Module - II : Sensors and Actuators

Course: Mechatronics - ME225002

Autumn 2022

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath

Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, IITRAM

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Outline

Topics to be covered

What are sensors and transducers?

What are actuators?

Basic types of sensors and actuators

Current and future aspects of use in Mechatronic systems

At end of this module, you should be able to:

Identify role and use of sensors/actuators

Working principle, components of sensors/actuators

Visualize scope of sensors/actuators in future

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Measurement?

What is Measurement and why do we need it?

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Measurement Process

Fig: Stages of the measurement process.

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Measurement Process

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Transducer & Sensor

Transducer
A device that converts a signal from one physical form to a corresponding signal, which has a different
physical form.

Sensor
A device that produces an output signal (typically electric) for the purpose of sensing a physical
phenomenon.

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Measurement: Illustration - Intelligent Traffic Management System

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Sensors

Can we measure every phenomenon using sensors?

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Sensor: How do they work?

Three basic phenomena in effect for any sensor operation:

The change in the measured physical variable (i.e., pressure, temperature, displacement) is
translated into a change in the property (resistance, capacitance, magnetic coupling) of the sensor.

The change in the property of the sensor is translated into a low power level electrical signal in the
form of voltage or current.

This low-power sensor signal is amplified, conditioned (filtered), and transmitted to an intelligent
device for processing.

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Classification of Sensors: Based on Energy Conversion

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Classification of Sensors: Based on output signal

Analog
Analog sensors typically have an output, which is proportional to the variable being measured. The output
changes in a continuous way, and this information is obtained on the basis of amplitude.

Digital
Digital refers to a sequence of discrete events. Each event is separate from the previous and next events.
The sensors are digital if their logic-level outputs are of a digital nature.

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Classification of Sensors: Based on power supply

Active
Active sensors require external power for their operation. The external signal is modified by the sensor to
produce the output signal. Typical examples of devices requiring an auxiliary energy source are strain
gauges and resistance thermometers.

Passive
In a passive sensor, the output is produced from the input parameters. The passive sensors (self-generating)
produce an electrical signal in response to an external stimulus. Examples of passive types of sensors
include piezoelectric, thermoelectric, and radioactive.

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Classification of Sensors: Based on operating mode and display

Deflection
Deflection sensors are used in a physical setup where the output is proportional to the measured quantity
that is displayed.

Null
In null-type instruments, zero or null indication leads to the determination of the magnitude of the
measured quantity. These instruments are more accurate and highly sensitive.

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Sensor Performance Parameters

Sensitivity
Sensitivity is the property of the measuring instrument to respond to changes in the measured quantity.

It also can be expressed as the ratio of change of output to change of input.

Ex: In an electrical measuring instrument if a movement of 0.001 mm causes an output voltage change of
0.02 V. Then sensitivity is?

Ex: A Wheatstone bridge requires a change of 9.2 Ω in the unknown arm to produce a change of 5 mm in
galvanometer. Then sensitivity is?

Resolution
The smallest change in input value that will produce an observable change in the output is the resolution.
The inherent resolution should be distinguished from the display device resolution

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Sensor Performance Parameters

Range
The minimum to the maximum value which can be measured. The range defines the allowable range of the
physical quantity that can be detected by the sensor.

Repeatability
Repeatability Error in output value for repeated application of the same input value is called repeatability or
precision. The smaller the repeatability error, the higher the measurement precision would be.
Repeatability is affected by signal interference, vibration, and temperature fluctuation.

Accuracy
Accuracy is a measure of the difference between the measured value and actual value. Accuracy depends
on the inherent instrument limitations.

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Sensor Performance Parameters

Precision
Precision is the ability of an instrument to reproduce a certain set of readings within a given accuracy. It is
dependent on the reliability of the instrument.

What are the precision and accuracy variations for the above illustration?

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Sensor: Offset, Drift, and Noise

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Sensor: Various Principles Measurement

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Resistive Sensors

What?
A resistive sensor is a transducer or electromechanical device that converts a mechanical change such as
displacement into an electrical signal that can be monitored after conditioning.

Resistive sensors are the most common type of sensors.

Some common resistive sensors are potentiometers, strain gauges, etc.
Used to measure linear displacement, Angle, Strain, Force, torque, pressure, Acceleration, etc.
Exploits relationship between resistance, length, temperature, conductivity, and cross-sectional area.

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Capacitive Sensors

What?
Sensing of physical phenomena based on disruption of an electrostatic field.

