Mlawa A, et al.

, J Atmos Earth Sci 2022, 6: 028

DOI: 10.24966/AES-8780/100028

HSOA Journal of
Atmospheric & Earth Science
Research Article

Atmospheric Water Vapour prediction in Tanzania and provide great assistance to the Tanzania
Meteorological Agency (TMA).

Determination Using GPS Introduction

Signals for Numeric Weather Numeric weather prediction (NWP) is modern and best technique
Prediction in Tanzania for accurate weather forecasting which impacts a lot of human activi-
ties and survival. NWP models use different input parameters includ-
Mlawa A and Saria EE* ing atmospheric water vapour in which its measurement is still faced
Department of Geospatial Sciences and Technology (DGST), School of Earth
with numerous challenges locally and at a global scale [1]. Atmo-
Sciences Real Estate Business and Informatics (SERBI), Ardhi University, Dar spheric water vapour is an important greenhouse gas that plays a vital
Es Salaam, Tanzania role in maintaining Earth’s energy balance and is also a vital meteoro-
logical parameter in NWP [2]. The amount and distribution of water
vapour in space (horizontal and vertical) is a major parameter in the
Abstract
development of NWP models and its importance cannot be underesti-
Atmospheric Water Vapour (AWV) is one of the parameters that mated. The measurement of such parameters have performed different
affect GNSS signals in the troposphere, other parameters being
with different techniques including convection methods like radio-
Temperature and Pressure. This parameter is very important
sondes (RAOBs), microwave radiometers (MWRs) and sun photom-
conservatory gas which helps to maintaining Earth’s energy balance
and the hydrological cycle. The AWV is classified as wet component eters. However, these existing systems are inadequate in global scale
of the atmosphere and is one of the fundamental meteorological and hence there is clear need of developing a superior system that is
parameter in numeric weather prediction. The conventional methods high accurate with high temporal and spatial resolution. That system
including radiosondes, microwave radiometer, and hygrometers should be free from meteorological conditions, low maintenance and
have been used to compute these parameters, however these most of all relatively cheaper [1]. GNSS meteorology technique in re-
methods are facing numerous challenges including inadequacy, low trieving atmospheric water vapour was first suggested by [3] and later
spatial and temporal resolution and high maintenance cost. Given clarified more by Solheim and Ware, The concept is based on tracking
the high investment required and maintenance cost, the Tanzania propagation delays due to neutral atmosphere as the magnitude of sig-
Meteorological Agency (TMA) had only four radiosondes across the
nal delay is treated to be proportional to the amount of water vapour in
country. With advances in technology Global Navigation Satellite
atmosphere. Given the straightforward GNSS ZTD computations as
system (GNSS) are replacing the conventional methods due to its
capability to determine Precipitable Water (PW) or Integrated Water well as the low initial cost, this technique suppresses most of challeng-
Vapour (IWV) at low cost. This study uses one-year data of the es faced by convection techniques. Tanzania Meteorological Agency
GNSS CORS station located in Dodoma (DODM). The datasets (TMA) has 26 synoptic stations with only four Radiosondes across
were processed using gLAB and GAMIT/GLOBK software based the country. Although some regions have varying and challenging
on two processing strategies weather free and weather dependent weather, these are the only system used to measure atmospheric water
approaches. The results from this processing were analyzed vapour in all Tanzanian regions. This deficit has caused the TMA to
against Global reanalysis model of ERA-Interim in which the GNSS apply most products from global numerical weather models for their
results shows a correlation <0.98 while between GNSS and the predictions. Some of the global models are computed by different
ERA-Interim model values shows a correlation <0.96. Given these
programs around the world example the European Centre for Medi-
correlations, this study provides great indication of how GNSS data
um-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) and the Global Continuous
can be used to retrieve the key meteorological values for weather
Observing System of the World Weather Watch (GCOS) Upper-Air
Network –GUAN (Figure 1). These global predictions are very pre-
*Corresponding author: Saria EE, Department of Geospatial Sciences and cise in places where the station are available. Given a sparse GUAN
Technology, School of Earth Sciences Real Estate Business and Informatics, Ar- instrumentation in Tanzania, the TMA to lagging behind in providing
dhi University, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania, Tel: +255 654 062530; E-mail: saria. accurate predictions. Since Ground-based GNSS CORS stations form
[email protected]
part of the GUAN, this paper utilizes GNSS meteorology concepts
Citation: Mlawa A, Saria EE (2022) Atmospheric Water Vapour Determination to investigate the GNSS CORS at Dodoma. This CORS was used in
using GPS Signals for Numeric Weather Prediction in Tanzania. J Atmos Earth
determining atmospheric water vapour (precipitable water) which is
Sci 6: 028.
the key requirement in weather prediction. The reason for choosing
Received: December 12, 2022; Accepted: December 26, 2022; Published:
GNSS CORS at Dodoma is its proximity to one of the GUAN Sta-
January 02, 2023
tion. The correlation results between the GUAN prediction and the
Copyright: © 2022 Mlawa A, et al. This is an open-access article distributed
computed CORS precipitable water vapor will be integrated to other
under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits un-
restricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original CORS sites. This integration will thereby improve infrastructures for
author and source are credited. NWP in Tanzania and help TMA in weather forecasting.
Citation: Mlawa A, Saria EE (2022) Atmospheric Water Vapour Determination using GPS Signals for Numeric Weather Prediction in Tanzania. J Atmos Earth
Sci 6: 028.

