0% found this document useful (0 votes)
52 views32 pages

Essential-Neuroscience 4th

This document provides an overview of the contents and organization of the central nervous system. It is divided into three sections covering: 1) Gross anatomy of the brain and development of the nervous system, 2) The neuron, its histology and electrophysiology, and 3) Organization of the central nervous system including the spinal cord, brainstem, and cerebellum. Each section contains multiple chapters describing the structures, pathways, and clinical considerations of the central nervous system.

Uploaded by

Aysu Huseyn
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
52 views32 pages

Essential-Neuroscience 4th

This document provides an overview of the contents and organization of the central nervous system. It is divided into three sections covering: 1) Gross anatomy of the brain and development of the nervous system, 2) The neuron, its histology and electrophysiology, and 3) Organization of the central nervous system including the spinal cord, brainstem, and cerebellum. Each section contains multiple chapters describing the structures, pathways, and clinical considerations of the central nervous system.

Uploaded by

Aysu Huseyn
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 32

Contents

Preface
Acknowledgments

Section i Gross Anatomy of the Brain

1 Overview of the Central Nervous System


Gross Anatomy of the Brain
Neuroanatomical Terms
Components of the Central Nervous System
Cerebral Topography
Lateral Surface of the Brain
Frontal Lobe
Parietal Lobe
Occipital Lobe
Temporal Lobe
Medial Surface of the Brain
Inferior (Ventral) Surface of the Cerebral Cortex
Posterior Aspect of the Cerebral Cortex: Temporal and Occipital
Lobes
Forebrain Structures Visible in Horizontal and Frontal Sections of the
Brain
Ventricles
Basal Ganglia
Diencephalon
Limbic Structures
Topography of the Cerebellum and Brainstem
Cerebellum
Brainstem
Dorsal View of the Brainstem
Ventral View of the Brainstem
2 Development of the Nervous System
Early Aspects of Development
Morphogenesis of the Central Nervous System
The Spinal Cord
The Brain
Myelencephalon (Medulla)
Metencephalon
Mesencephalon (Midbrain)
Prosencephalon (Forebrain)
Myelination in the Central Nervous System
Abnormalities in Development of the Nervous System
Spina Bifida
Syringo(hydro)myelia
Tethered Cord
Encephalocele
Dandy-Walker Syndrome
Anencephaly
Folate Therapy for Prevention of Neural Tube Defects
Mechanisms Underlying Neural Development
Signal Induction and Neural Cell Differentiation
Neuronal Generation and Cell Death
Factors Affecting Formation and Survival of Neurons
How Axons Are Directed to Their Targets and Synapses Are
Formed: Neurochemical Specificity
3 Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid
The Meninges
Coverings of the Brain
Dura Mater
Arachnoid Mater
Pia Mater
Coverings of the Spinal Cord
Spinal Dura Mater
Spinal Arachnoid Mater
Spinal Pia Mater
Lumbar Cistern
Brain Ventricular System
The Choroid Plexus
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Formation
Circulation
Functions
Composition
Alteration of the Cerebrospinal Fluid in Pathologic Conditions
The Blood-Brain Barrier and Blood–Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier
Disorders Associated With Meninges
Meningitis
Meningiomas
Disorders of the Cerebrospinal Fluid System
Hydrocephalus
Increase in Intracranial Pressure

