

researcher can actively go and carry out the actions and manipulate the concerned

materials to gain the information he requires.

In this research a hypothesis is generated and then a path is undertaken to confirm or

invalidate this hypothesis. The control that the researcher holds over the involved
 variables defines this research. The researcher can manipulate one of these variables to

examine its effect.

Other Types of Research

All research types apart from the ones stated above are mainly variations of them, either in

terms of research purpose or in the terms of the time that is required for accomplishing the

research, or say, the research environment.

If we take the perspective of time, research can be considered as either One-time research or

Longitudinal Research.

 One time Research : The research is restricted to a single time period.

 Longitudinal Research : The research is executed over multiple time periods.

A research can also be set in a field or a laboratory or be a simulation, it depends on the

environment that the research is based on.

We’ve also got Historical Research which makes use of historical sources such as documents

and remains for examining past events and ideas. This also includes the philosophy of an

individual and groups at a particular time.

Research may be clinical or diagnostic. These kinds of research generally carry out case

study or in-depth interview approaches to determine basic causal relationships.

Research can also be Exploratory or Formalized.

 Exploratory Research: This is a research that is more focused on establishing hypotheses

than on deriving the result. This form of Research focuses on understanding the prevailing

issue but it doesn’t really offer defining results.

 Formalized research: This is a research that has a solid structure and which also has specific

hypotheses for testing.

We can also classify Research as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented.

 Conclusion Oriented Research: In this form of research, the researcher can select an issue,

revamp the enquiry as he continues and visualize it as per his requirements.

 Decision-oriented research: This research depends on the requirement of the decision maker

and offers less freedom to the research to conduct it as he pleases.

The common and well known research methods have been listed in this blog. Hopefully this

blog will give the readers and present and future researchers proper knowledge regarding

important methods they can adopt to conduct their Research.

Research Process: 8 Steps in Research Process

The research process starts with identifying a research problem and conducting a
literature review to understand the context. The researcher sets research questions,
objectives, and hypotheses based on the research problem.

A research study design is f

A research study design is formed to select a sample size and collects data from it. After
processing and analyzing the collected data, and the research findings presented in a
research report.

8 steps in the research process are;

1. Identifying the Research Problem

2. Reviewing of Literature
3. Setting Research Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses
4. Choosing the Study Design
5. Deciding on the Sample Design
6. Collecting Data From The Research Sample
7. Process and Analyze the Collected Research Data
8. Writing Research Report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report, Disseminating
and Utilizing Results

What is Research Process?

There are a variety of approaches to research in any field of investigation, irrespective of
whether it is applied research or basic research. Each research study will be unique in some
ways because of the particular time, setting, environment, and place it is being undertaken.

Step #1: Identifying the Research Problem

ntuitively, researchable problems are those that have a possibility of thorough verification
investigation, which can be effected through the analysis and collection of data. In contrast,
the non-research problems do not need to go through these processes.

Researchers need to identify both;

1. Non-Research Problems
2. Research Problem
1. Statement of the Problem
2. Justifying the Problem
3. Analyzing the Problem

Non-Research Problems

A non-research problem does not require any research to arrive at a solution. Intuitively, a
non-researchable problem consists of vague details and cannot be resolved through research.

It is a managerial or built-in problem that may be solved at the administrative or management

level. The answer to any question raised in a non-research setting is almost always obvious.

The cholera outbreak, for example, following a severe flood, is a common phenomenon in
many communities. The reason for this is known. It is thus not a research problem.

Step #2: Reviewing of Literature

A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables the
researcher to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his
interest that has not been researched so far.

Such a review provides exposure to a larger body of knowledge and equips him with
enhanced knowledge to efficiently follow the research process.

Through a proper review of the literature, the researcher may develop the coherence between
the results of his study and those of the others.
A review of previous documents on similar or related phenomena is essential even for
beginning researchers.

Step #3: Setting Research Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal
statement of the problem leading to research objectives.

An objective will precisely say what should be researched, delineate the type of information
that should be collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the study. A well-
formulated, testable research hypothesis is the best expression of a research objective.