• Page 2 of 6 •

computed from the directed determined ZTD and the computed ZHD
using equation 1. In the case of GAMIT/GLOBK software the esti-
mated atmospheric values (ZWD and PW) for each file at given ep-
och are computed as a result of processing using a piecewise-linear
(PWL) function following equations defined in [3]

The parameters used in this computations are the atmospheric

water vapour in terms of Integrated water vapour (IWV) in kg/m2,
Figure 1: GUAN Ground based GPS stations as of February 2021 as recorded by which is the quantity of the atmospheric water vapour over a specific
ECMWF. Stations that contain both daytime and nighttime data are denoted by green location and PW used to express the height of an equivalent column
crosses, whereas daytime-only stations are denoted by red diamonds, and night- of liquid water in units of length. Where pv is the partial density of
time-only stations are denoted by blue triangles.
water vapour in kg/m3; the height h in meters and Rw is the specific gas
constant for water vapour in J/(kgK). PW relates to IWV by dividing
Methodology with the density of liquid water, ρw. Again IWV is related to the ZWD
using a dimensionless quantity as conversion factor, Π:
The error due to troposphere on GNSS signals is non dispersive
and can be split into two components, hydrostatic and wet delays.
Although satellites are located at different angles from the horizon,
these delays are mapped onto zenith direction to get zenith hydro-
static delays (ZHD) and zenith wet delays (ZWD) by using mapping
The conversion factor is given by Bevis et al, (1994) as
functions. The sum of the mapped delays is called Zenith Total Delay
(ZTD). These tropospheric effects can introduce errors from 2.5 m to
as high as 25 m depending on the elevation of the satellite [4].

With whereby Ts is absolute surface temperature, is density of

water, is the specific gas constant for water vapour in J/(kgK), are
constants based on laboratories estimates defined by [3]. The com-
The ZTD and ZHD are determined directly from GNSS pro-
puted ranged from 0.160225 to 0.163567 and the computed mean is
cessing using GAMIT/GLOBK and gLAB software. The GAMIT/
0.161802. The dimensionless constant is a function of season and lo-
GLOBK software uses in-built algorithms to compute the zenith de-
cation and has been computed in previous studies and found to be be
lay parameters at time interval set in the processing using a piece-
approximately 0.15 [3]. In this study the dimensionless constant falls
wise-linear (PWL) function. The correction for the hydrostatic delay
within the 20% recommended range. This show a good agreement
is applied to the resulting zenith delay estimates and later these resid-
between the computed value from this study to the previous studies as
ual wet delays are then converted into precipitable water (PW). The
it was also identified in the study by [7,4].
resulting PW estimates become the input in computing the required
ZWD at the set time intervals [5]. The gLAB on the other hand uses
Precise Point Positioning (PPP) technique to determine ZTD using
different algorithms that compute the ZHD. The gLAB first approach
uses algorithms and methodologies explained example by [3]. In this
method, the ZHD is computed using the observed surface pressure
above the certain height (H).