Section ii The Neuron

4 Histology of the Nervous System


The Neuron
The Cell Membrane
The Nerve Cell Body
The Nucleus
The Cytoplasm
Nissl Substance or Bodies
Mitochondria
Golgi Apparatus
Lysosomes
Cytoskeleton
Dendrites
Axon
Axonal Transport
Fast Anterograde Transport
Slow Anterograde Transport
Fast Retrograde Transport
Types of Neurons
Multipolar Neurons
Bipolar Neurons
Pseudo-Unipolar Neurons
Unipolar Neurons
Other Types of Neurons
Neuroglia
Astrocytes
Protoplasmic Astrocytes
Fibrous Astrocytes
Radial Glia
Functions of Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal Cells
Myelinated Axons
Peripheral Nervous System
Central Nervous System
Differences in the Composition of Myelin in the Central Nervous
System and Peripheral Nervous System
Composition of Peripheral Nerves
Clinical Considerations
Disorders Associated With Defective Myelination
Multiple Sclerosis
Guillain-Barré Syndrome
Neuronal Injury
Injury of the Neuronal Cell Body
Axonal Damage
5 Electrophysiology of Neurons
Introduction
Structure and Permeability of the Neuronal Membrane
Structure of Proteins
Membrane Transport Proteins
Carrier Proteins (Carriers or Transporters)
Channel Proteins
Transport of Solutes Across Cell Membranes
Simple Diffusion
Passive Transport (Facilitated Diffusion)
Active Transport
Sodium-Potassium Ion Pump
Calcium Pump
Intracellular and Extracellular Ionic Concentrations
Electrophysiology of the Neuron
Terminology
Ion-Related Terms
Electrical Charge–Related Terms
Current Flow–Related Terms
Membrane Potential–Related Terms
Ion Channels
Classification of Ion Channels
Equilibrium Potentials
Ionic Basis of the Resting Membrane Potential
Ionic Basis of the Action Potential
Propagation of Action Potentials
Clinical Considerations
Lambert-Eaton (Eaton-Lambert) Syndrome
Guillain-Barré Syndrome
Multiple Sclerosis
Prion Diseases
Cystic Fibrosis
6 Synaptic Transmission
Introduction
Types of Synaptic Transmission
Electrical Transmission
Chemical Transmission
Cotransmission
Types of Central Nervous System Synapses
Receptors
Directly Gated Synaptic Transmission at a Peripheral Synapse
(Neuromuscular Junction)
Directly Gated Transmission at a Central Synapse
Clinical Considerations
Diseases Affecting the Chemical Transmission at the Nerve–Muscle
Synapse
Myasthenia Gravis
Lambert-Eaton (Eaton-Lambert) Syndrome
Defects in Myelination
Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease
Disorders Associated With Toxins
Botulism
Tetanus
7 Neurotransmitters
Introduction
Definition
Criteria Used for Identifying Neurotransmitters
Major Classes of Neurotransmitters
Mechanism of Transmitter Release
Exocytosis
Recycling of Synaptic Vesicle Membranes
Steps Involved in Neurotransmitter Release
Small-Molecule Neurotransmitters
Neuropeptide Neurotransmitters
Individual Small-Molecule Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine
Synthesis
Removal
Distribution
Physiological and Clinical Considerations
Excitatory Amino Acids: Glutamate
Synthesis
Removal
Physiological and Clinical Considerations
Inhibitory Amino Acids
γ-Aminobutyric Acid
Glycine
Catecholamines
Dopamine
Norepinephrine
Epinephrine
Indoleamines
Serotonin
Imidazole Amines
Histamine
Purines
Neuroactive Peptides
Opioid Peptides
Nociceptin
Physiological and Clinical Considerations
Tachykinins: Substance P
Gaseous Neurotransmitters
Nitric Oxide
Differences From Other Transmitters
Synthesis and Removal
Physiological and Clinical Considerations
Cotransmission
Receptors
Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor
N-Methyl-D-Aspartic Acid Receptor
Kainate Receptor
AMPA/Quisqualate Receptor
GABAA Receptors
Glycine Receptor
5-HT3 Receptor
Metabotropic Receptors
Cholinergic Muscarinic Receptors
Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors
Dopamine Receptors
Adrenergic Receptors
GABAB Receptors
Opioid Receptors
Nociceptin Receptors
Serotonin (5-HT) Receptors
Histamine Receptors
Adenosine Receptors
Pattern Recognition Receptors
Toll-Like Receptors
Mechanisms of Regulation of Receptors
Desensitization
Down-Regulation
Ionotropic Receptors