A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or supported by

empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research question.

Step #4: Choosing the Study Design

The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering
research questions.

It is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting, processing, and
analyzing the collected data. There are four basic research designs that a researcher can use to
conduct their study;

1. survey,
2. experiment,
3. secondary data study, and
4. observational study.

The type of research design to be chosen from among the above four methods depends
primarily on four factors

 The type of problem

 The objectives of the study,
 The existing state of knowledge about the problem that is being studied, and
 The resources are available for the study.

Step #5: Deciding on the Sample Design

Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of
sampling is that it involves any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or
portions (called a sample) of a universe (called population) to conclude the whole
population.
It contrasts with the process of complete enumeration, in which every member of the
population is included.

Such a complete enumeration is referred to as a census.

A population is the total collection of elements we wish to make some inference or

generalization.

A population is the total collection of elements we wish to make some inference or

generalization.

A sample is a part of the population, carefully selected to represent that population. If certain
statistical procedures are followed in selecting the sample, it should have the same
characteristics as the population. These procedures are embedded in the sample design.

Sample design refers to the methods followed in selecting a sample from the population and
the estimating technique vis-a-vis the formula for computing the sample statistics.

The fundamental question is, then, how to select a sample.

To answer this question, we must have acquaintance with the sampling methods.

These methods are basically of two types;

 probability sampling, and

 non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling ensures every unit has a known nonzero probability of selection within
the target population.

If there is no feasible alternative, a non-probability sampling method may be

Step #6: Collecting Data From The Research Sample

Data gathering may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey in any defined
population. There are many ways to collect data. The approach selected depends on the
objectives of the study, the research design, and the availability of time, money, and
personnel.

With the variation in the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) to be collected, the method
of data collection also varies.
The most common means for collecting quantitative data is the structured interview.

The most common means for collecting quantitative data is the structured interview.

Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called surveys. Data can also be
collected by using self-administered questionnaires. Telephone interviewing is another
way in which data may be collected.

Other means of data collection include secondary sources, such as the census, vital
registration records, official documents, previous surveys, etc.

Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions,
Key Informant Interview (KII), and observational studies.

Step #7: Process and Analyze the Collected Research Data

Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data. Data are edited to
ensure consistency across respondents and to locate omissions if any.

In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies
unclear and inappropriate responses. In addition to editing, the data also need coding.

Because it is impractical to place raw data into a report, alphanumeric codes are used to
reduce the responses to a more manageable form for storage and future processing.

This coding process facilitates the processing of the data. The personal computer offers an
excellent opportunity for data editing and coding processes.

Step #8: Writing Research Report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report,
Disseminating and Utilizing Results

The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called a proposal or research
proposal.

A research proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, offer, and a statement of intent or
commitment from an individual researcher or an organization to produce a product or render
a service to a potential client or sponsor.

The proposal will be prepared to keep the sequence presented in the research process. The
proposal tells us what, how, where, and to whom it will be done.
A report is an excellent means that helps to establish the researcher’s credibility. At a bare
minimum, a research report should contain sections on:

 An executive summary;
 Background of the problem;
 Literature review;
 Methodology;
 Findings;
 Discussion;
 Conclusions and
 Recommendations.

A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables the
researcher to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his
interest that has not been researched so far.Such a review provides exposure to a larger body
of knowledge and equips him with enhanced knowledge to efficiently follow the research
process.Through a proper review of the literature, the researcher may develop the coherence
between the results of his study and those of the others.A review of previous documents on
similar or related phenomena is essential even for beginning researchers.Ignoring the existing
literature may lead to wasted effort on the part of the researchers.

Why spend time merely repeating what other investigators have already done?

Suppose the researcher is aware of earlier studies of his topic or related topics. In that case,
he will be in a much better position to assess his work’s significance and convince others that
it is important.

A confident and expert researcher is more crucial in questioning the others’ methodology, the
choice of the data, and the quality of the inferences drawn from the study results.

