5V

1
1
2 CL
9 CLK
10 LD
7 TE 15

1
PE CO
6 11

+
5 P4 Q4 12
4 P3 Q3 13
3 P2 Q2 14
P1 Q1
14161
-
2

Electronic Instrumentation
Experiment 7
Digital Logic Devices and the 555 Timer
 Agenda

 Basic Logic Gates

 Flip Flops
 Counters
 555 Timers

Electronic Instrumentation 3
 What you will know:
 How to identify logic gates, their truth
tables, and boolean equation
 What a Flip Flop does and how it works
 How a counter uses Flip Flops to count in
binary
 How to convert Decimal to Binary to
Hexadecimal
 How a 555 Timer Works
 What Pulse Width Modulation does
Electronic Instrumentation 4
Basic Logic Gates
 Combinational Logic Devices
 Boolean Algebra
 DeMorgan’s Laws

Electronic Instrumentation 5
Review: Advantages of Digital Systems
 Inherent ability to deal with degraded electric
signals
• Slight variation in input still translated to correct
output value

 Digital logic used for algorithmic control and

data manipulation
 Analog circuits are used to sense and
manipulate the surrounding environment
Electronic Instrumentation 6
• A binary signal, the most common digital signal, is a signal
that can take only one of two discrete values and is
therefore characterized by transitions between two states.

• In binary arithmetic, the two discrete values f1 and f0 are

represented by the numbers 1 and 0, respectively.

Electronic Instrumentation 7
 Mathematical Logic: Digital Systems
 Mathematical logic allows us to reason about
the truth of a set of statements which may be
true or false
• IF N-S is green
• AND E-W is red
• AND 45 seconds has expired
since last light change
• THEN the N-S lights can be
changed from green to yellow
 Boolean algebra is the algebraic system for
manipulating logic statements
Electronic Instrumentation 8
Combinational Logic Devices
 Logic Gates perform basic logic operations, such as
AND, OR and NOT, on binary signals.
 We can model the behavior of these chips by
enumerating the output they produce for all possible
inputs.
 In order to show this behavior, we use truth tables,
which show the output for all input combinations.
 The outputs of combinational logic gates depend only
on the instantaneous values of the inputs. (no
memory)

Electronic Instrumentation 9
Logic Gates

Y=1(true) if A is 0 or Y is 0
Y=1(true) if A and B (inputs) (false) Inversion of AND
are both 1 (true)

Y=1(true) if both A and B are 0

Y=1(true) if A or B or both (false) Inversion of OR
(inputs) are 1 (true)

Y=1(true) when inputs differ in

Y is the A (input) flipped value

Y is the same as A (input) Y=1(true) when inputs coincide

in value
Electronic Instrumentation 10
• The basis of boolean algebra lies in the operations of
logical addition, or the OR operation, and logical
multiplication, or the AND operation.
• OR Gate
• If either X or Y is true (1), then Z is true (1)

• AND Gate
• If both X and Y are true (1), then Z is true (1)

• Logic gates can have an arbitrary number of inputs.

• Note the similarities to the behavior of the mathematical
operators plus and times.

Electronic Instrumentation 11
Laws of Boolean Algebra

Electronic Instrumentation 12
 Procedure for complementing a
DeMorgan’s Laws complex function

The complemented expression is formed by:

Replacing inputs with their complements, 1’s become 0’s and vice
versa, and ANDs become ORs and vice versa
Electronic Instrumentation 13
Example Problem

   
   
   
   

Inverting Signal A
NAND AND
OrSignal
U1A U1A output
Aoutput
and and and
U3A
B Aoutput
inverted
IfElectronic
Ifmatch
If match either
make make
or0 both1 if
if not
Instrumentation
ismake
not
1 make
make
1 1 0 14
Example Problem
 Write the Boolean expression
NAND ( ¯¯
● )

OR (+)

Inverter ( ¯¯ )

AND ( ● )

U1A + U3A (¯¯¯¯¯¯)

●A¯ ●(¯¯¯¯¯)
● ¯

Electronic Instrumentation 15
Flip Flops
 Sequential Logic Devices
 Flip Flops
 By-Pass Capacitors

Electronic Instrumentation 16
Sequential Logic Devices
 In a sequential logic device, the timing or sequencing of the
input signals is important. Devices in this class include flip-
flops and counters.
 Output depends on current inputs and the history of previous
inputs
 Positive edge-triggered devices respond to a low-to-high (0 to
1) transition, and negative edge-triggered devices respond to a
high-to-low (1 to 0) transition.