Section iii Organization of the Central Nervous


System
8 The Spinal Cord
Introduction
Gross Anatomy
Internal Structure
Cytoarchitectural Organization of the Spinal Gray Matter
Spinal Segments
Spinal Cord Tracts
Long Ascending Tracts
Fasciculus Gracilis
Fasciculus Cuneatus
Dorsal (Posterior) Spinocerebellar Tract
Cuneocerebellar Tract
Ventral (Anterior) Spinocerebellar Tract
Rostral Spinocerebellar Tract
Spinothalamic Tract
Long Descending Tracts
Corticospinal Tract
Rubrospinal Tract
Tectospinal Tract
Lateral Vestibulospinal Tract
Medial Vestibulospinal Tract
Reticulospinal Tracts
Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus
Fasciculi Proprii
Spinal Cord Lesions
Spinal Cord Transection
Brown-Séquard Syndrome
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (Lou Gehrig’s Disease)
Syringomyelia
Tabes Dorsalis
Multiple Sclerosis
Combined Systems Disease
Lesions of the Dorsal Root
Lesions of the Ventral Root
Spinal Cord Injury
Spinal Reflexes
Myotatic Reflex
Receptors
Circuitry and Mechanisms
Reciprocal Inhibition in the Myotatic Reflex
Inverse Myotatic Reflex
Resetting of the Muscle Spindle Through the Gamma Loop
Modulation of Muscle Tone by Gamma Motor Neurons
Flexion (Withdrawal) Reflex
Receptors
Circuitry and Mechanism
Crossed Extension Reflex
Receptors
Circuitry and Mechanism
Locomotion
9 Brainstem I: The Medulla
Gross Anatomical View and Internal Organization
Gross Anatomical View
Internal Organization
Major Fiber Tracts and Associated Nuclei
Internal Nuclei of the Brainstem
Levels of the Medulla
Clinical Considerations
Lateral Medullary Syndrome
Medial Medullary Syndrome
Dorsal Medullary Syndrome
10 Brainstem II: Pons and Cerebellum
Introduction
Gross Anatomical View of the Pons
Internal Organization of the Pons
Fiber Pathways
Major Cell Groups
Caudal Pons
Rostral Pons
Basilar Aspect of the Pons
Pontine Tegmentum
Lower (Caudal) Half of the Pons
Upper (Rostral) Half of the Pons
The Cerebellum
Clinical Considerations
Caudal Tegmental Pontine Syndrome
Caudal Basal Pontine Syndrome
Rostral Basal Pontine Syndrome
Rostral Tegmental Pontine Syndrome
Other Related Syndromes of the Pons
The Locked-In Syndrome
The Medial Tegmental Syndrome
The One-and-a-Half Syndrome
11 Brainstem III: The Midbrain
Introduction
Internal Organization of the Midbrain
Level of the Inferior Colliculus
Tectum
Tegmentum (Including the Periaqueductal Gray Matter)
Crus Cerebri
Level of the Superior Colliculus
Tectum
Tegmentum
Crus Cerebri
Clinical Considerations
Weber’s Syndrome
Benedikt’s Syndrome
Gaze Palsy (Parinaud’s Syndrome)
12 The Forebrain
Introduction
Diencephalon
Thalamus
Epithalamus
Habenular Complex and Stria Medullaris
Pineal Gland
Subthalamus
Hypothalamus
Lateral Hypothalamus
Medial Hypothalamus
Anterior–Posterior Levels of Hypothalamus
Basal Ganglia
Principal Component Structures
Caudate Nucleus
Putamen
Globus Pallidus
Fiber Pathways of the Basal Ganglia
Limbic System and Associated Structures of the Basal Forebrain
Hippocampal Formation
Septal Area
Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis
Nucleus Accumbens
Substantia Innominata
Amygdala
Other Major Pathways of the Forebrain
Internal Capsule
Anterior Commissure
Clinical Considerations
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Basal Ganglia
Limbic Structures
Cerebral Cortex
13 The Cranial Nerves
Introduction
Classification of the Cranial Nerves
Efferent Nerves (From the Central Nervous System)
General Somatic Efferents
Special Visceral Efferents
General Visceral Efferents
Afferent Fibers (to the Brain)
General Somatic Afferents
Special Sensory Afferents
Special Visceral Afferents
General Visceral Afferents
Anatomical Organization of the Cranial Nerves Within the Brainstem
Cranial Nerves Associated With the Lower Brainstem and Adjoining
Regions of the Spinal Cord
Hypoglossal Nerve (Cranial Nerve XII)
Spinal Accessory Nerve (Cranial Nerve XI)
Vagus Nerve (Cranial Nerve X)
Glossopharyngeal Nerve (Cranial Nerve IX)
Vestibulocochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve VIII)
Cranial Nerves of the Pons and Midbrain
Facial Nerve (Cranial Nerve VII)
Trigeminal Nerve (Cranial Nerve V)
Cranial Nerves of the Pons and Midbrain Associated With the
Control of Eye Movements
Abducens Nerve (Cranial Nerve VI)
Trochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve IV)
Oculomotor Nerve (Cranial Nerve III)
Control of Eye Movements: Role of the Pontine Gaze Center
Cortical and Vestibular Control of Extraocular Eye Muscles
Vertical Gaze Center
Cranial Nerves of the Forebrain
Optic Nerve (Cranial Nerve II)
Olfactory Nerve (Cranial Nerve I)

