Chapter 2

Introduction to Maps

A map can be simply defined as a graphic representation of the real world.

A map is a symbolic representation of selected characteristics of a place, usually drawn on a
flat surface.

This representation is always an abstraction of reality. Because of the infinite nature

of our Universe it is impossible to capture all of the complexity found in the real
world.

For example, topographic maps abstract the three-dimensional real world at a

reduced scale on a two-dimensional plane of paper.

Maps are used to display both cultural and physical features of the environment.
Standard topographic maps show a variety of information including roads, land-use
classification, elevation, rivers and other water bodies, political boundaries, and the
identification of houses and other types of buildings.

A topographic map is a detailed and accurate illustration of man-made and natural features
on the ground such as roads, railways, power transmission lines, contours, elevations, rivers,
lakes and geographical names.
Another example of a map

 Figure 2a-1 WEATHER MAP. The weather map depicts the distribution patterns of

atmospheric pressure, wind, temperature and humidity at the different levels of the
atmosphere. .

The art of map construction is called cartography. People who work in this field of
knowledge are called cartographers. Even in these early maps, the main goal of this
tool was to communicate information. Today, the art of map making is quite a
sophisticated science employing methods from cartography, engineering, computer
science, mathematics, and psychology. Or concept na ginagawang reference

Cartographers classify maps into two broad categories: reference maps and thematic

maps. Reference maps normally show natural and human-made objects from the
geographical environment with an emphasis on location. Examples of general
reference maps include maps found in atlases and topographic maps, more specifically
street or tourist maps.
A thematic map is a map created to display information about a topic
or theme. Themes can be shown with a choropleth (color), heat map,
sizes, charts, dot-densities, three-dimensional prisms, or cartogram.
 

Map Projection

The shape of the Earth's surface can be described as an ellipsoid. An ellipsoid is a

three-dimensional shape that departs slightly from a purely spherical form.
 Isaac Newton predicted that the earth was shaped like an
oblate ellipsoid based on the fact that its spin should work (slightly) against gravity, causing a
bulge at the equator and flattening at the poles.

Representing the true shape of the Earth's surface on a map creates some problems,
especially when this depiction is illustrated on a two-dimensional surface. To
overcome these problems, cartographers have developed a number of standardized
transformation processes for the creation of two-dimensional maps. Some of the
geographic properties affected by projection distortion include: distance; area; straight
line direction between points on the Earth; and the bearing of cardinal points from
locations on our planet.

The illustrations below show some of the common map projections used today. The
first two-dimensional projection shows the Earth's surface as viewed from space
(Figure 2a-2). This orthographic projection distorts distance, shape, and the size of
areas. Another serious limitation of this projection is that only a portion of the Earth's
surface can be viewed at any one time.

The orthographic projection is an azimuthal perspective projection,

projecting the Earth's surface from an infinite distance to a plane. It
gives the illusion of a three-dimensional globe so it is often used as
inset map or for pictorial views of the Earth from space.
Figure 2a-2: Earth as observed from a vantage point in space. This orthographic
projection of the Earth's surface creates a two-dimensional representation of a three-
dimensional surface. The orthographic projection distorts distance, shape, and the size
of areas.

The second illustration displays a Mercator projection of the Earth (Figure 2a-3).
On a Mercator projection, A cylindrical map projection in which the meridians and parallels
appear as lines crossing at right angles and in which areas appear greater farther from the
equator. 
Figure 2a-3: Mercator map projection. The Mercator projection
is one of the most common systems in use today. It was
specifically designed for nautical navigation.

The Gall-Peters projection was developed to correct some of the distortion found in

the Mercator system (Figure 2a-4). The Mercator projection causes area to be
gradually distorted from the equator to the poles. This distortion makes middle and
high latitude countries to be bigger than they are in reality. The Gall-Peters projection
corrects this distortion making the area occupied by the world's nations more
comparable.

Figure 2a-4: Gall-Peters projection. The Gall-Peters projection

corrects the distortion of area common in Mercator maps. As a
result, it removes the bias in Mercator maps that draws low
latitude countries as being smaller than nations in middle and
high latitudes. This projection has been officially adopted by a
number of United Nations organizations.