Used for motion, chemical composition, displacement, electric field indirectly detect many other
variables which can be changed into dielectric constant or motion like acceleration, pressure, fluid
composition fluid level.
Capacitive sensors offer non-contact target detection.
Exploit the relationship between capacitance, dielectric constant, and area.

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Magnetic Sensors

What?
A magnetic sensor detects the magnitude of magnetism and geomagnetism generated by a magnet or
current.

A magneto resistive component for detecting magnetic vectors and a magnet for magnetic vector
biasing that can be recognized by the magnetoresistive component.
Magnetic force lines are not intercepted by nonmagnetic materials and flow through to the other
side. Magnetic sensors may take advantage of these properties to detect objects.
Magnetic field detectors, magnetic positioning and range sensors, magnetic proximity switches,
magnetic force, torque detectors, magnetic flowmeters, and current sensors.

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Inductive Sensors

What?
An inductive sensor is a device that uses the principle of electromagnetic induction to detect or measure
objects.

Their operating principle is based on a coil and high-frequency oscillator that creates a field in the
close surroundings of the sensing surface.
The presence of metal in the operating area causes a change in the oscillation amplitude.
This change is identified by a threshold circuit, which changes the output of the sensor.
Extensively used in industries, military, robotics, rail, aerospace, used to notice ferrous metals like
iron, steel, nickel, cobalt etc. and many other applications.

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Optical Sensors

What?
Sensing of physical phenomena based on disruption of light.

The sensor detects either wavelength, frequency, or polarization of light and converts it into an
electric signal due to the photoelectric effect.
Used in remote sensing satellite, Used in imaging, Quality, and Process Control applications,
Metrology, Medical instruments.
Can be categorized into Through-beam, reflector type, and diffuser type.

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Input and Output Energy possibilities for Sensors

We will be exploring proximity/distance, velocity, acceleration, pressure, force, torque, etc. types of
sensors.

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Some Common Sensors

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Some Common Sensors

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Motion Sensors

Motion Sensing
Motion measurement, especially the measure of displacement, position, and velocity of physical objects is
essential for any feedback control applications.

1. Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a transducer in which a rotation or displacement is converted into a potential difference.

Fig: Linear and Rotary Potentiometer

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Motion Sensors: Potentiometer Principle

The sensor has a linear slider that is attached to the object whose displacement needs to be measured.
This type of transducer converts linear or angular motion into changing resistance, which is
converted directly to a voltage or current signal.
The position of the slider along the resistance element determines the magnitude of the electrical
potential.
The voltage across the wiper of the potentiometer is measured in terms of the displacement, d, and
given for the full range of displacement L as:
d
V=E
L
where E is the voltage across the potentiometer
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Motion Sensors: Potentiometer

When used as a position sensor the moveable object is connected directly to the rotational shaft or
slider of the potentiometer.
The configuration produces a potential or voltage divider type circuit output which is proportional to
the shaft position.
For example, if you apply a voltage of say 10v across the resistive element of the potentiometer the
maximum output voltage would be equal to the supply voltage at 10 volts, with the minimum output
voltage equal to 0 volts. Then the potentiometer wiper will vary the output signal from 0 to 10 volts,
with 5 volts indicating that the wiper or slider is at its half-way or centre position.

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Motion Sensors: Potentiometer

While resistive potentiometer position sensors have many advantages: low cost, low tech, easy to
use etc, as a position sensor they also have many disadvantages: wear due to moving parts, low
accuracy, low repeatability, and limited frequency response.
But there is one main disadvantage of using the potentiometer as a positional sensor. The range of
movement of its wiper or slider (and hence the output signal obtained) is limited to the physical size
of the potentiometer being used.
For example a single turn rotational potentiometer generally only has a fixed mechanical rotation of
between 0 degrees and about 240 to 330 degrees maximum. However, multi-turn pots of up to 3600
degrees (10 x 360 degrees) of mechanical rotation are also available.
For high precision low noise applications conductive plastic resistance element type polymer film
potentiometers are now available. These pots have smooth low friction electrically linear (LIN)
resistive tracks giving them a low noise, long life, and excellent resolution, and are available as both
multi-turn and single-turn devices. Applications for this type of high accuracy position sensor are in
computer game joysticks, steering wheels, and industrial and robot applications.

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Motion Sensors: 2. LVDT
LVDT: Linear variable differential transformers
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) sensor operates based on the transformer principle of
electromagnetism.