Section iv Sensory Systems

14 Somatosensory System
General Organization of Sensory Systems
Sensory Receptors
Modality
Intensity
Duration
Location
Stimulus Transduction
Receptive Field
Relay Nuclei
Cortical Mechanisms
Classification of Nerve Fibers
Somatosensory System
Sensory Modalities
Tactile Sensations (Touch, Pressure, and Vibration)
Proprioception
Pain
Temperature
15 Visual System
Introduction
Components of the Eye
Different Layers of the Retina
The Pigment Epithelium Layer
The Layer of Rods and Cones
The External Limiting Membrane
The Outer Nuclear Layer
The Outer Plexiform Layer
The Inner Nuclear Layer
The Inner Plexiform Layer
The Layer of Ganglion Cells
The Optic Nerve Layer
Müller Cells
The Photoreceptors
Cones
Rods
Melanopsin-Containing Retinal Ganglion Cells
Phototransduction
Processing of Signals From the Photoreceptors by Different Retinal
Cells
Bipolar, Horizontal, and Ganglion Cells
Significance of Changes in On-Center and Off-Center Bipolar and
Ganglion Cell Activities
Color Vision
Blood Supply of the Retina
Visual and Retinal Fields
Visual Pathways
The Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of Thalamus
The Geniculocalcarine Tract
Visual Cortex
The Superior Colliculus
Binding Mechanism
Visual Reflexes
Pupillary Light Reflex
Accommodation Reflex
Prominent Defects in Vision
Hypermetropia
Myopia
Astigmatism
Strabismic Amblyopia
Night Blindness
Color Blindness
Argyll Robertson Pupil
Adie’s Pupil
Marcus-Gunn Pupil
Weber’s Syndrome
Parinaud’s Syndrome
Retinitis Pigmentosa
Macular Degeneration
Deficits After a Lesion at Different Sites in the Visual Pathway
16 Auditory and Vestibular Systems
Introduction
Auditory System
Physics of Sound
Components of the Ear
External Ear
Middle Ear
Inner Ear
Mechanism of Sound Conduction
Central Auditory Pathways
Cochlear Nuclei
Superior Olivary Nuclei
Lateral Lemniscus and Associated Nuclei
Inferior Colliculus
Medial Geniculate Nucleus
Primary Auditory Cortex
Descending Pathways
Clinical Disorders Associated With the Auditory System
Conduction Deafness
Sensorineural Deafness
Hearing Tests
Tinnitus
Vestibular System
Anatomical Components
Saccule
Utricle
Semicircular Canals
Vestibular Sensory Receptors
Central Pathways
Ascending Vestibular Pathways
Cerebellar Afferent and Efferent Projections
Vestibulocortical Pathway
Descending Vestibular Pathways
Vestibular System and Control of Eye Movements
Summary of the Functions of the Vestibular System
Clinical Disorders Associated With the Vestibular System
Nystagmus
Vertigo
Motion Sickness
Inflammation of the Vestibular Labyrinth
Ménière’s Disease
17 Olfaction and Taste
Introduction
Olfactory System
Stimulus
Receptors
Sensory Transduction
Central Pathways
Spatial Organization
Clinical Conditions in Which the Olfactory Sensation is Altered
Taste
Stimulus
Receptors
Transduction of the Taste Stimulus
Central Pathways
Taste Perception
Clinical Conditions in Which the Taste Sensation is Altered
Section v Motor Systems