In sum, we enumerate the following arguments in favor of reviewing the literature:

 It avoids duplication of the work that has been done in the recent past.
 It helps the researcher discover what others have learned and reported on the problem.
 It enables the researcher to become familiar with the methodology followed by others.
 It allows the researcher to understand what concepts and theories are relevant to his
area of investigation.
 It helps the researcher to understand if there are any significant controversies,
contradictions, and inconsistencies in the findings.
 It allows the researcher to understand if there are any unanswered research questions.
 It might help the researcher to develop an analytical framework.
 It will help the researcher consider including variables in his research that he might
not have thought about.

Step #3: Setting Research Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal
statement of the problem leading to research objectives.An objective will precisely say what
should be researched, delineate the type of information that should be collected, and provide
a framework for the scope of the study. A well-formulated, testable research hypothesis is the
best expression of a research objective.A hypothesis is an unproven statement or
proposition that can be refuted or supported by empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert
a possible answer to a research question.

Step #4: Choosing the Study Design

The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering
research questions.It is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting,
processing, and analyzing the collected data. There are four basic research designs that a
researcher can use to conduct their study;

1. survey,
2. experiment,
3. secondary data study, and
4. observational study.The type of research design to be chosen from among the above four
methods depends primarily on four factors:

 The type of problem

 The objectives of the study,
 The existing state of knowledge about the problem that is being studied, and
 The resources are available for the study.

Step #5: Deciding on the Sample Design

Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of
sampling is that it involves any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or
portions (called a sample) of a universe (called population) to conclude the
wholepopulation.It contrasts with the process of complete enumeration, in which every
member of the population is included.Such a complete enumeration is referred to as a census.

A population is the total collection of elements we wish to make some inference or

generalization.

A sample is a part of the population, carefully selected to represent that population. If certain
statistical procedures are followed in selecting the sample, it should have the same
characteristics as the population. These procedures are embedded in the sample design.

Sample design refers to the methods followed in selecting a sample from the population and
the estimating technique vis-a-vis the formula for computing the sample statistics.
The fundamental question is, then, how to select a sample.

To answer this question, we must have acquaintance with the sampling methods.

These methods are basically of two types;

 probability sampling, and

 non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling ensures every unit has a known nonzero probability of selection within
the target population.

If there is no feasible alternative, a non-probability sampling method may be employed.

The basis of such selection is entirely dependent on the researcher’s discretion. This approach
is called judgment sampling, convenience sampling, accidental sampling, and purposive
sampling.

The most widely used probability sampling methods are simple random sampling, stratified
random sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling. They have been classified by
their representation basis and unit selection techniques.

Two other variations of the sampling methods that are in great use are multistage
sampling and probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling.

Multistage sampling is most commonly used in drawing samples from very large and diverse
populations.

The PPS sampling is a variation of multistage sampling in which the probability of selecting
a cluster is proportional to its size, and an equal number of elements are sampled within each
cluster.

Step #6: Collecting Data From The Research Sample

Data gathering may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey in any defined
population. There are many ways to collect data. The approach selected depends on the
objectives of the study, the research design, and the availability of time, money, and
personnel.

With the variation in the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) to be collected, the method
of data collection also varies.
The most common means for collecting quantitative data is the structured interview.

Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called surveys. Data can also be
collected by using self-administered questionnaires. Telephone interviewing is another
way in which data may be collected.

Other means of data collection include secondary sources, such as the census, vital
registration records, official documents, previous surveys, etc.

Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions,
Key Informant Interview (KII), and observational studies.

Step #7: Process and Analyze the Collected Research Data

Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data. Data are edited to
ensure consistency across respondents and to locate omissions if any.

In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies
unclear and inappropriate responses. In addition to editing, the data also need coding.

Because it is impractical to place raw data into a report, alphanumeric codes are used to
reduce the responses to a more manageable form for storage and future processing.

This coding process facilitates the processing of the data. The personal computer offers an
excellent opportunity for data editing and coding processes.

Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable size, developing
summaries, searching for patterns, and applying statistical techniques for understanding and
interpreting the findings in light of the research questions.

Further, based on his analysis, the researcher determines if his findings are consistent with the
formulated hypotheses and theories.

The techniques used in analyzing data may range from simple graphical techniques to very
complex multivariate analyses depending on the study’s objectives, the research design
employed, and the nature of the data collected.

As in the case of data collection methods, an analytical technique appropriate in one situation
may not be suitable for another.

Step #8: Writing Research Report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report,
Disseminating and Utilizing Results
The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called a proposal or research
proposal.

A research proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, offer, and a statement of intent or
commitment from an individual researcher or an organization to produce a product or render
a service to a potential client or sponsor.

The proposal will be prepared to keep the sequence presented in the research process. The
proposal tells us what, how, where, and to whom it will be done.

It must also show the benefit of doing it. It always includes an explanation of the purpose of
the study (the research objectives) or a definition of the problem.

It systematically outlines the particular research methodology and details the procedures
utilized at each stage of the research process.

The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret the results and draw conclusions.

To this end, it is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the findings and recommendations
to administrators, policymakers, and program managers to make a decision.

There are various research reports: term papers, dissertations, journal articles, papers for
presentation at professional conferences and seminars, books, thesis, and so on. The results of
a research investigation prepared in any form are of little utility if they are not communicated
to others.

The primary purpose of a dissemination strategy is to identify the most effective media
channels to reach different audience groups with study findings most relevant to their needs.

The dissemination may be made through a conference, a seminar, a report, or an oral or

poster presentation.

The style and organization of the report will differ according to the target audience, the
occasion, and the purpose of the research. Reports should be developed from the client’s
perspective.

A report is an excellent means that helps to establish the researcher’s credibility. At a bare
minimum, a research report should contain sections on:

 An executive summary;
 Background of the problem;
 Literature review;
 Methodology;
  Findings;
 Discussion;
 Conclusions and
 Recommendations.

The study results can also be disseminated through peer-reviewed journals published by
academic institutions and reputed publishers both at home and abroad. The report should be
properly evaluated.

These journals have their format and editorial policies. The contributors can submit their
manuscripts adhering to the policies and format for possible publications of their papers.

There are now ample opportunities for researchers to publish one’s work online.

The researchers have conducted many interesting studies without affecting actual settings.
Ideally, the concluding step of a scientific study is to plan for its utilization in the real world.

Although researchers are often not in a position to implement a plan for utilizing research
findings, they can contribute by including in their research reports a few recommendations
regarding how the study results could be utilized for policy formulation and program
intervention.Understanding the environment in which the firm operates is the key to
achieving organizational effectiveness. 00:00/00:00

Steps in Research Process

Justifying the Problem

Once the problem situation has been identified and clearly stated, it is important to justify the
importance of the problem.

In justifying the problems, we ask such questions as why the problem of the study is
important, how large and widespread the problem is, and whether others can be convinced
about the importance of the problem and the like.

Answers to the above questions should be reviewed and presented in one or two paragraphs
that justify the importance of the problem.

Analyzing the Problem

As a first step in analyzing the problem, critical attention should be given to accommodate
the viewpoints of the managers, users, and researchers to the problem through threadbare
discussions.
 The next step is identifying the factors that may have contributed to the perceived problems.

Issues of Research Problem Identification

There are several ways to identify, define, and analyze a problem, obtain insights, and get a
clearer idea about these issues. Exploratory research is one of the ways of accomplishing this.

The purpose of the exploratory research process is to progressively narrow the scope of the
topic and transform the undefined problems into defined ones, incorporating specific research
objectives.

The exploratory study entails a few basic strategies for gaining insights into the problem. It is
accomplished through such efforts as:

1. Pilot Survey
2. Case Studies
3. Focus Group Interviews
4. Experience Survey

Pilot Survey

A pilot survey collects proxy data from the ultimate subjects of the study to serve as a guide
for the large study. A pilot study generates primary data, usually for qualitative analysis.