Fig. Linear and Rotary LVDTs

High resolution, high accuracy, and good stability make them ideal for applications involving short
displacement measurements.
Sensitive transducers provide resolution down to about 0.05 mm. They have operating ranges from
about 0.1 to 300 mm.
Less sensitive to wide ranges in temperature than potentiometers.
Measurement of the precision gap between weld torch and work surface in welding applications., the
thickness of plates in rolling mills, detection of surface irregularity of parts after they are machined.
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Motion Sensors: LVDT- Working Principle

Fig. LVDTs

An oscillator circuit generates the excitation signal for the primary winding. The demodulator circuit
removes the high-frequency signal content and obtains the magnitude of the induced voltage, which is
related to the core position.
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Motion Sensors: 3. Encoders
Encoder
Encoders are normally digital displacement transducers, consisting of a mechanical element and a sensing
head, typically of optical type.

Fig. Linear and Rotary Encoders

Absolute encoders can measure the position of an object relative to a reference position at any time.
An incremental encoder can measure the change in position, not the absolute position.
Encoders are used for measurement of linear or angular position, velocity, and direction of
movement.
Used in computerized manufacturing machines, motion-control applications, and quality assurance
of equipment.

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Motion Sensors: Absolute Encoders

It typically consists of a rotating and stationary electronic circuit. The rotor is usually a metal, glass,
or plastic disc mounted on the encoder shaft. The disc has some kind of optical pattern, which is
electronically decoded to generate position information.
The rotor disc in the absolute optical encoder uses opaque and transparent segments arranged in a
gray-code pattern.
The stator has corresponding pairs of LEDs and photo-transistors arranged so that the LED light
shines through the transparent sections of the rotor disc and is received by photo-transistors on the
other side.
After the electronic signals are amplified and converted, they are then available for the evaluation of
the position.
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Motion Sensors: Incremental Encoders

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Motion Sensors: Tachometer
Tachometer
Tachometer is a speed-measuring device that provides an analog/digital out- put voltage that is proportional
to the speed.

Tachometers have small AC or DC generators that translate the rotational speed into voltage.
When the tachometer is attached to a rotating shaft it rotates in between magnets and cut the
magnetic field.
The produced voltage is proportional to shaft speed.
The voltage generated inside is calibrated in terms of RPM and hence tachometer shows RPM of
shaft.

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Proximity Sensors
Use
They are used to sense the proximity of an object relative to another object. They usually provide ON/Off
signal indicating the presence or absence of an object.

Types: Capacitance, inductance, photoelectric, hall effect, ultrasonic, laser etc.

Used in Automotive industry, Mechanical engineering, Packaging industry, Timber industry, Printing and
paper industry, Drinks and beverages industry, and Ceramics and brick industry among others.

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Applications of Proximity Sensors

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Capacitive Proximity Sensor

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Inductive Proximity Sensor

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Photoelectric Proximity Sensor

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Hall Effect Proximity Sensor

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Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor
What
Ultrasonic sensors are based on the principle of measuring the propagation time of sound between send and
receive. The barrier principle determines the distance from the sensor to the reflector (retro-reflective
sensor) or to an object (through-beam sensor) in the measuring range.

The objects to be detected can be solid, liquid, granular or in powder form.

They reliably detect transparent or high gloss objects as well as objects of changing color.
Being extremely tolerant to dirt, the efficiency of ultrasonic sensors comes into its own especially in
harsh working environments, as process reliability is not adversely affected by dust, smoke, mist or
similar.
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Comparison of Proximity Sensors

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 GPS: Global Positioning System

Application
GPS (Global Positioning System) are used for getting position information.

Working Principle

GPS is a type of GNSS that uses satellites to

provide locations and time.
Any point on Earth’s surface can be seen by at
least 4 satellites at all times.
GPS receivers can get signals of multiple
satellites. Thus, GPS receivers can calculate
the exact position by solving equations.
The accuracy of GPS is generally in meters.

For further info: Animation

There are other similar GNSS systems such as the BeiDou (China), GLONASS (Russia), Galileo
(European Union), and NavIC (India (operational name))

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GPS: Global Positioning System

A global positioning system (GPS) device uses data from satellites to locate a specific point on the Earth in
a process called trilateration. To trilaterate, a GPS receiver measures the distances to satellites using radio
signals. Trilateration is similar to triangulation, which measures angles, depicted in this illustration. (Ref:
National Geographic)
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Force & Torque Sensors: Strain based measurement

Why?
Strain measurement is used as a secondary step in the measurement of many process variables, including
flow, pressure, weight, and acceleration.

How?

When a force is applied to a structure, it undergoes deformation. The gauge, which is bonded to the
structure, is deformed by strain, and its electrical-resistance changes in a nearly linear fashion.
If a piece of metal wire is stretched, not only does it get longer and thinner, but its resistance
increases.
The greater the strain experienced by the wire, the greater is the change in resistance.