18 The Upper Motor Neurons


Introduction
The Corticospinal Tract
Origin of the Corticospinal Tract
Histology of the Motor Cortex
Course of the Corticospinal Tract
Distribution of the Corticospinal Fibers Within the Spinal Cord
Functions
Primary Motor Cortex
Primary Somatosensory Cortex
Supplementary and Premotor Area Cortices
Role of the Posterior Parietal Cortex
Summary of the Components and Functions of the Corticospinal
Tract
The Corticobulbar Tracts
Lesions of Corticobulbar Fibers That Supply Nuclei of Cranial
Nerves
Other Projections of the Corticobulbar Tracts
To Sensory Relay Nuclei
Corticoreticular Fibers
Cortical Projections to the Red Nucleus
Descending Motor Systems From the Brainstem
Reticulospinal Tracts
Vestibulospinal Tracts
Rubrospinal Tract
Tectospinal Tract
The Upper Motor Neuron Syndrome
19 The Basal Ganglia
Introduction
Composition of the Basal Ganglia
Afferent Source of the Basal Ganglia
Internal Connections of the Basal Ganglia
Connections of the Neostriatum With the Globus Pallidus
Connections of the Neostriatum With the Substantia Nigra
Connections Between the Globus Pallidus and Subthalamic Nucleus
Output of the Basal Ganglia
Functional Mechanisms of the Basal Ganglia
Possible Role of Intrinsic Circuits
Modulatory Role of Dopamine
Movement Disorders
Parkinson’s Disease
Chorea (Huntington’s Disease)
Hemiballism
Athetosis
Dystonia
Tardive Dyskinesia
Tourette’s Syndrome
Restless Legs Syndrome
Myoclonus
Essential Tremor
20 The Cerebellum
Introduction
Gross Organization of the Cerebellum
Afferent Connections of the Cerebellum
Spinal Cord (Spinocerebellum)
Dorsal (Posterior) Spinocerebellar Tract
Ventral (Anterior) Spinocerebellar Tract
Cuneocerebellar Tract
Rostral Spinocerebellar Tract
Brainstem
Inferior Olivary Nucleus
Brainstem Structures Associated With Posture and Balance
Cerebral Cortex
Red Nucleus
Deep Pontine Nuclei
Other Inputs to the Cerebellar Cortex
Tectum
Trigeminal System
Monoaminergic Systems
The Anatomical and Functional Organization of the Cerebellar Cortex
Mossy and Climbing Fibers
Mossy Fibers
Climbing Fibers
Cerebellar Cortex
Histology
Granular Cell Layer
Purkinje Cell Layer
Molecular Layer
Functional Properties of the Cerebellar Cortex
Efferent Projections of the Cerebellar Cortex: The Feedback Circuitry
Efferent Connections of the Vestibulocerebellum and
Spinocerebellum
Efferent Connections of the Cerebellar Hemispheres
Motor Learning and the Cerebellum
Cerebellar Disorders
Ataxia
Hypotonia
Cerebellar Nystagmus and Gait Ataxia
Syndromes Associated With the Midline Region of the Cerebellar
Cortex
Syndromes Associated With the Cerebellar Hemispheres

