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v1

A Note on the Representation of

Clifford Algebra
Ying-Qiu Gu∗
School of Mathematical Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
(Dated: 28th February 2020)

Abstract: In this note we construct explicit complex and real matrix representations
for the generators of real Clifford algebra C`p,q . The representation is based on Pauli ma-
trices and has an elegant structure similar to the fractal geometry. We find two classes of
representation, the normal representation and exceptional one. The normal representation
is a large class of representation which can only be expanded into 4m + 1 dimension, but the
exceptional representation can be expanded as generators of the next period. In the cases
p + q = 4m, the representation is unique in equivalent sense. These results are helpful for
both theoretical analysis and practical calculation. The generators of Clifford algebra are
the faithful basis of p + q dimensional Minkowski space-time or Riemann space, and Clifford
algebra converts the complicated relations in geometry into simple and concise algebraic
operations, so the Riemann geometry expressed in Clifford algebra will be much simple and
clear.

Keywords: Clifford algebra, Pauli matrix, gamma matrix, matrix representation

AMS classes: 15A66, 15A30, 15B99

I. INTRODUCTION

Clifford algebra was firstly defined by W. K. Clifford in 1878[1], which combines length concept
of Hamilton’s quaternion(1843, [2]) and Grassmann’s exterior algebra(1844, [3]). The introduce of
Dirac’s spinor equation [4] has greatly promoted the research on Clifford algebra. Further devel-
opment of the theory of Clifford algebras is associated with a number of famous mathematicians
and physicists: R. Lipschitz, T. Vahlen, E. Cartan, E. Witt, C. Chevalley, M. Riesz and others
[5, 6, 7].
Due to its excellent properties, Clifford algebra has gradually become a unified language and
efficient tool of modern science, and is widely used in different branches of mathematics, physics

∗
Electronic address: [email protected]

© 2020 by the author(s). Distributed under a Creative Commons CC BY license.

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and engineering[8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Theoretically we have some equivalent definitions for
Clifford algebras[16, 17]. For the present purpose, we use the original definition of Clifford, which
is based on the generators of basis.
Definition 1 Suppose V is n-dimensional vector space over field R, and its basis {e1 , e2 , · · · , en }
satisfies the following algebraic rules

ea eb + eb ea = 2ηab I, ηab = diag(Ip , −Iq ), n = p + q. (1.1)

Then the basis

ek ∈ {I, ea , eab = ea eb , eabc = ea eb ec , · · · , e12···n = e1 e2 · · · en |1 ≤ a < b < c ≤ n} (1.2)

P
together with relation (1.1) and number multiplication C = k ck ek (∀ck ∈ R) form a 2n -
dimensional real unital associative algebra, which is called real universal Clifford algebra
L P
C`p,q = nk=0 ⊗k V , and C = k ck ek is called Clifford number.
For C`0,2 , we have C = tI + xe1 + ye2 + ze12 with

e21 = e22 = e212 = −1, e1 e2 = −e2 e1 = e12 , e2 e12 = −e12 e2 = e1 , e12 e1 = −e1 e12 = e2 . (1.3)

By (1.3) we find C is equivalent to a quaternion, that is we have isomorphic relation C`0,2 ∼

= H.
Similarly, for C`2,0 we have C = tI + xe1 + ye2 + ze12 with

e21 = e22 = e212 = 1, e1 e2 = −e2 e1 = e12 , e2 e12 = −e12 e2 = −e1 , e12 e1 = −e1 e12 = −e2 . (1.4)

By (1.4), the basis is equivalent to

     
0 1 1 0 0 −1
e1 =   , e2 =   , e12 =  . (1.5)
1 0 0 −1 1 0

Thus (1.5) means C`2,0 ∼

= Mat(2, R).
For general cases, the matrix representation of Clifford algebra is an old problem with a long
history. As early as in 1908, Cartan got the following periodicity of 8[16, 17].