1 positive negative positive

edge edges edge
0

Electronic Instrumentation 18
Flip-Flops
• A flip-flop is a sequential device that can store and
switch between two binary states.
• It is called a bistable device since it has two and only
two possible output states: 1 (high) and 0 (low).
• It has the capability of remaining in a particular state
(i.e., storing a bit) until the clock signal and certain
combinations of the input cause it to change state.

Electronic Instrumentation 19
Simple Flip Flop Example: The RS Flip-Flop

Q=0
Note that the output depends on
Q=1
three things: the two inputs and
the previous state of the output.

Electronic Instrumentation 20
Inside the R-S Flip Flop

Note that the enable signal is the clock, which regularly pulses.
This flip flop changes on the rising edge of the clock. It looks at
the two inputs when the clock goes up and sets the outputs
according to the truth table for the device.
Electronic Instrumentation 21
Inside the J-K Flip Flop

Note this flip flop, although structurally more complicated, behaves

almost identically to the R-S flip flop, where J(ump) is like S(et) and
K(ill) is like R(eset). The major difference is that the J-K flip flop
allows both inputs to be high. In this case, the output switches state
or “toggles”.

Electronic Instrumentation 22
By-Pass Capacitors
V+

GND

 In a sequential logic device, a noisy signal can generate

erroneous results.
 By-pass capacitors are placed between 5V and 0V to filter
out high frequency noise.
 A by-pass capacitor should be used in any circuit involving a
sequential logic device to avoid accidental triggering.

Electronic Instrumentation 23
Counters
 Binary Numbers
 Binary Counters
 Timing Diagrams

Electronic Instrumentation 24
Decimal-Binary conversion
 The decimal number system represents quantities
using digits 0 through 9:
 For example in base 10 the number 154 can be
represented as
• 15410= 1x100 + 5x10 +4
• 15410=1x102+5x101+4x100
 Binary number can be represented only by two digits
0 and 1 so in base 2 the 8-bit binary number
100110102= 1x27 + 0x26 + 0x25 + 1x24 + 1x23 + 0x22
+1x21 + 0x20
=1x128 + 0x64 + 0x32 +1x16 + 1x8 + 0x4
+1x2 +0x1
=128 + 16 + 8 + 2 =15410
Electronic Instrumentation 25
Binary – Decimal -- Hexadecimal Conversion
10110101110001011001110011110110 binary number

11 5 12 5 9 12 15 6 equivalent base 10 value for

each group of 4 consecutive
binary digits (bits)

B 5 C 5 9 C F 6 corresponding hexadecimal
(base 16) digit

equivalent hexadecimal
B5C59CF6 number

Decimal 8 = 1x23 + 0x22 + 0x21 +0x20 = 01000 in Binary

Calculator Applet
Electronic Instrumentation 26
Binary Counters
 Binary Counters do exactly what it sounds like they should.
They count in binary.
 Binary numbers are comprised of only 0’s and 1’s.

Decimal QD QC QB QA
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1

Electronic Instrumentation 27
 Binary Counters are made with Flip Flops
      

http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/synchronous_counter.html
Each flip flop corresponds to one bit in the counter.
Hence, this is a four-bit counter.
J and K are set to toggle (1) (because they are tied together) at
clock edge (triggered)
Output of one is input clock to the next
Electronic Instrumentation 28
Timing Diagram: Typical Output for Binary Counter

 Note how the Q outputs form 4 bit numbers

Electronic Instrumentation 29
555-Timers
 The 555 Timer
 Inside the 555-Timer
 Types of 555-Timer Circuits
 Understanding the Astable Mode Circuit
 Modulation
 Pulse Width Modulation

Electronic Instrumentation 30
The 555 Timer
 The 555 Timer is one of the most popular
and versatile integrated circuits ever produced!
 It is 30 years old and still being used!
 It is a combination of digital and analog circuits.
 It is known as the “time machine” as it performs a wide
variety of timing tasks.
 Applications for the 555 Timer include:
• Bounce-free switches and Cascaded timers
• Frequency dividers
• Voltage-controlled oscillators
• Pulse generators and LED flashers
Electronic Instrumentation 31
555 Timer

