The Digestive System Functions PHARYNX PHYSIOLOGY

- Serves as a passageway for air and food

1. Ingestion—taking in food - Food is propelled to the esophagus by two
2. Digestion—breaking food down both muscle layers
physically and chemically - Longitudinal inner layer
3. Absorption—movement of nutrients into the - Circular outer layer
bloodstream - Food movement is by alternating
4. Defecation—rids the body of indigestible contractions of the muscle layers (peristalsis)
waste ESOPHAGUS ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Organs of the Digestive System • Anatomy
• Two main groups of organs • About 10 inches long
Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal or GI tract)— • Runs from pharynx to stomach
continuous coiled hollow tube through the diaphragm
o These organs ingest, digest, absorb, • Physiology
defecate • Conducts food by peristalsis (slow
Accessory digestive organs rhythmic squeezing)
o Includes teeth, tongue, and other large • Passageway for food only
digestive organs (respiratory system branches off
Organs of the Alimentary Canal after the pharynx)
• Mouth Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal Organs
• Pharynx • Mucosa
• Esophagus • Innermost, moist membrane
• Stomach consisting of Surface epithelium
• Small intestine • Small amount of connective tissue
• Large intestine (lamina propria)
• Anus • Small smooth muscle layer
MOUTH (ORAL CAVITY) ANATOMY: • Lines the cavity (known as the
• Lips (labia)—protect the anterior opening lumen)
• Cheeks—form the lateral walls • Submucosa
• Hard palate—forms the anterior roof • Just beneath the mucosa
• Soft palate—forms the posterior roof • Soft connective tissue with blood
• Uvula—fleshy projection of the soft palate vessels, nerve endings, mucosa-
• Vestibule—space between lips externally associated lymphoid tissue, and
and teeth and gums internally lymphatics
• Oral cavity proper—area contained by the • Muscularis externa—smooth muscle
teeth • Inner circular layer
• Tongue—attached at hyoid bone and • Outer longitudinal layer
styloid processes of the skull, and by the • Serosa—outermost layer of the wall
lingual frenulum to the floor of the mouth contains fluid-producing cells
TONSILS • Visceral peritoneum—outermost
• Palatine—located at posterior end of oral layer that is continuous with the
cavity innermost layer
• Lingual—located at the base of the tongue. • Parietal peritoneum—innermost
layer that lines the abdominopelvic
cavity
 Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses
- Two important nerve plexuses serve the
alimentary canal
- Both are part of the autonomic nervous
system
• Submucosal nerve plexus
• Myenteric nerve plexus
Function is to regulate mobility and secretory
activity of the GI tract organs
STOMACH ANATOMY
• Located on the left side of the abdominal
cavity
• Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter
• Food empties into the small intestine at the
pyloric sphincter (valve)
Regions of the stomach
• Cardiac region—near the heart
• Fundus—expanded portion lateral to the
cardiac region
• Body—midportion
• Pylorus—funnel-shaped terminal end
• Rugae—internal folds of the mucosa
• Stomach can stretch and hold 4 L (1 gallon)
of food when full
• External regions
• Lesser curvature—concave medial surface
• Greater curvature—convex lateral surface
STOMACH PHYSIOLOGY
• Temporary storage tank for food
• Site of food breakdown
• Chemical breakdown of protein begins
• Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small
intestine
Structure of the Stomach Mucosa
Mucosa is simple columnar epithelium
• Mucous neck cells—produce a sticky alkaline
mucus
• Gastric glands—situated in gastric pits and
secrete gastric juice
• Chief cells—produce protein-digesting
enzymes (pepsinogens)
• Parietal cells—produce hydrochloric acid
• Enteroendocrine cells—produce gastrin
 SMALL INTESTINE
• The body’s major digestive organ
• Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
• Muscular tube extending from the pyloric sphincter
to the ileocecal valve
• Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by
the mesentery
Subdivisions of the Small Intestine
• Duodenum
- Attached to the stomach
- Curves around the head of the pancreas
• Jejunum
- Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum
• Ileum
- Extends from jejunum to large intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
- Chemical digestion begins in the small intestine
- Enzymes are produced by
• Intestinal cells
• Pancreas
- Pancreatic ducts carry enzymes to the
small intestine
- Bile, formed by the liver, enters via the
bile duct
SMALL INTESTINE ANATOMY
• Three structural modifications that increase surface
area
- Microvilli—tiny projections of the plasma
membrane (create a brush border
appearance)
- Villi—fingerlike structures formed by the
mucosa
- Circular folds (plicae circulares)—deep
folds of mucosa and submucosa