Theorem 1 For real universal Clifford algebra C`p,q , we have the following isomorphism
 n

 Mat(2 2 , R), if mod (p − q, 8) = 0, 2



 n−1 n−1

 Mat(2 2 , R) ⊕ Mat(2 2 , R), if mod (p − q, 8) = 1


C`p,q ∼
n−1
= Mat(2 2 , C), if mod (p − q, 8) = 3, 7 (1.6)



 n−2

 Mat(2 2 , H), if mod (p − q, 8) = 4, 6



 n−3 n−3
Mat(2 2 , H) ⊕ Mat(2 2 , H), if mod (p − q, 8) = 5.
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In contrast with the above representation for a whole Clifford algebra, we find the representation
of the generators (e1 , e2 · · · en ) is more fundamental and important in the practical applications.
For example, C`0,2 ∼
= H is miraculous in mathematics, but it is strange and incomprehensible in
geometry and physics, because the basis e12 ∈ ⊗2 V has different geometrical dimensions from that
of e1 and e2 . How can e12 take the same place of e1 and e2 ? Besides, C`2,0  C`0,2 is also abnormal
in physics, because the different signs of metric are simply caused by different conventions.
For the generators in 1 + 3 dimensional space-time, Pauli got the following result[17, 18, 19].

Theorem 2 Consider two sets of 4 × 4 complex matrices γ µ , β µ , (µ = 0, 1, 2, 3). The 2 sets satisfy
the following C`1,3

γ µ γ ν + γ ν γ µ = β µ β ν + β ν β µ = 2η µν , (µ, ν = 0, 1, 2, 3). (1.7)

Then there exists a unique (up to multiplication by a complex constant) complex matrix T such
that

γ µ = T −1 β µ T, µ = 0, 1, 2, 3. (1.8)

This theorem is generalized to the cases of real and complex Clifford algebras of even and odd
dimensions in [19, 20].
In this note we construct explicit complex and real matrix representations for the generators
of Clifford algebra. The problem is aroused from the discussion on the specificity of the 1 + 3
dimensional Minkowski space-time with Prof. Rafal Ablamowicz and Prof. Dmitry Shirokov.
They have done a number of researches on general representation theory of Clifford algebra[16,
17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. Many isomorphic or equivalent relations between Clifford algebra and
matrices were provided. However, the representation of generators provides some new insights into
the specific properties of the Minkowski space-time and the dynamics of fields[25, 26, 27], and it
discloses that the 1+3 dimensional space-time is really special.

II. THE CANONICAL MATRIX REPRESENTATION FOR GENERATORS OF

CLIFFORD ALGEBRAS

Denote Minkowski metric by (η µν ) = (ηµν ) = diag(1, −1, −1, −1), Pauli matrices σ µ by
       
 1 0 0 1 0 −i 1 0 
σµ ≡  , , ,  , (2.1)
 0 1 1 0 i 0 0 −1 
σ0 = σ
e0 = I, ek = −σ k , (k = 1, 2, 3).
σ (2.2)
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Define γ µ by
  m
m
0 ϑeµ z }| { z }| {
γ =
µ  ≡ Γµ (m), ϑµ = diag(σµ , σµ , · · · , σµ ), ϑeµ = diag(σ
eµ , σ
eµ , · · · , σ
eµ ). (2.3)
ϑµ 0

which forms the generator or grade-1 basis of Clifford algebra C`1,3 . To denote γ µ by Γµ (m) is
for the convenience of representation of high dimensional Clifford algebra. For any matrices C µ
satisfying C`1,3 Clifford algebra, we have[25, 26]

Theorem 3 Assuming the matrices C µ satisfy anti-commutative relation

C µ C ν + C ν C µ = 2η µν , (2.4)

then there is a natural number m and an invertible matrix K, such that K −1 C µ K = γ µ . This
means in equivalent sense, we have unique representation (2.3) for generator of C`1,3 .

In this note, we derive complex representation of C`(p, q) based on Thm.3, and then derived
the real representations according to the complex representations.

Theorem 4 Let

γ 5 = idiag(E, −E), E ≡ diag(I2k , −I2l ), k + l = n. (2.5)

Other γ µ , (µ ≤ 3) are given by (2.3). Then the generators of Clifford algebra C`1,4 are equivalent
to ∀γ µ , (µ = 0, 1, 2, 3, 5).