8
VCC
R
7
DIS

3
Q
6
2 THR
TR

GND
5
CV
NE555

1
 Each pin has a function
 Note some familiar components inside

Electronic Instrumentation 32
Inside the 555 Timer

Electronic Instrumentation 33
 Inside the 555 Timer

• The voltage divider (blue) has three equal 5K

resistors. It divides the input voltage (Vcc) into
three equal parts.
• The two comparators (red) are op-amps that
compare the voltages at their inputs and saturate
depending upon which is greater.
• The Threshold Comparator saturates when the voltage
at the Threshold pin (pin 6) is greater than (2/3)Vcc.
• The Trigger Comparator saturates when the voltage at
the Trigger pin (pin 2) is less than (1/3)Vcc

Electronic Instrumentation 34
• The flip-flop (green) is a bi-stable device. It
generates two values, a “high” value equal to Vcc
and a “low” value equal to 0V.
• When the Threshold comparator saturates, the flip flop is
Reset (R) and it outputs a low signal at pin 3 (output Q).
• When the Trigger comparator saturates, the flip flop is Set
(S) and it outputs a high signal at pin 3 (output Q).
• The transistor (purple) is being used as a switch, it
connects pin 7 (discharge) to ground when it is
closed.
• When Q is low, Qbar is high. This closes the transistor
switch and attaches pin 7 to ground.
• When Q is high, Qbar is low. This open the switch and
pin 7 is no longer grounded
Electronic Instrumentation 35
Types of 555-Timer Circuits
5V
5V

Ra R

8
VCC
R
R

VCC
7 7
DIS DIS
1K
3
Rb 3 Q
Q
6
6 2 THR
2 THR TR LED

GND
TR LED 5
GND

2
CV
5
CV

0.01uF
NE555
C

1
0.01uF

NE555
C
1

1
 Astable Multivibrator  Monostable Multivibrator
puts out a continuous (or one-shot) puts out one
sequence of pulses pulse each time the switch
is connected
 Binary Counter demo
 The CLAPPER demo
Electronic Instrumentation 36
 Monostable Multivibrator (One Shot)
Vcc 8 4 Reset

R Threshold Comparator
Ra 2 +V
Vcc -
Q
Output
3 R
+ 3
6 -V
R
Trigger +V
-
2 S Q
1 +
Vcc -V
3 Trigger Comparator Control Flip-Flop

7
R
C

1 Monstable Multivibrator
Electronic Instrumentation
One-Shot 37
 Behavior of the Monostable Multivibrator
 The monostable multivibrator is constructed by adding an
external capacitor and resistor to a 555 timer.
 The circuit generates a single pulse of desired duration
when it receives a trigger signal, hence it is also called a
one-shot.
 The time constant of the
resistor-capacitor
combination determines
the length of the pulse.

Electronic Instrumentation 38
Uses of the Monostable Multivibrator
• Used to generate a clean pulse of the correct
height and duration for a digital system
• Used to turn circuits or external components
on or off for a specific length of time.
• Used to generate delays.
• Can be cascaded to create a variety of
sequential timing pulses. These pulses can
allow you to time and sequence a number of
related operations.

Electronic Instrumentation 39
 Astable Pulse-Train Generator (Multivibrator)
Vcc 8 4

R Threshold Comparator
R1 +V
- Output

R Q
+ 3
R2 6 -V
R
+V
-
2 S Q
+
-V
Trigger Comparator Control Flip-Flop

7
R
C

1 Astable Pulse-Train Generator

Electronic Instrumentation 40
 Behavior of the Astable Multivibrator
 The astable multivibrator is simply an oscillator. The astable
multivibrator generates a continuous stream of rectangular off-
on pulses that switch between two voltage levels.
 The frequency of the pulses and their duty cycle are dependent
upon the RC network values.
 The capacitor C charges through the series resistors R1 and R2
with a time constant
(R1 + R2)C.
 The capacitor discharges
through R2 with a time
constant of R2C

Electronic Instrumentation 41
First we must examine how capacitors charge 10V

TCLOSE = 0 R1
1 2
8V
U1
V V
1k V

1
6V
U2

10V
V1

2
TOPEN = 0 C1
4V
Capacitor voltage
C a p ac i t o r V o l ta g e

1uF

2V

0V
0 0s
V ( U 2: 1 )
1m s
V ( R 1: 2 )
2ms
V ( V 1 :+ )
3 ms 4ms 5ms 6ms 7ms 8m s 9ms 1 0m s