The second approach computes ZHD from non-weather observa-

tion instead it uses station-specific parameters [6]. These parameters
Datasets
may include the 3D coordinates, zenith tropospheric delays, phase The main input in this study are one year long daily observation
bias and clock parameters. In this approach the exponential nature of and navigation files for Dodoma CORS (DODM) site downloaded
ZHD is described by its elevation in the relation elaborated in equa- from UNAVCO achieve. The files are stored in hatanaka compressed
tion 3 and required to converted into RINEX format in order to be read by
gLAB software. Other data include the meteorological files for one
year long of DODOM, IGS final orbit, absolute antenna phase cen-
ter corrections for both receivers and satellites and the total amount
of water vapour present in a vertical atmospheric column (IWV)
Where a = 2.3m, b = 0.116, and H is station height above sea
downloaded from the ECMWF.The IWV was used for validation and
level.
statistical analysis of PW from the DODM CORS. Meteorological
The combination of the three equations (1, 2, 3) are imple- files were the inputs in computation of ZWD, PW and IWV and the
mented in the gLAB software to compute the ZHD. The ZWD is IGS final orbit and absolute antenna corrections were used for ZTD.
J Atmos Earth Sci ISSN: 2689-8780, Open Access Journal Volume 6 • Issue 1 • 100028
DOI: 10.24966/AES-8780/100028
Citation: Mlawa A, Saria EE (2022) Atmospheric Water Vapour Determination using GPS Signals for Numeric Weather Prediction in Tanzania. J Atmos Earth
Sci 6: 028.

• Page 3 of 6 •

The Meteorological data were spliced into daily file (24 hrs) in or- applied hydrostatic corrections is the measurement of station pressure
der to correspond to observational and navigation files. In the case of recorded in the Receiver Independent Exchange Format - RINEX met
IWV from ECMWF, the netCDF formats downloaded convert mean file [5] . The result from this process are the mean daily values for
daily value at each 0.1250 grid which were later interpolated to get ZTD and PWD.
most probable value of IWV at experiment site DODM. The one-year
data used started from day 168 of 2017 to 168 2018 with exception Comparison on GNSS Computed PW
of day 291-304 of 2017 and 111-164 of 2018, in which DODM did
not have data. The computed PW values for each day were analyzed on daily
basis following the results from gLAB and GAMIT/GLOBK. The
Data Processing analysis based on their correlation and their descriptive statistics for
each respective dry and wet season. According to weather records in
In the determination of PW two software with complete different
processing strategies are implemented using GAMIT/GLOBK and Dodoma the wet season is considered from November to May and dry
gLAB software. The gLAB is based on PPP in which Precise satellite from End of May to stand of November each year. First the PWs from
orbit and clock corrections produced by the IGS are used in com- GAMIT (PWGAMIT) was plotted against the PWs from gLAB - PWgLA-
puting solutions while GAMIT/GLOBK uses double differencing in Bwd
and PWgLABwf (Figure 2). The average PW difference ranges be-
which clock error and integer ambiguity are eliminated when comput- tween 2.5mm to 0.5mm in dry season and between 3.5mm to 0.5mm
ing the final solution. The following sections explain the processing for wet season. Given the ranges, better agreement is observed during
strategies for each software. dry season and much weaker agreements in wet season, however time
gLAB Software series pattern looks similar in both cases. The computed difference
between the two values is less than 3mm showing that there is a great
The input data were decimated at every 30 sec with elevation agreement between the two independent GNSS computed PW values.
mask of 5 degrees and cycle slip detection at every 40 sec data gap.
These data were modeled using Klobuchar model for ionospheric
correction and corrections for relativistic, antenna phase centres and
ocean tidal loading effects [8]. For the case of tropospheric correction
which is of more interest, this study used UNIB-3 Nominal model
which computes dry (Tdry) and wet (Twet) delays from the receiver’s
height and estimates five meteorological parameters: pressure, tem-
perature, water vapour pressure, temperature lapse rate and water va-
pour lapse rate according to procedures described in RTCA-MOPS.
This procedure used the more refined Niell mapping model described
in [9] which considers different obliquity factors for the wet and dry
components and do not equire any surface meteorological measure- Figure 2: Comparison of GNSS computed PWs for site DODM. Yellow is gLAB
ments. The results is the determined ZTD at each 30sec which was computed PW weather dependent, gray is GAMIT computed PW and red is gLAB
computed PW weather free.
later averaged into mean daily ZTD using their respective standard
deviation. PW was computed using the resulting ZTD following the
methodologies described in Equations 1 to 5. The results are PWgLABwd To compare the agreement between GPS derived PWs more pre-
for weather dependent and PWgLABwf for weather free. cisely, we decided to quantitatively investigate the consistence of the
two GPS solution from the original data by determine a measure of
GAMIT/GLOBK Software the strength and direction of the linear relationship between the two
time-series. This analysis is used to quantify the degree by which two
This study analyzes the the yearlong GPS data using the GAMIT-
variables are related and that the evaluation extends to tell how much
GLOBK software [5]. Usually a full process follows the two steps
one variable cause changes to other variable and provide a coefficient
strategies which is GAMIT and later combination through GLOBK.
that show the degree of this relationship. We use the linear correlation
These steps are partly described by e.g. [10-14] However, in this pro-
coefficient computed on the bases of least squares fitting of the two
cess we used on one step as we only require the estimated atmospheric
data sets in each component e.g. [17]. We use the so called Persons
values. In this process this study uses for each day the doubly differ-
enced GPS phase observations to estimate daily station coordinates, correlation coefficient applied to a sample of data (not the entire pop-
satellite state vectors, 7 tropospheric delay parameters at each station ulation), since our comparison is based on only one year of GPS ob-
per day, 2 horizontal tropospheric gradients per day, and phase am- servations. The correlation is given by:
biguities applying IGS final orbits and Earth Orientation Parameters
(EOP). This study in addition, applied the absolute phase center cor-
rection using the IGS tables [15], the current ocean tide model [16],
solid Earth and polar tide correction to obtain the loose daily solution
vector and its variance covariance matrix for station and orbital ele-
ments as quasi-observations. Through this process the estimates are Where and are GNSS derived PW from gLAB and GAMIT and
atmospheric values for the site DODM at each hour and later average their corresponding mean respectively for the entire time-series of n
it for each day. The GAMIT incorporated operations allows for ex- data points. For the perfect correlation the value of is is such that for
traction of zenith delay estimates (ZTD), apply for hydrostatic delay perfect positive correlation and for perfect negative correlation (Fig-
(ZHD) and convert the residual wet delays to PW. The source of the ure 3A,3B,3C).
J Atmos Earth Sci ISSN: 2689-8780, Open Access Journal Volume 6 • Issue 1 • 100028
DOI: 10.24966/AES-8780/100028
Citation: Mlawa A, Saria EE (2022) Atmospheric Water Vapour Determination using GPS Signals for Numeric Weather Prediction in Tanzania. J Atmos Earth
Sci 6: 028.