Section vi Integrative Systems

21 The Autonomic Nervous System


Introduction
Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Division
Spinal Sympathetic Preganglionic Neurons
Paravertebral Ganglia and the Sympathetic Chains
Prevertebral Ganglia
Functions of the Sympathetic Nervous System
Parasympathetic Division
Brainstem Parasympathetic Preganglionic Neurons
Spinal Parasympathetic Preganglionic Neurons
Functions of the Parasympathetic Nervous System
Enteric Nervous System
Nonadrenergic Noncholinergic Neurotransmission
Autonomic Innervation of Some Selected Organs
Upper Eyelid
Iris and the Ciliary Body of the Eye
Sympathetic Innervation
Parasympathetic Innervation
Sublingual and Submandibular Salivary Glands
Sympathetic Innervation
Parasympathetic Innervation
Parotid Salivary Glands
Sympathetic Innervation
Parasympathetic Innervation
Lacrimal Glands
Sympathetic Innervation
Parasympathetic Innervation
Heart
Sympathetic Innervation
Parasympathetic Innervation
Lungs
Sympathetic Innervation
Parasympathetic Innervation
Gastrointestinal Tract
Sympathetic Innervation
Parasympathetic Innervation
Adrenal Medulla (Suprarenal Gland)
Kidney
Sympathetic Innervation
Parasympathetic Innervation
Urinary Bladder
Sympathetic Innervation
Parasympathetic Innervation
Afferent Innervation
Somatic Innervation
Micturition
Male Reproductive System
Erectile Tissue
Sympathetic Innervation
Parasympathetic Innervation
Somatic Innervation
Afferent Innervation
Male Sexual Response
Male Erectile Dysfunction
Female Reproductive System
Sympathetic Innervation
Parasympathetic Innervation
Somatic Innervation
Afferent Innervation
Blood Vessels
Sympathetic Innervation
Parasympathetic Innervation
Systemic Blood Pressure
Neurotransmitters in the Autonomic Nervous System
Preganglionic Terminals
Postganglionic Terminals
Major Receptors Involved in the Autonomic Nervous System
Cholinergic Receptors
Adrenergic Receptors
Brainstem Areas Regulating Cardiovascular Function
The Nucleus of the Solitary Tract
Caudal Ventrolateral Medullary Depressor Area
Rostral Ventrolateral Medullary Pressor Area
Nucleus Ambiguus
Intermediolateral Cell Column
Baroreceptor Reflex
Cardiopulmonary Reflex
Brainstem Areas Regulating Respiratory Function
Respiratory Neuronal Groups
Chemoreceptor Reflex
Selected Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System
Orthostatic Hypotension
Horner’s Syndrome
Argyll Robertson Pupil
Hirschsprung’s Disease (Megacolon)
Frey’s Syndrome
Raynaud’s Disease
Congestive Heart Failure
Chagas’ Disease
Neurogenic Bladder
22 The Reticular Formation
Introduction
Anatomical Organization of the Reticular Formation
General Characteristics
Afferent Connections
Sensory Systems
Motor Systems
Autonomic (and Higher Order Visceral Regulatory) Regions
Efferent Projections
Organizational Considerations
Pathways to Regions Mediating Sensory Functions and Effects
on Cortical Excitability Levels
Pathways to Regions Mediating Motor Functions
Pathways Mediating Autonomic Functions
Pathways Modulating Functions of the Hypothalamus and
Limbic System
Sleep and Wakefulness
Stages of Sleep
Rapid Eye Movement (Paradoxical) Sleep and Its Anatomical Loci
Role of Other Regions in Sleep and Wakefulness
Sleep Disorders
Narcolepsy
Other Conditions Associated With Hypersomnia
Insomnia
Somnambulism (Sleepwalking)
Night Terrors
Restless Legs Syndrome
Sleep Apnea
Sleep Disorders in Psychiatric Patients
Coma
23 The Hypothalamus
Introduction
Hypothalamic Anatomy
Hypothalamic Nuclei
Connections of the Hypothalamus
Afferent Connections
Efferent Projections