This characteristic distinguishes a pilot survey from secondary data analysis, which gathers
background information.

Case Studies

Case studies are quite helpful in diagnosing a problem and paving the way to defining the
problem. It investigates one or a few situations identical to the researcher’s problem.

Focus Group Interviews

Focus group interviews, an unstructured free-flowing interview with a small group of people,
may also be conducted to understand and define a research problem.

Experience Survey

Experience survey is another strategy to deal with the problem of identifying and defining the
research problem.
It is an exploratory research endeavor in which individuals knowledgeable and experienced in
a particular research problem are intimately consulted to understand the problem.

These persons are sometimes known as key informants, and an interview with them is
popularly known as the Key Informant Interview (KII).

Step #2: Reviewing of Literature

A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables the
researcher to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his
interest that has not been researched so far.

Such a review provides exposure to a larger body of knowledge and equips him with
enhanced knowledge to efficiently follow the research process.

Through a proper review of the literature, the researcher may develop the coherence between
the results of his study and those of the others.

A review of previous documents on similar or related phenomena is essential even for

beginning researchers.

Ignoring the existing literature may lead to wasted effort on the part of the researchers.

Why spend time merely repeating what other investigators have already done?

Suppose the researcher is aware of earlier studies of his topic or related topics. In that case,
he will be in a much better position to assess his work’s significance and convince others that
it is important.

A confident and expert researcher is more crucial in questioning the others’ methodology, the
choice of the data, and the quality of the inferences drawn from the study results.

In sum, we enumerate the following arguments in favor of reviewing the literature:

 It avoids duplication of the work that has been done in the recent past.
 It helps the researcher discover what others have learned and reported on the problem.
 It enables the researcher to become familiar with the methodology followed by others.
 It allows the researcher to understand what concepts and theories are relevant to his
area of investigation.
  It helps the researcher to understand if there are any significant controversies,
contradictions, and inconsistencies in the findings.
 It allows the researcher to understand if there are any unanswered research questions.
 It might help the researcher to develop an analytical framework.
 It will help the researcher consider including variables in his research that he might
not have thought about.

Step #3: Setting Research Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal
statement of the problem leading to research objectives.

An objective will precisely say what should be researched, delineate the type of information
that should be collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the study. A well-
formulated, testable research hypothesis is the best expression of a research objective.

A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or supported by

empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research question.

Step #4: Choosing the Study Design

The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering
research questions.

It is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting, processing, and
analyzing the collected data. There are four basic research designs that a researcher can use to
conduct their study;

1. survey,
2. experiment,
3. secondary data study, and
4. observational study.

The type of research design to be chosen from among the above four methods depends
primarily on four factors:

 The type of problem

 The objectives of the study,
 The existing state of knowledge about the problem that is being studied, and
 The resources are available for the study.
Step #5: Deciding on the Sample Design

Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of
sampling is that it involves any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or
portions (called a sample) of a universe (called population) to conclude the whole
population.

It contrasts with the process of complete enumeration, in which every member of the
population is included.

Such a complete enumeration is referred to as a census.

A population is the total collection of elements we wish to make some inference or

generalization.

A sample is a part of the population, carefully selected to represent that population. If certain
statistical procedures are followed in selecting the sample, it should have the same
characteristics as the population. These procedures are embedded in the sample design.

Sample design refers to the methods followed in selecting a sample from the population and
the estimating technique vis-a-vis the formula for computing the sample statistics.

The fundamental question is, then, how to select a sample.

To answer this question, we must have acquaintance with the sampling methods.

These methods are basically of two types;

 probability sampling, and

 non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling ensures every unit has a known nonzero probability of selection within
the target population.

If there is no feasible alternative, a non-probability sampling method may be employed.

The basis of such selection is entirely dependent on the researcher’s discretion. This approach
is called judgment sampling, convenience sampling, accidental sampling, and purposive
sampling.
The most widely used probability sampling methods are simple random sampling, stratified
random sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling. They have been classified by
their representation basis and unit selection techniques.

