Introductory calculus

WHAT IS A LIMIT? lim f (x ) = L

x c 5
This means that as x approaches some value, c, the function 1
approaches L, our limit. Limits help us understand how the lim =0
function behaves. x +∞ x
LIMIT LAWS
lim ( f (x ) ± g (x )) = L ± M lim ( f (x ) g (x )) = L M 0 5
x c x c
As x gets very large,
f (x ) L our function gets closer
lim ( kf (x )) = k lim ( f ( x )) = kL lim
x c x c
= if M≠0 and closer to 0
x c g (x ) M
EVALUATING LIMITS
1. Use direct substitution: lim f (x ) = f (c )
x c
2. If this gives you the indeterminate form “ 0 ” try factoring or rationalizing to simplify the expression first.
Example: 0
x2 - 9 (x - 3)(x + 3)
lim = lim = lim x - 3= -6
x -3 x + 3 x -3 x+3 x -3

EVALUATING LIMITS AT INFINITY

We can’t reach infinity but we want to see where our function is going as x gets very large.
Examples: lim 3x does not exist (D.N.E) since 3x will simply approach - ∞
x -∞
P (x ) x2+ 3
For rational functions, : lim =0 since the degree of P is less than Q
Q (x ) x ∞ x 4 - x
4x 3 + 5x 4
lim = since the degree of P is equal to Q
x ∞ 7x 3 - 1 7

CONTINUITY
Example:
The function in the example is piecewise and clearly discontinuous. But to
be continuous at a specific point x = c we need 3 conditions to be true:
1. f (c ) exists 2. lim f (x ) exist 3. lim f (x ) = f (c )
y
(-2, 2 )
x c x c 2
On this graph, (0,1) is a continuous point, use the above condition to show why.
1
(0,1)
(3,0)
Does the limit exist?
x
lim f (x ) = 2
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
The limit as we approach x = -2 from the left:
x -2 - (-2,-1)
-1
(3,-1)
The limit as we approach x = -2 from the right: lim
x -2 + f (x ) = -1
-2
lim - f (x ) ≠ lim + f (x ) ... lim f (x ) D.N.E.
x -2 x -2 x -2
DIFFERENTIATION
The derivative of a function f (x) gives the slope of the tangent (instantaneous rate of change).
To approximate the slope of the
Previously we always used two tangent we can take two points
points to find slope but the very close to each other, say h
tangent only touches one point on away, and calculate the slope of Now that we know about limits we
the graph. this secant. can find the value of the slope of
f (x 1 ) - f (x 0 ) the tangent if we make h
Secant slope: Approximate Tangent Slope: approach 0
x1- x0 f (x 0 + h ) - f (x 0 )
x 0+ h - x 0
f (x + h ) - f ( x )
So a derivative is defined as f '(x )= lim
h 0 h
DIFFERENTIATION RULES
df (x ) f (x ) = 5 f '( x ) = 0
Constant Rule: f ( x ) = c then f '( x ) = =0
dx
d n
Power Rule: x = nx n- 1 f (x ) = x 3 f '( x ) = 3x 2
dx
d
Constant Multiple Rule: ( cf ( x )) = c f ' ( x ) f ( x ) = 3 sin x f '( x ) = 3 cosx
dx
d f ( x ) = 5 cos( x ) - 2 x 2
Sum Rule: [ f ( x ) ± g ( x )] = f '( x ) + g '( x )
dx f '( x ) = -5 sin( x ) - 4x

d f ( x ) = ( x 4 + x ) e 2x
Product Rule: [ f ( x ) g ( x )] = f '( x ) g ( x )+ f ( x ) g '( x )
dx f '( x ) = (4x3 + 1) e 2x+ (x 4 +x )(2e 2x )

d f (x ) f '(x )g (x )- f (x )g '(x ) sin (x ) cos(x )2e x - sin(x )2e x

Quotient Rule: = f (x ) = f '( x ) =
dx g (x ) [g (x )] 2 2e x 4 e 2x

d f (x ) = f '( x ) =
1
(6x )
Chain Rule: [ f ( g ( x ))] = f '( g ( x )) g '( x ) 3x 2 + 5
dx 2 3x 2 + 5

Useful Derivatives:
d d d 1
(sinx ) = cos x (secx ) = secx tanx (lnx ) =
dx dx dx x
d d d
(cosx ) = -sinx (cot x ) = -csc 2 x (a x ) = ( ln a ) a x
dx dx dx
d d d x
(tanx ) = sec 2 x (cscx ) = -csc x cotx (e ) = e x
dx dx dx
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