The resistance and strain relationship is

ΔR ΔL
=G
R0 L0
where G is called the gauge factor of the sensor, R0 is the nominal resistance and L0 is the nominal length
under no strain conditions.
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Force & Torque Measurement: Strain Gauges
Commonly encountered strain gauges are (1) wire strain gauges, (2) foil strain gauges, and (3)
semiconductor strain gauges.

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Numericals

Ex 1: A rotary potentiometer has 500 turns of wire and an input range of 0 degrees to 180 degrees.
Calculate its resolution.

Ex 2: Determine the resolution of the linear wire wound potentiometer having 1000 turns of the resistive
element wound uniformly over a length of 10 cm.

Ex 3: A wire wound potentiometer used for measuring displacements is of length 50 mm. The resistive
element has a total resistance of 5-kilo ohms. Determine the sensitivity of the potentiometer.

Ex 4: The input given to a potentiometer is 5 V and the output obtained is 4 V. Determine the distance
moved by the object attached to the slider if the length of the potentiometer is 1 m.

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Numericals

Ex 5: What will be the change in resistance of an electrical strain gauge with gauge factor 2.1 and
resistance 50 ohms if it is subjected to a strain of 0.001?

Ex 6: An electrical strain gauge is fastened to a metallic member subjected to a stress of 1000 N/m2. The
modulus of elasticity of the metal is 2 M N/m2. Calculate the percentage change in resistance of the strain
gauge if the gauge factor is 2.

Ex 7: A strain gauge with factor 4 has a length of 3 mm when unstrained. If the strain gauge has a change
in resistance from 100 ohms to 105 ohms, determine the new length.

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Numericals

Ex 8: A 40 mV output is produced by an LVDT when the core displacement is 8mm from zero position.
Calculate the core displacement when the output is 25 mV.

Ex 9: A parallel plate capacitive sensor has a plate area of 30 mm x 30 mm and a plate spacing of 0.5 mm.
The dielectric constant is given as 8.854 x 10 −12 . Calculate the displacement that causes the capacitance to
decrease by 6pF and the sensitivity of the sensor.

Ex 10: A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 100 ohm at 25 degrees. What will be its
resistance at 50 degrees if the resistance coefficient of platinum is 0.00392/degrees. Given:

Rt = R0 (1 + 𝛼Δt)

where Rt is unknown resistance, R0 is known resistance, 𝛼 is resistance coefficient, t is the change in

temperature.

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Numericals

Ex: A 2-cm diameter steel rod is subjected to a tensile axial force of 2500 N. Assume a strain gauge with a
resistance of 120 , and a gauge factor F of 2 is used to measure the strain due to this loading. Determine
the change in resistance of the gauge under this loading. The modulus of elasticity of steel is 200 GPa.

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Force & Torque Measurement: Load Cell
What?

A load cell has built-in elastic mechanical components on which strain gauges are mounted.
As the load cell experiences the force (or torque), it deforms a small amount which induces a strain
on the sensing the element which can be measured via a strain gauge.
The force/torque to strain relationship is linear by the design of the load cell, the measurement is
proportional to the force/torque.

Fig: various types of load cells

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Force & Torque Measurement: Load Cell

Ex: Consider the force measurement using a strain gauge on a shaft under compression. Let us consider
that the shaft material is steel. The elastic Young’s modulus E = 2 10 8 kNm 2 , and cross-sectional area of
the shaft is A = 10.0 cm 2 . We have a strain gauge bonded on the shaft in the direction of the tension. The
nominal resis- tance of the strain gauge is R 0 = 600 , the gauge factor is G = 2.0. The other three legs of
the Wheatstone bridge also have constant resistances of R 2 = R 3 = R 4 = 600 . The reference voltage for
the Wheatstone bridge is 10.0 VDC. If the output voltage measured V out = 2.0 mV, what is the force?
What is the change in resistance and length?

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Acceleration & Vibration Sensors

Why
Measurement of acceleration is important for systems subject to shock and vibration, dynamic motion, and
external forces.

Fig: Various accelerometers

The majority are of three types, inertial, piezoelectric, and strain-based.

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Acceleration & Vibration Sensors

Fig: Inertial, piezoelectric, and strain-based accelerometers.

Working

Inertial : Spring displacement converted voltage

Piezo : Force converted voltage via piezoelectric effect.
Strain: Strain in cantilever flexible beam corresponds to acceleration. Force converted to voltage.

Piezoelectric-based acceleration sensors have a range as high as 1000 g, with sensor bandwidth up
to 100 kHz.
The range of the accelerations this type of sensor can measure is very similar to those of piezoelectric
type accelerometers, that is up to 1000 g. The bandwidth of the sensor can be as high as a few kHz.