Ti m e

 Capacitor C1 is charged up by current flowing

through R1 V1  V 10  V
I CAPACITOR
 CAPACITOR
R1 1k
 As the capacitor charges up, its voltage increases
and the current charging it decreases, resulting in
the charging rate shown
Electronic Instrumentation 43
Capacitor Charging Equations
1 0m A 10V

8m A 8V

6m A

Capacitor resistor
Ca pa c it o r an d R e si st o r C ur re n t
6V

Capacitor
C ap a ci t or V ol t ag e

4m A

current 4V

2m A 2V
voltage
0A 0V
0s 1 ms 2m s 3ms 4 ms 5m s 6 ms 7m s 8ms 9 ms 1 0m s 0s 1 ms 2 ms 3m s 4m s 5ms 6ms 7 ms 8 ms 9m s 10 m s
I ( R1 ) I (C 1 ) V ( U 2: 1 ) V ( R 1: 2 ) V ( V 1: + )
T im e T im e

t
 Capacitor Current I  Ioe 

Capacitor Voltage V  Vo 1  e 

 t



 Where the time constant   RC  R1  C1  1ms

Electronic Instrumentation 44
Understanding the equations
10V

8V

V 6V

Capacitor Voltage

4V Capacitor voltage
2V

0V
1ms
0s 1ms 2ms 3ms 4ms 5ms 6ms 7ms 8ms 9ms 10ms
V(U2:1) V(R1:2) V(V1:+)
Time

 Note that the voltage rises to a little above 6V

in 1ms. 1
(1  e ) .632
Electronic Instrumentation 45
Capacitor Charging and Discharging

 There is a good description of capacitor charging

and its use in 555 timer circuits at
http://www.uoguelph.ca/~antoon/gadgets/555/555.html

Electronic Instrumentation 46
 555 Timer
 At the beginning of the
cycle, C1 is charged through
resistors R1 and R2. The
charging time constant is

 ch arg e  ( R1  R 2)C1
 The voltage reaches
(2/3)Vcc in a time

tch arg e  T 1  0.693( R1  R 2)C1

Electronic Instrumentation 47
 555 Timer
 When the voltage on the
capacitor reaches (2/3)Vcc,
a switch (the transistor) is
closed (grounded) at pin 7.
 The capacitor is discharged
to (1/3)Vcc through R2 to
ground, at which time the
switch is opened and the  disch arg e  ( R 2)C1
cycle starts over.
t disch arg e  T 2  0.693( R 2)C1

Electronic Instrumentation 48
555 Timer

 The frequency is then given by

1 1

 R 1  R 2 C 1  0.693  R 2 C 1
frequency
 charge   discharge 0.693 

1 144
.
f  
0.693( R1  2  R2)C1 ( R1  2  R2)C1
Electronic Instrumentation 49
555 Animation

Output is high for

0.693(Ra+Rb)C

Output voltage high

turns off upper LED
and turns on lower
LED

Capacitor is charging through Ra and Rb

 http://www.williamson-labs.com/pu-aa-555-
timer_slow.htm
Electronic Instrumentation 50
555 Animation
Output is low for
0.693(Rb)C

Output is low
so the upper
LED is on and
the lower LED
is off

Capacitor is discharging
through Rb
Electronic Instrumentation 51
Uses of the Astable Multivibrator

• Flashing LED’s
• Pulse Width Modulation
• Pulse Position Modulation
• Periodic Timers

Electronic Instrumentation 52
 Flashing LED’s

 40 LED bicycle light with 20 LEDs flashing

alternately at 4.7Hz

Electronic Instrumentation 53
PWM: Pulse Width Modulation

 Signal is compared to a sawtooth wave producing

a pulse width proportional to amplitude
 When the value of the (blue) sin wave is more
than the (red) saw tooth wave, the signal is high
Electronic Instrumentation 54
 What Can Be Done With PWM?
Low
Duty Cycle

Medium
Duty Cycle

High
Duty Cycle

 Question: What happens if voltages like the

ones above are connected to a light bulb?
 Answer: The longer the duty cycle, the
longer the light bulb is on and the brighter
the light. Electronic Instrumentation 55
What Can Be Done With PWM?

 Average power can be controlled

 Average flows can also be controlled by fully opening
and closing a valve with some duty cycle
Electronic Instrumentation 56
COMING SOON! Project 4 Optical Link
Transmitting an audio signal using light
Transmitter Circuit

Receiver Circuit

555 Timer and Pulse Modulation

Electronic Instrumentation 57