Proof. Since we have gotten the unique generator γ µ for C`1,3 , so we only need to derive γ 5
for C`1,4 . Assuming 4n × 4n matrix
 
A B
X= , (2.6)
C D

satisfies γ µ X + Xγ µ = 0, (∀µ = 0, 1, 2, 3). By γ 0 X + Xγ 0 = 0 we get D = −A, C = −B. By

γ k X + Xγ k = 0 we get

ϑk B + Bϑk = 0, ϑk A − Aϑk = 0. (2.7)

By the first equation we get B = 0, and then X = diag(A, −A). Assuming A = (Aab ), where ∀Aab
are 2×2 matrices. Then by the second equation in (2.7) we get block matrix A = (Kab I2 ) ≡ K ⊗I2 ,
where K is a n × n matrix to be determined. In this paper, the direct product ⊗ of matrices is
defined as Kronecker product.
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For X 2 = I4n we get A2 = I2n , and then K 2 = In . Therefore, there exists an invertible n × n
matrix q such that q −1 Kq = diag(Ik , −Il ). Let 2n × 2n block matrix Q = q ⊗ I2 , we have

Q−1 AQ = diag(I2k , −I2l ) ≡ E, ϑk Q = Qϑk . (2.8)

Let γ 5 = idiag(E, −E), then all {γ µ , µ = 0, 1, 2, 3, 5} constitute the generators of C`1,4 . We prove
the theorem.
Again assuming matrix X1 satisfies γ µ X1 + X1 γ µ = 0. By the above proof we learn that
X1 = diag(A1 , −A1 ). Solving X1 γ 5 + γ 5 X1 = 0, we get X1 = 0 if k 6= l. In this cases we can not
expand the derived γ µ as matrix representation for C`1,5 . But in the case k = l, we find X12 = −I
have solution, and A1 has a structure of iγ 1 . Then the construction of generators can proceed. In
this case, we have the following theorem.

Theorem 5 Suppose that 8n × 8n matrices Aµ = diag(C µ , −C µ ), µ, ν ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3} satisfy

Aµ Aν + Aν Aµ = 2η µν , Aµ γ2n
ν ν
+ γ2n Aµ = 0, (2.9)

then there is an 8n × 8n matrix K, such that

µ µ µ
K −1 Aµ K = diag(γnµ , −γnµ ) ≡ β2n , Kγ2n = γ2n K. (2.10)

In which γnµ means n σ µ in ϑµ . Then {γ2n

µ µ
, β2n } constitute all generators of C`2,6 .

µ µ e ⊗ I2 , where L
e = (Lab ) is
Proof. By Kγ2n = γ2n K we get K = diag(L, L) and L = (Lab I2 ) ≡ L
µ e µ also
e µ ⊗ I2 . Then C
a 2n × 2n matrix to be determined. By (2.9) we have C µ = (Cab I2 ) ≡ C
e such that L
satisfies C`1,3 Clifford algebra. By Thm.3, there is a matric L e −1 C
eµ L
e = γ µ . Then this

K proves the theorem.

Since (iγ µ )2 = −(γ µ )2 , instead of C`p,q we directly use C`p+q in some cases for complex represen-
tation. Similarly to the case C`4 , in equivalent sense we have unique matrix representation for C`8 .
For C`9 , besides the generators constructed by the above Thm.5, we need another generator γ 9 . By
calculation similar to (2.8), we find γ 9 = diag(E, −E, −E, E) and E = diag(I2k , −I2l ), k + l = n.
For C`10 , we also have two essentially different cases similar to C`6 . If k 6= l, γ 9 and the above
generators cannot be expanded as generators of C`10 . We call this representation as normal rep-
resentation. Clearly k 6= l is a large class of representations which are not definitely equivalent.
In the case of k = l, the above generators can be uniquely expanded as generators for C`12 . We
call this representation as exceptional representation. The other generators are given by

µ
α4n = diag(γnµ , −γnµ , −γnµ , γnµ ) ⊗ I4 . (2.11)
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In order to express the general representation of generators, we introduce some simple notations.
Im stands for m × m unit matrix. For any matrix A = (Aab ), denote block matrix

A ⊗ Im = (Aab Im ), [A, B, C, · · · ] = diag(A, B, C, · · · ). (2.12)

Obviously, we have I2 ⊗ I2 = I4 , I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 = I8 and so on. In what follows, we use Γµ (m) defined

in (2.3). For µ ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3}, Γµ (m) is 4m × 4m matrix, which constitute the generator of C`1,3 .
Similarly to the above proofs, we can check the following theorem by method of induction.