Two other variations of the sampling methods that are in great use are multistage
sampling and probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling.

Multistage sampling is most commonly used in drawing samples from very large and diverse
populations.

The PPS sampling is a variation of multistage sampling in which the probability of selecting
a cluster is proportional to its size, and an equal number of elements are sampled within each
cluster.

Step #6: Collecting Data From The Research Sample

Data gathering may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey in any defined
population. There are many ways to collect data. The approach selected depends on the
objectives of the study, the research design, and the availability of time, money, and
personnel.

With the variation in the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) to be collected, the method
of data collection also varies.

The most common means for collecting quantitative data is the structured interview.

Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called surveys. Data can also be
collected by using self-administered questionnaires. Telephone interviewing is another
way in which data may be collected.

Other means of data collection include secondary sources, such as the census, vital
registration records, official documents, previous surveys, etc.

Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions,
Key Informant Interview (KII), and observational studies.

Step #7: Process and Analyze the Collected Research Data

Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data. Data are edited to
ensure consistency across respondents and to locate omissions if any.

In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies
unclear and inappropriate responses. In addition to editing, the data also need coding.

Because it is impractical to place raw data into a report, alphanumeric codes are used to
reduce the responses to a more manageable form for storage and future processing.

This coding process facilitates the processing of the data. The personal computer offers an
excellent opportunity for data editing and coding processes.

Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable size, developing
summaries, searching for patterns, and applying statistical techniques for understanding and
interpreting the findings in light of the research questions.

Further, based on his analysis, the researcher determines if his findings are consistent with the
formulated hypotheses and theories.

The techniques used in analyzing data may range from simple graphical techniques to very
complex multivariate analyses depending on the study’s objectives, the research design
employed, and the nature of the data collected.

As in the case of data collection methods, an analytical technique appropriate in one situation
may not be suitable for another.

Step #8: Writing Research Report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report,
Disseminating and Utilizing Results

The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called a proposal or research
proposal.

A research proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, offer, and a statement of intent or
commitment from an individual researcher or an organization to produce a product or render
a service to a potential client or sponsor.

The proposal will be prepared to keep the sequence presented in the research process. The
proposal tells us what, how, where, and to whom it will be done.
It must also show the benefit of doing it. It always includes an explanation of the purpose of
the study (the research objectives) or a definition of the problem.

It systematically outlines the particular research methodology and details the procedures
utilized at each stage of the research process.

The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret the results and draw conclusions.

To this end, it is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the findings and recommendations
to administrators, policymakers, and program managers to make a decision.

There are various research reports: term papers, dissertations, journal articles, papers for
presentation at professional conferences and seminars, books, thesis, and so on. The results of
a research investigation prepared in any form are of little utility if they are not communicated
to others.

The primary purpose of a dissemination strategy is to identify the most effective media
channels to reach different audience groups with study findings most relevant to their needs.

The dissemination may be made through a conference, a seminar, a report, or an oral or

poster presentation.

The style and organization of the report will differ according to the target audience, the
occasion, and the purpose of the research. Reports should be developed from the client’s
perspective.

A report is an excellent means that helps to establish the researcher’s credibility. At a bare
minimum, a research report should contain sections on:

 An executive summary;
 Background of the problem;
 Literature review;
 Methodology;
 Findings;
 Discussion;
 Conclusions and
 Recommendations.

The study results can also be disseminated through peer-reviewed journals published by
academic institutions and reputed publishers both at home and abroad. The report should be
properly evaluated.
These journals have their format and editorial policies. The contributors can submit their
manuscripts adhering to the policies and format for possible publications of their papers.

There are now ample opportunities for researchers to publish one’s work online.

The researchers have conducted many interesting studies without affecting actual settings.
Ideally, the concluding step of a scientific study is to plan for its utilization in the real world.

Although researchers are often not in a position to implement a plan for utilizing research
findings, they can contribute by including in their research reports a few recommendations
regarding how the study results could be utilized for policy formulation and program
intervention.