Nature and Functions of Hypothalamic Peptides
Hormones That Target the Anterior Pituitary
Growth Hormone
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
Gonadotropic Hormones
Prolactin
Other Peptides Found in the Hypothalamus
Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide
Cholecystokinin
Neurotensin
Substance P
Pro-Opiomelanocortin Peptides
Angiotensin II
Overview of the Integrative Functions of the Hypothalamus
Regulation of Cardiovascular Processes
Hypothalamic Control of Cardiovascular Functions
Temperature Regulation
Feeding Behavior
Early Concept on Regulation of Feeding
More Recent Views
Signals That Induce Feeding
Signals That Induce Satiety
An Overall View
Drinking Behavior
Sexual Behavior
Aggression and Rage
Biological Rhythms
Sleep
Dysfunctions of the Hypothalamus
Hyperthermia
Genital Dystrophy and Abnormalities in Sexual Development
Feeding, Obesity, and Emaciation
Diabetes Insipidus
Effects Upon the Cardiovascular System: Hypertension and Horner’s
Syndrome
Sleep Disorders
Aggression and Rage
24 The Limbic System
Introduction
Hippocampal Formation
Histology and Local Anatomical Connections
Afferent Connections
Efferent Connections
Functions and Dysfunctions of the Hippocampal Formation
Aggression and Rage
Endocrine Functions
Learning and Memory Functions of the Hippocampal Formation
Septal Area
Histology
Afferent Connections
Efferent Connections
Functions of the Septal Area
Related Basal Forebrain Nuclei
Amygdala
Histology
Afferent Connections
Efferent Connections
Functions and Dysfunctions of the Amygdala
Limbic Components of the Cerebral Cortex
Anatomical Connections
Functions of the Cerebral Cortex
Prefrontal Cortex
Anterior Cingulate Gyrus
Pathological Activity Within Limbic Circuits
Measurement of Brain Activity: The Electroencephalogram
Epilepsy
25 The Thalamus and Cerebral Cortex
Introduction
Anatomical and Functional Characteristics of the Gray Matter of the
Cerebral Cortex
Morphological Features
Cytoarchitectonic Division of the Cerebral Cortex
Neurotransmitters
Cortical Layers Associated With Inputs and Outputs
Excitability Characteristics of Neurons Within a Cortical Column
Afferent Connections of the Cerebral Cortex
The Thalamus
Defining Characteristics of Thalamic Nuclei
Functional Organization of the Thalamus
Other (Nonthalamic) Regions That Project to the Cerebral Cortex
Brainstem Reticular Formation
Forebrain
Localization of Function Within the Cerebral Cortex
The Parietal Lobe
Effects of Lesions
Regions Associated With Visual Functions
Projection Patterns From the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
Analysis of Form Perception
Features of Cortical Columns Within the Occipital Cortex
Functions of the Temporal Neocortex
Inferotemporal Cortex (Inferior Temporal and Occipitotemporal
[Fusiform] Gyri)
Middle Temporal Gyrus
Superior Temporal Gyrus
Effects of Lesions of the Occipital and Temporal Regions of the
Cortex
Regions Associated With Speech Deficits
Temporal–Parietal Region (Wernicke’s Area)
Frontal Lobe (Broca’s Area)
Functions of the Frontal Lobe
Motor Regions of the Cortex
Summary and Review of Descending Cortical Pathways
Lesions of the Motor Regions of the Frontal Lobe
Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex
General Functions of the Cerebral Cortex: Cerebral Dominance, Cortical
Excitability, and Learning and Memory
Cerebral Dominance
Role of the Corpus Callosum in Hemispheric Transfer of
Information
Examples of Cerebral Dominance
Cortical Excitability: A Summary
Learning and Memory
Disorders Affecting Cognitive Processes and Mental Status