LARGE INTESTINE
• Larger in diameter, but shorter in length, than the
small intestine
• Extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus
• Subdivisions:
- Cecum
- Appendix
- Colon
- Rectum
- Anal canal
 LARGE INTESTINE ANATOMY
o Cecum—saclike first part of the large intestine
o Appendix
• Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that sometimes becomes inflamed (appendicitis)
• Hangs from the cecum
o Colon
• Ascending—travels up right side of abdomen
• Transverse—travels across the abdominal cavity
• Descending—travels down the left side
• Sigmoid—S-shaped region; enters the pelvis
o Rectum and anus also are located in the pelvis
o Anus—opening of the large intestine
• External anal sphincter—formed by skeletal muscle and under voluntary control
• Internal involuntary sphincter—formed by smooth muscle
• These sphincters are normally closed except during defecation
- No villi present
- Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus which lubricates the passage of feces
- Muscularis externa layer is reduced to three bands of muscle called teniae coli
- These bands cause the wall to pucker into haustra (pocketlike sacs)
ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS
1. Teeth
2. Salivary glands
3. Pancreas
4. Liver
5. Gallbladder
TEETH
- Function is to masticate (chew) food
- Humans have two sets of teeth
1. Deciduous (baby or “milk”) teeth
• A baby has 20 teeth by age two
• First teeth to appear are the lower central incisors
2. Permanent teeth
• Replace deciduous teeth between the ages of 6 and 12
• A full set is 32 teeth, but some people do not have wisdom teeth (third molars)
• If they do emerge, the wisdom teeth appear between ages of 17 and 25
Classification of Teeth
 Incisors—cutting
 Canines (eyeteeth)—tearing or piercing
 Premolars (bicuspids)—grinding
 Molars—grinding
Regions of a Tooth
CROWN—exposed part
• Enamel—hardest substance in the body
• Dentin—found deep to the enamel and forms the bulk of the tooth
• Pulp cavity—contains connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerve fibers
• Root canal—where the pulp cavity extends into the root
NECK
• Region in contact with the gum
• Connects crown to root
ROOT
• Cementum—covers outer surface and attaches the tooth to the periodontal membrane
SALIVARY GLANDS
- Three pairs of salivary glands empty secretions into the mouth
• Parotid glands
• Found anterior to the ears
• Submandibular glands
• Sublingual glands
• Both submandibular and sublingual glands empty saliva into the floor of the mouth
through small ducts
SALIVA
- Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
- Helps to form a food bolus
- Contains salivary amylase to begin starch digestion
- Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted
 PANCREAS
• Found posterior to the parietal peritoneum
o Its location is retroperitoneal
• Extends across the abdomen from spleen to duodenum
• Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break down all categories of food
• Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
• Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic chyme coming from stomach
Hormones produced by the pancreas
• Insulin
• Glucagon

LIVER
• Largest gland in the body
• Located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm
• Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm and abdominal wall by the falciform ligament
• Connected to the gallbladder via the common hepatic duct
- Produced by cells in the liver
• Bile leaves the liver through the common hepatic duct
Function—emulsify fats by physically breaking large fat globules into smaller ones