• Page 4 of 6 •

Comparison on GNSS computed PWs against Glob-

al atmospheric reanalysis center (ERA-Interim)
To compare agreement between the two datasets, the GNSS com-
puted PW daily values for Dodoma GPS Site (DODM) time is in-
terpolated from global atmospheric reanalysis center (ERA-Interim).
This study first resample the GPS computed PW from both gLAB and
GAMIT estimates with the global interpolated PW values for DODM
when both GPS and Global data are available. The extracted values
are the compared graphically. The comparison show a similar trend
in a sense that both had relatively smaller values during dry season
and larger values during wet season. In comparison with PWERA-Inter-
im,
the PWglaBwd have relatively smaller values in both seasonscwith
Figure 3A: The Correlation between gLAB computed PW weather free against the more vivid departure during wet season (Figure 4). Contrary, weath-
GAMIT computed PW. The computed Pearson correlation coefficient is 0.9867. er-free model values (PWgLaBwf) had larger values than PWERA-Interim in
both seasons (Figure 5). The values from PWGAMIT had mainly small-
er values than PWERA-Interim during dry season contrary to wet season
in which PWGAMIT have oversampled PWERA-Interim in majority (Figure
6). The mean seasonal difference are shown which supports the trend
shown on graphs (Figure 7a,7b), whereby during both seasons, the
differences were minimum when results from GAMIT (PWGAMIT)
were used.