Theorem 6 1◦ In equivalent sense, for C`4m , the matrix representation of generators is uniquely
given by
© £ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¤
Γµ (n), Γµ 2n2 , −Γµ 2n2 ⊗ I2 ,
££ µ ¡ n ¢ ¡ ¢¤ £ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¤¤
Γ 24 , −Γµ 2n4 , − Γµ 2n4 , −Γµ 2n4 ⊗ I22 , (2.13)
£ µ¡n¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¤ ª
Γ 26 , −Γµ 2n6 , −Γµ 2n6 , Γµ 2n6 , −Γµ 2n6 , Γµ 2n6 , Γµ 2n6 , −Γµ 2n6 ⊗ I23 , · · · .

In which n = 2m−1 N , N is any given positive integer. All matrices are 2m+1 N × 2m+1 N type.
2◦ For C`4m+1 , besides (2.13) we have another real generator

γ 4m+1 = [E, −E, −E, E, −E, E, E, −E · · · ], E = [I2k , −I2l ]. (2.14)

If and only if k = l, this representation can be uniquely expanded as generators of C`4m + 4.

3◦ For any C`p,q , {p, q|p + q ≤ 4m, mod (p + q, 4) 6= 1}, the combination of p + q linear
independent generators {γ µ , iγ ν } taking from (2.13) constitutes the complete set of generators. In
the case {p, q|p + q ≤ 4m, mod (p + q, 4) = 1}, besides the combination of {γ µ , iγ ν }, we have
another normal representation of generator taking the form (2.14) with k 6= l.
4◦ For C`m , (m < 4), we have another 2 × 2 Pauli matrix representation for its generators
{σ 1 , σ 2 , σ 3 }.
Then we get all complex matrix representations for generators of real C`p,q explicitly.

The real representation of C`p,q can be easily constructed from the above complex represen-
tation. In order to get the real representation, we should classify the generators derived above.
Let Gc (n) stand for any one set of all complex generators of C`n given in Thm.6, exceptional
representation or normal one, and set the coefficients before all σ µ and σ
eµ as 1 or i. Denote Gc+
stands for the set of complex generators of C`n,0 and Gc− for the set of complex generators of
C`0,n . Then we have

Gc = Gc+ ∪ Gc− , Gc− ∼

= iGc+ . (2.15)
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By the construction of generators, we have only two kinds of γ µ matrices. One is the matrix
with real nonzero elements, and the other is that with imaginary nonzero elements. This is because
all nonzero elements of σ 2 are imaginary but all other σ µ (∀µ 6= 2) are real. Again assume

Gc+ = Gr ∪ Gi , Gr = {γrµ |γrµ is real}, Gi = {γiµ |γiµ is imaginary}. (2.16)

Denote J2 = iσ 2 , we have J22 = −I2 . J2 becomes the real matrix representation for imaginary
unit i. Using the direct products of complex generators with (I2 , J2 ), we can easily construct the
real representation of all generators for C`p,q from Gc+ as follows.

Theorem 7 1◦ For C`n,0 , we have real matrix representation of generators as

Gr+ = {γ µ ⊗ I2 (if γ µ ∈ Gr ); iγ ν ⊗ J2 (if γ ν ∈ Gi )}. (2.17)

2◦ For C`0,n , we have real matrix representation of generators as

Gr− = {γ µ ⊗ J2 |γ µ ∈ Gr+ }. (2.18)

3◦ For C`p,q , we have real matrix representation of generators as

 ¯ 
 ¯ µa µa ∈ G , (a = 1, 2, · · · , p) 
¯ Γ+ = γ r+
Gr = Γµ+a , Γν−b ¯¯ . (2.19)
 ¯ Γ = γ b ∈ G , (b = 1, 2, · · · , q) 
νb ν
− r−

Obviously we have Cnp Cnq = (Cnp )2 choices for the real generators of C`p,q from each complex
representation.