GALLBLADDER
• Sac found in hollow fossa of liver
• When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up the cystic duct for storage in the gallbladder
• When digestion of fatty food is occurring, bile is introduced into the duodenum from the gallbladder
- Gallstones are crystallized cholesterol which can cause blockages
 FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
1. INGESTION—placing food into the mouth
2. PROPULSION—moving foods from one region of the digestive system to another
• Peristalsis—alternating waves of contraction and relaxation that squeezes food along the GI tract
• Segmentation—moving materials back and forth to aid with mixing in the small intestine
• Food breakdown as mechanical digestion
• Examples:
• Mixing food in the mouth by the tongue
• Churning food in the stomach
• Segmentation in the small intestine
• Mechanical digestion prepares food for further degradation by enzymes
• Enzymes break down food molecules into their building blocks
• Each major food group uses different enzymes
• Carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars
• Proteins are broken to amino acids
• Fats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols
3. ABSORPTION
• End products of digestion are absorbed in the blood or lymph
• Food must enter mucosal cells and then into blood or lymph capillaries
4. DEFECATION
• Elimination of indigestible substances from the GI tract in the form of feces
CONTROL OF DIGESTIVE ACTIVITY
2. Mostly controlled by reflexes via the parasympathetic division
3. Chemical and mechanical receptors are located in organ walls that trigger reflexes
Stimuli include
• Stretch of the organ
• pH of the contents
• Presence of breakdown products
Reflexes include
• Activation or inhibition of glandular secretions
• Smooth muscle activity
DIGESTIVE ACTIVITIES OF THE MOUTH
Mechanical breakdown
• Food is physically broken down by chewing
Chemical digestion
• Food is mixed with saliva
• Starch is broken down into maltose by salivary amylase
ACTIVITIES OF THE PHARYNX AND ESOPHAGUS
- These organs have no digestive function
- Serve as passageways to the stomach
 Deglutition (Swallowing) ABSORPTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
Buccal phase • Water is absorbed along the length of the
• Voluntary small intestine
• Occurs in the mouth • End products of digestion
• Food is formed into a bolus • Most substances are absorbed by
• The bolus is forced into the pharynx active transport through cell
by the tongue membranes
Pharyngeal-esophageal phase • Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
• Involuntary transport of the bolus • Substances are transported to the liver by the
• All passageways except to the hepatic portal vein or lymph
stomach are blocked • Propulsion in the Small Intestine
• Tongue blocks off the mouth • Peristalsis is the major means of moving food
• Soft palate (uvula) blocks the • Segmental movements
nasopharynx • Mix chyme with digestive juices
• Epiglottis blocks the larynx • Aid in propelling food
• Peristalsis moves the bolus toward FOOD BREAKDOWN AND ABSORPTION IN THE
the stomach LARGE INTESTINE
• The cardioesophageal sphincter is • No digestive enzymes are produced
opened when food presses against it • Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients
DIGESTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE • Produce some vitamin K and B
• Enzymes from the brush border function • Release gases
to Break double sugars into simple sugars • Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed
• Complete some protein digestion • Remaining materials are eliminated via feces.
• Pancreatic enzymes play the major • Feces contains
digestive function a. Undigested food residues
• Help complete digestion of starch b. Mucus
(pancreatic amylase) c. Bacteria
• Carry out about half of all protein d. Water
digestion PROPULSION IN THE LARGE INTESTINE
• Digest fats using lipases from the pancreas • Sluggish peristalsis
• Digest nucleic acids using nucleases • Mass movements
• Alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme • Slow, powerful movements
REGULATION OF PANCREATIC JUICE • Occur three to four times per day
SECRETION • Presence of feces in the rectum causes a
• Release of pancreatic juice into the defecation reflex
duodenum is stimulated by • Internal anal sphincter is relaxed
a. Vagus nerve • Defecation occurs with relaxation of the
b. Local hormones voluntary (external) anal sphincter
c. Secretin Nutrition
d. Cholecystokinin (CCK) • Nutrient—substance used by the body for
• Hormones travel the blood to stimulate growth, maintenance, and repair
the pancreas to release enzyme- and • Major nutrients
bicarbonate-rich product a. Carbohydrates
• Secretin causes the liver to increase bile b. Lipids
output c. Proteins
• CCK causes the gallbladder to release d. Water
stored bile • Minor nutrients
• Bile is necessary for fat absorption and e. Vitamins, Mineral.
absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (K, D, A) f. Minerals