Figure 3B: The Correlation between gLAB computed PW weather dependent

against the gLAB computed PW weather free. The computed Pearson correlation Figure 4: Comparison of global interpolated PW and gLAB computed PW weather
coefficient is 0.9967. dependent for site DODM . Blue is gLAB computed PW weather dependent and
Green is global interpolated Pw from ERA-Interim.

Figure 5: Trend and differences between global interpolated PW and gLAB computed
PW weather dependent for site DODM with respect to time.

Figure 3C: The Correlation between gLAB computed PW weather dependent the
GAMIT computed PW. The computed Pearson correlation coefficient is 0.9922.

As it was expected better correlation is observed between two PW

solutions from gLAB, however the weather dependent PW solution
seems to correlate better with GAMIT computed PW than the weather Figure 6: Comparison of global interpolated PW and gLAB computed PW weather
free for site DODM . Orange is gLAB computed PW weather dependent and Green
free solution. According to the results all solution correlates better is global interpolated Pw from ERA-Interim.
<0.98 although are computed from two independent solutions.
J Atmos Earth Sci ISSN: 2689-8780, Open Access Journal Volume 6 • Issue 1 • 100028
DOI: 10.24966/AES-8780/100028
Citation: Mlawa A, Saria EE (2022) Atmospheric Water Vapour Determination using GPS Signals for Numeric Weather Prediction in Tanzania. J Atmos Earth
Sci 6: 028.

• Page 5 of 6 •

Figure 7a: Trend and differences between global interpolated PW and gLAB com-
puted PW weather free for site DODM with respect to time.

Figure 8B: The Correlation between gLAB computed PW weather-free with the
global interpolated PW for DODM site. The computed Pearson correlation coeffi-
cient is 0.9588.

Figure 7b: Trend and differences between global interpolated PW and GAMIT com-
puted PW for site DODM with respect to time.

This study further increases the analysis by quantitatively investi-

gate the consistency of the two solution from the original data by de-
termine a measure of the strength and direction of the linear relation-
ship. We use the same analysis of least squares fitting of the two data
sets as explain by [17]. The slope = 1 or -1 is an ideal case were the
two datasets are perfectly correlated. The correlation was analyzed
between global interpolated PW for DODM site against the GNSS
computed PW from gLAB and GAMIT software (Figure 8A,8B,8C).

Figure 8C: The Correlation between GAMIT computed PW with the global inter-
polated PW for DODM site. The computed Pearson correlation coefficient is 0.9672.

located in Ghana compared with the global interpolated PW values

from ERA-interim show a correlation r < 0.8 [2]. Similar study was
conducted to compare nine (9) International GNSS service station
(IGS) with global re-analysis, radiosondes and AERONET data span-
ning 3 years period [18]. An averaged correlation coefficient values
of 0.81 and 0.67 were obtained for ERA-40 and NCEP respectively
which is way smaller than the one obtained in this study.
Figure 8A: The Correlation between gLAB computed PW weather dependent with
the global interpolated PW for DODM site. The computed Pearson correlation coef-
Conclusion
ficient is 0.9688.
This study has outlined how Precipitable water (PW) can be de-
The relationship is such that, if the GNSS computed PW and termined from GNSS observed raw data in either Receiver Depen-
global interpolated PW values for DODM are perfectly correlated the dent or Receiver Independent Exchange Format (RINEX). The study
values should be aligned with the ideal line. Our result shows a strong was conducted on a long serving CORS station at Dodoma (DODM)
positive correlation in all cases, however, a better agreement was ob- using two software’s. gLAB and GAMIT. Based on a yearlong data
served between gLAB computed weather-dependent PW, followed by from DODM site, different result were obtained using different ap-
the GAMIT computed and finally the gLAB computed weather-free proach obtained in gLAB as well as GAMIT software. The results
from the software used were compared as well as the results from
(Figure 8A, 8B, 8C). The better agreement of GAMIT and gLAB
the global interpolated values of PW from ERA-Interim. The anal-
weather-dependent PW to the globally interpolated ERA-Interim
ysis of GNSS computed PW values shows a good agreement with
may be attributed by its dependence to weather signals recorded in PW retrieved from Global reanalysis data of ERA-Interim with strong
the RINEX file as compared to weather-free computations. The ob- positive correlation and a small difference in mean daily values for
tained correlation coefficient values (r > 0.96 values) for this study both seasons. A good agreement observed between GNSS com-
are larger than correlation values obtained on similar study for GNSS puted PW values shows a correlation <0.98 while between GNSS
site in Africa [2,18]. The computed PW estimate for KNUST site and global interpolated values of above 0.96 which is close to 1
J Atmos Earth Sci ISSN: 2689-8780, Open Access Journal Volume 6 • Issue 1 • 100028
DOI: 10.24966/AES-8780/100028
Citation: Mlawa A, Saria EE (2022) Atmospheric Water Vapour Determination using GPS Signals for Numeric Weather Prediction in Tanzania. J Atmos Earth
Sci 6: 028.