Proof. By calculating rules of block matrix, it is easy to check the following relations

(γ µ ⊗ I2 )(γ ν ⊗ J2 ) + (γ ν ⊗ J2 )(γ µ ⊗ I2 ) = (γ µ γ ν + γ ν γ µ ) ⊗ J2 , (2.20)

(γ µ ⊗ J2 )(γ ν ⊗ J2 ) + (γ ν ⊗ J2 )(γ µ ⊗ J2 ) = −(γ µ γ ν + γ ν γ µ ) ⊗ I2 . (2.21)

By these relations, Thm.7 becomes a direct result of Thm.6.

For example, we have 4 × 4 real matrix representation for generators of C`0,3 as

i{σ 1 , σ 2 , σ 3 } ∼
= {σ 1 ⊗ J2 , iσ 2 ⊗ I2 , σ 3 ⊗ J2 } ≡ {Σ1 , Σ2 , Σ3 } =
     

 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 


      

       

 0 0 −1 0   0 0 0 1  −1 0 0 0 
 ,  ,   . (2.22)
      

  0 1 0 0  −1 0 0 0   0 0 0 −1  

      


 −1 0 0 0 

0 −1 0 0 0 0 1 0

It is easy to check

Σk Σl + Σl Σk = −2δ kl , Σk Σl − Σl Σk = 2²klm Σm . (2.23)

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III. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

For different purpose, Clifford algebra has several different definitions, and 5 kinds are listed in
references [16, 17, 28]. The following definition is the most commonly used in theoretical analysis.
Definition 2 Suppose (V, Q) is an n < ∞ dimensional quadratic space over field F, and A is a
unital associative algebra. There is an injective mapping J : V → A such that
i) I ∈
/ J(V );
ii) (J(x))2 = Q(x)I, ∀x ∈ V ;
iii) J(V ) generates A.
Then the set A together with mapping J is called Clifford algebra C`(V, Q) over F.
The above definition includes the case of degenerate Clifford algebra C`p,q,r . For example, if
Q(x) = 0, the Clifford algebra C`0 becomes Grassmann algebra. In the non-degenerate case, if
the standard orthogonal basis of V is introduced, we can derive Definition 1. The definition based
on the quotient algebra of tensor algebra in V is introduced by Chevalley[16, 17], but it is too
abstract for common readers. In the author’s opinion, the most efficient and convenient definition
of Clifford algebra should be as follows.
Definition 3 Assume the element of an n = p + q dimensional space-time Mp,q over R is
described by

dx = γµ dxµ = γ µ dxµ = γa δX a = γ a δXa , (3.1)

where γa is the local orthogonal frame and γ a the coframe. The space-time is endowed with distance
ds = |dx| and oriented volumes dVk calculated by

1
dx2 = (γµ γν + γν γµ )dxµ dxν = gµν dxµ dxν = ηab δX a δX b , (3.2)
2
dVk = dx1 ∧ dx2 ∧ · · · ∧ dxk = γµν···ω dxµ1 dxν2 · · · dxωk , (1 ≤ k ≤ n), (3.3)

in which Minkowski metric (ηab ) = diag(Ip , −Iq ), and Grassmann basis γµν···ω = γµ ∧ γν ∧ · · · ∧ γω ∈
Λk (Mp,q ). Then the Clifford-Grassmann number