26 Blood Supply of the Central Nervous System
Introduction
Arterial Supply of the Brain
Internal Carotid Arteries
The Ophthalmic Artery
The Posterior Communicating Artery
The Anterior Choroidal Artery
The Anterior Cerebral Artery
The Middle Cerebral Artery
Vertebro-Basilar Circulation
The Vertebral Artery
The Anterior Spinal Artery
The Posterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery
The Posterior Spinal Artery
The Basilar Artery
The Anterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery
The Labyrinthine (Internal Auditory) Artery
The Pontine Arteries
The Superior Cerebellar Artery
The Posterior Cerebral Arteries
Cerebral Arterial Circle (Circle of Willis)
Watershed Brain Areas
Meningeal Arteries
Venous Drainage of the Brain
The Sinuses
The Superior Sagittal Sinus
The Inferior Sagittal Sinus
The Transverse Sinuses
The Confluence of Sinuses
The Cavernous Sinuses
The Sphenoparietal Sinuses
The Cerebral Veins
The Superficial Cerebral Veins
The Deep Cerebral Veins
The Meningeal Veins
The Spinal Cord
Arteries
Posterior Spinal Arteries
Anterior Spinal Artery
The Spinal Medullary Arteries
Radicular Arteries
Veins
27 Vascular Syndromes
Introduction
Neuroimaging
Computed Tomography
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Magnetic Resonance Angiography
Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Positron Emission Tomography
Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography
Angiography (Arteriography)
Vascular Syndromes
Cerebral Vascular Syndromes
Anterior Cerebral Artery Syndrome
Middle Cerebral Artery Syndrome
Posterior Cerebral Artery Syndrome
Midbrain Vascular Syndromes
Weber’s Syndrome
Claude’s Syndrome
Parinaud’s Syndrome
Benedikt’s Syndrome
Superior Cerebellar Artery Syndrome
Pontine Vascular Syndromes
Caudal Basal Pontine Syndrome
Locked-in Syndrome
Medial Tegmental Pontine Syndrome
Caudal Tegmental Pontine Syndrome
One-and-a-Half Syndrome
Rostral Basal Pontine Syndrome
Dorsolateral Tegmental Pontine Syndrome
Rostral Tegmental Pontine Syndrome
Medullary Vascular Syndromes
Lateral Medullary Syndrome
Medial Medullary Syndrome
Dorsal Medullary Syndrome
Hematomas
Epidural Hematoma
Subdural Hematoma
Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
Stroke
Watershed Stroke
28 Behavioral and Psychiatric Disorders
Introduction
Schizophrenia
Behavioral Aspects
Major Subtypes
Paranoid Schizophrenia
Disorganized (Hebephrenic) Schizophrenia
Catatonic Schizophrenia
Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
Course of Development
Hereditary Factors
Brain Abnormalities
Neurochemical Factors
Dopamine
Serotonin
Other Transmitters
Drug Treatments
Depression and Other Mood Disorders
Major Depressive (Unipolar) Disorder
Bipolar Disorder
Dysthymia and Cyclothymia
Hereditary Factors
Brain Abnormalities
Neurochemical Factors and Drug Treatments
Dopamine
Norepinephrine
Serotonin
The Role of Lithium for Treatment of Bipolar Disorder
Neuroendocrine Function and Sleep
Anxiety Disorders and Drug Treatments
Panic Disorder
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Conversion Disorder (Functional Neurological System Disorder)
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Substance Abuse and Brain Function
Neural Mechanisms
Molecular Sites
Brain Circuits Mediating the Rewarding Effects of Drugs
Examples of Specific Drugs of Abuse
Hallucinogens
Opioids
Drugs of Abuse Used by Those Afflicted with Anxiolytic Disorders
Stimulants
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa
Bulimia Nervosa

Glossary
Index

You might also like