• Page 6 of 6 •

(Perfect correlation). Although GAMIT results show better correla- 5. Herring TA, King RW, McClusky SC (2015) Documentation for the
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Cambridge.
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Precise Point Positioning for the efficient and robust analysis of GPS data
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cost and high spatial and temporal resolution. Given these results, 5873-5881.
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data are incorporated in the weather forecasting. Since the GNSS me- Processing, Vol 1: Fundamentals and Algorithms. ESA Communications,
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Acknowledgement 11. McClusky  S, Ergintav S, Hamburger M, Kastens KA, Kotzev KA, et

al. (2000) GPS constraints on plate motions and deformations in eastern
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Journal Of Aquaculture & Fisheries | ISSN: 2576-5523 
Journal Of Orthopedic Research & Physiotherapy | ISSN: 2381-2052 
Journal Of Atmospheric & Earth Sciences | ISSN: 2689-8780 
Journal Of Otolaryngology Head & Neck Surgery | ISSN: 2573-010X 
Journal Of Biotech Research & Biochemistry
Journal Of Pathology Clinical & Medical Research
Journal Of Brain & Neuroscience Research
Journal Of Pharmacology Pharmaceutics & Pharmacovigilance | ISSN: 2639-5649 
Journal Of Cancer Biology & Treatment | ISSN: 2470-7546 
Journal Of Physical Medicine Rehabilitation & Disabilities | ISSN: 2381-8670 
Journal Of Cardiology Study & Research | ISSN: 2640-768X 
Journal Of Plant Science Current Research | ISSN: 2639-3743 
Journal Of Cell Biology & Cell Metabolism | ISSN: 2381-1943 
Journal Of Practical & Professional Nursing | ISSN: 2639-5681 
Journal Of Clinical Dermatology & Therapy | ISSN: 2378-8771 
Journal Of Protein Research & Bioinformatics
Journal Of Clinical Immunology & Immunotherapy | ISSN: 2378-8844 
Journal Of Psychiatry Depression & Anxiety | ISSN: 2573-0150 
Journal Of Clinical Studies & Medical Case Reports | ISSN: 2378-8801 
Journal Of Pulmonary Medicine & Respiratory Research | ISSN: 2573-0177 
Journal Of Community Medicine & Public Health Care | ISSN: 2381-1978 
Journal Of Reproductive Medicine Gynaecology & Obstetrics | ISSN: 2574-2574 
Journal Of Cytology & Tissue Biology | ISSN: 2378-9107 

Journal Of Dairy Research & Technology | ISSN: 2688-9315  Journal Of Stem Cells Research Development & Therapy | ISSN: 2381-2060 

Journal Of Dentistry Oral Health & Cosmesis | ISSN: 2473-6783  Journal Of Surgery Current Trends & Innovations | ISSN: 2578-7284 

Journal Of Diabetes & Metabolic Disorders | ISSN: 2381-201X  Journal Of Toxicology Current Research | ISSN: 2639-3735 

Journal Of Emergency Medicine Trauma & Surgical Care | ISSN: 2378-8798  Journal Of Translational Science And Research

Journal Of Environmental Science Current Research | ISSN: 2643-5020  Journal Of Vaccines Research & Vaccination | ISSN: 2573-0193 

Journal Of Food Science & Nutrition | ISSN: 2470-1076  Journal Of Virology & Antivirals

Journal Of Forensic Legal & Investigative Sciences | ISSN: 2473-733X  Sports Medicine And Injury Care Journal | ISSN: 2689-8829 

Journal Of Gastroenterology & Hepatology Research | ISSN: 2574-2566  Trends In Anatomy & Physiology | ISSN: 2640-7752 

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