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Pressure Sensors

Fig: Various types of pressure sensors

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Temperature Sensors

What
Measure the amount of heat energy or even coldness that is generated by an object or system. Can be
categorized into contact and non-contact ones.

Fig: Thermostat, Thermistor, RTD, Thermocouple

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Flow Sensors

What can it measure

The fluid medium can be liquid, gas, or a mixture of the two. The flow could be laminar or turbulent and
can be a time-varying phenomenon.

Fig: Flow Sensors

The venturi meter and orifice plate restrict the flow and use the pressure difference to determine the
flow rate.
The rotameter and the turbine meters when placed in the flow path, rotate at a speed proportional to
the flowrate.
Magnetic field is applied in the transverse direction of the flow and the fluid acts as the conductor to
induce voltage proportional to the flow rate in magnetic flow meters.
Ultrasonic flow meters measure fluid velocity by passing high-frequency sound waves through fluid.

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Sensors: Advanced Applications - BioSensors

Fig: Working of Bio Sensors

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Sensors: Advanced Applications - BioSensors

Fig: Applications of Bio Sensors

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Sensors: Smart Sensors

Fig: Smart sensors for Industry 4.0

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Sensors: Smart Sensors

Fig: Smart sensors for Industry 4.0

Smart sensors will be used for Diagnostic and maintenance planning, Efficiency improvement by advanced
computing, Multiple Information by communication, Self-diagnostics, Self-diagnostics, Self-diagnostics,
etc.

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Sensors: MEMS

MEMS sensors have become the heart of whole classes of new devices like fitness trackers, smart watches,
virtual reality glasses and smart sensor nodes for the Internet of Things (IoT).

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MEMS: Applications

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MEMS: Applications

Ref: STM Sensors PvT Ltd.

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MEMS: Applications

Ref: STM Sensors PvT Ltd.

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MEMS: Applications

Ref: STM Sensors PvT Ltd.

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MEMS: Applications

Ref: STM Sensors PvT Ltd.

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NanoSensors

Nanosensors can be defined as sensitive materials used to transmit chemical, physical, or biological
information about nanomaterials and recognition molecules.

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NanoSensors

Fig: Nano sensors used in automobiles.

To detect various chemicals in gases for pollution monitoring

For medical diagnostic purposes either as bloodborne sensors or in lab-on-a-chip type devices
To monitor plant signaling and metabolism to understand plant biology
To study neurotransmitters in brain for understanding neurophysiology

Used in variety of areas such as virus detection, plant health monitoring, detection and evaluation of
organic compounds in soil, intelligent food packaging, Temperature nanosensors for smart manufacturing,
Soil moisture nanosensors etc.
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Sensors: Future Sensors

Fig: Future sensors for various applications

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Errors in Measurement

Errors in Measurement
The deviation between the measured value and the actual value is called error.

Typically there are three categories:

Limiting errors: The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of true
value, which is known as limiting error.
Absolute error: The absolute error of a measurement is the amount by which it was off from the
actual measurement.
Percent error: The percent error of a measurement is the degree to which a measurement is
incorrectly expressed as a proportion of the actual measurement.

Relative Limiting error

The relative limiting error is given as:

Measured Value − True value

Errorr = x100
True value

Ex: A wattmeter has a full-scale range of 2500 Watt. It has an error of 1 % of the true value. What should
be the range of reading if the true power is 1250 Watt?

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Errors in Measurement
Ex: A Ammeter with the range (0-25 A) has a guaranteed accuracy of 1 % of full-scale reading. The
current measured by this ammeter is 10 A. The relative limiting error is?

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Errors in Measurement
Ex: A Ammeter with the range (0-25 A) has a guaranteed accuracy of 1 % of full-scale reading. The
current measured by this ammeter is 10 A. The relative limiting error is?

Limiting error due to combination of Quantities

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Errors in Measurement

Ex: A 10 k resistor with an error of ± 5 % is connected in series with another resistor of 5 k with an error
of ± 10 %. What is error of total network?

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Errors in Measurement

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Errors in Measurement

Ex: A mechatronic speed control system is used where the relationship between the angular velocity and
the force applied is given by the expression:
√︂
F
w=
mr
where F is the force applied in newtons, r is the radius of rotation, m is the mass of the rotating weight, If m
= 200 ± 0.01 g, r = 25 ± 0.01 mm, and F = 500 ± 0.1 % (N), determine the uncertainty in the rotational
speed.

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Errors in Measurement

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