C = c0 I + cµ γ µ + cµν γ µν + · · · + c12···n γ 12···n , (∀ck ∈ R) (3.4)

together with multiplication rule of basis given in (3.2) and associativity define the 2n -dimensional
real universal geometric algebra C`p,q .
In some sense, Definition 1 is for all scientists, Definition 2 is for mathematicians, and the
definition of Chevalley is only for algebraists. However, the Definition 3 can be well understood by
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all common readers including high school students, which directly connects normal intelligence with
the deepest wisdom of Nature[26, 27]. From the geometric and physical point of view, the definition
of Clifford basis in Definition 1 is inappropriate, because in the case of non-orthogonal basis,
e12 = e1 ¯ e2 + e1 ∧ e2 ∈ Λ0 ∪ Λ2 is a mixture with different dimensions, and the geometric meaning
which represents is not clear. But the Grassmann basis in Definition 3 is not the case, where each
term has a specific geometric meaning and has covariant form under coordinate transformation.
The coefficients in (3.4) are all tensors with clear geometric and physical meanings.
To use the Definition 3, the transformation law of Grassmann basis under Clifford product is
important. Now we discuss it briefly.

Theorem 8 For γ µ and γ θ1 θ2 ···θk ∈ Λk , we have

³ ´
γ µ γ θ1 θ2 ···θk = g µθ1 γ θ2 ···θk − g µθ2 γ θ1 θ3 ···θk + · · · + (−)k+1 g µθk γ θ1 ···θk−1 + γ µθ1 ···θk , (3.5)
³ ´
γ θ1 θ2 ···θk γ µ = (−)k+1 g µθ1 γ θ2 ···θk + (−)k g µθ2 γ θ1 θ3 ···θk + · · · + g µθk γ θ1 ···θk−1 + γ θ1 ···θk µ . (3.6)

Proof. Clearly γ µ γ θ1 θ2 ···θk ∈ Λk−1 ∪ Λk+1 , so we have

γ µ γ θ1 θ2 ···θk = a1 g µθ1 γ θ2 ···θk + a2 g µθ2 γ θ1 θ3 ···θk + · · · + ak g µθk γ θ1 ···θk−1 + Aγ µθ1 ···θk . (3.7)

Permuting the indices θ1 and θ2 , we find a2 = −a1 . Let µ = θ1 , we get a1 = 1. Check the monomial
in exterior product, we get A = 1. Thus we prove (3.5). In like manner we prove (3.6).
In the case of multivectors γ µ1 µ2 ···µl γ θ1 θ2 ···θk , we can define multi-inner product A ¯k B as
follows[29]

γ µν ¯ γ αβ = g µβ γ να − g µα γ νβ + g να γ µβ − g νβ γ µα , (3.8)

γ µν ¯2 γ αβ = g µβ g να − g µα g νβ , ··· (3.9)

For example, we have

γ µν γ αβ = γ µν ¯2 γ αβ + γ µν ¯ γ αβ + γ µναβ . (3.10)

The derivation of the paper is constructive, so it can be used for both theoretical analysis
and practical calculation. From the results we find C`1,3 has specificity and takes fundamental
place in Clifford algebra theory. By the above representations of generators, we can easily get the
relations between bases such as γ abc = i²abcd γd γ 5 in C`1,3 . The generators of Clifford algebra are
the faithful bases of p + q dimensional Minkowski space-time or pseudo-Riemann space as shown
in (3.1)-(3.4), and Clifford algebra converts the complicated relations in geometry into simple and
concise algebraic calculus[27], so the Riemann geometry expressed in Clifford algebra will be much
simpler and clearer than current version.
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10

Acknowledgments

The author is grateful to his supervisor Prof. Ta-Tsien Li for his encouragement. It is my
pleasure to thank Prof. R. Ablamowicz and Prof. D. S. Shirokov for helpful discussion on repre-
sentation theory. Special thanks to a reviewer for the detailed suggestions for revision of the paper
and improvement of my knowledge.

[1] W. Clifford, Application of Grassmann’s Extensive Algebra, Amer. J. Math., 1: 350-358(1878).

[2] W. Hamilton, On Quaternions, or on a New System of Imaginaries in Algebra, Philosophical Magazine
(1844).
[3] H. Grassmann, Die Lineale Ausdehnungslehre, ein neuer Zweig derMathematik [The Theory of Linear
Extension, a New Branch of Mathematics], (1844).
[4] P. Dirac, The Quantum Theory of the Electron, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. A117 (1928) 610-624.
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