 
The Miller Cylindrical projection is another common two-dimensional map used to
represent the entire Earth in a rectangular area (Figure 2a-5). In this project, the Earth
is mathematically projected onto a cylinder tangent at the equator. This projection in
then unrolled to produce a flat two-dimensional representation of the Earth's surface.
This projection reduces some of the scale exaggeration present in the Mercator map.
However, the Miller Cylindrical projection describes shapes and areas with
considerable distortion and directions are true only along the equator.

Figure 2a-5: The Miller Cylindrical projection.

Figure 2a-6 displays the Robinson projection. This projection was developed to

show the entire Earth with less distortion of area. However, this feature requires a
tradeoff in terms of inaccurate map direction and distance.
Figure 2a-6: Robinson's projection. This projection is common
in maps that require somewhat accurate representation of area.
This map projection was originally developed for Rand
McNally and Company in 1961.

The Mollweide projection improves on the Robinson projection and has less area

distortion (Figure 2a-7). The final projection presented presents areas on a map that
are proportional to the same areas on the actual surface of the Earth (Figure 2a-8).
However, this Sinusoidal Equal-Area projection suffers from distance, shape, and
direction distortions.
Figure 2a-7: Mollweide projection. On this projection the only
parallels (line of latitude) drawn of true length are 40° 40' North
and South. From the equator to 40° 40' North and South the
east-west scale is illustrated too small. From the poles to 40° 40'
North and South the east-west scale is illustrated too large.

Figure 2a-8: Sinusoidal Equal-Area projection.

 
Map Scale

Maps are rarely drawn at the same scale as the real world. Most maps are made at a
scale that is much smaller than the area of the actual surface being depicted. The
amount of reduction that has taken place is normally identified somewhere on the
map. This measurement is commonly referred to as the map scale. Conceptually, we
can think of map scale as the ratio between the distance between any two points on the
map compared to the actual ground distance represented. This concept can also be
expressed mathematically as:

On most maps, the map scale is represented by a simple fraction or ratio. This type of
description of a map's scale is called a representative fraction. For example, a map
where one unit (centimeter, meter, inch, kilometer, etc.) on the illustration represents
1,000,000 of these same units on the actual surface of the Earth would have a
representative fraction of 1/1,000,000 (fraction) or 1:1,000,000 (ratio). Of these
mathematical representations of scale, the ratio form is most commonly found on
maps.

Scale can also be described on a map by a verbal statement. For example,

1:1,000,000 could be verbally described as "1 centimeter on the map equals 10
kilometers on the Earth's surface" or "1 inch represents approximately 16 miles".

Most maps also use graphic scale to describe the distance relationships between the
map and the real world. In a graphic scale, an illustration is used to depict distances on
the map in common units of measurement (Figure 2a-9). Graphic scales are quite
useful because they can be used to measure distances on a map quickly.

Figure 2a-9: The following graphic scale was drawn for map

with a scale of 1:250,000. In the illustration distances in miles
and kilometers are graphically shown.

 
Maps are often described, in a relative sense, as being either small scale or large
scale. Figure 2a-10 helps to explain this concept. In Figure 2a-10, we have maps
representing an area of the world at scales of 1:100,000, 1:50,000, and 1:25,000. Of
this group, the map drawn at 1:100,000 has the smallest scale relative to the other two
maps. The map with the largest scale is map C which is drawn at a scale of 1:25,000.

Figure 2a-10: The following three illustrations describe the

relationship between map scale and the size of the ground area
shown at three different map scales. The map on the far left has
the smallest scale, while the map on the far right has the largest
scale. Note what happens to the amount of area represented on
the maps when the scale is changed. A doubling of the scale
(1:100,000 to 1:50,000 and 1:50,000 to 1:25,000) causes the
area shown on the map to be reduced to 25% or one-quarter.
(b). Location, Distance, and Direction on Maps

Location on Maps

Most maps allow us to specify the location of points on the Earth's surface using a

coordinate system. For a two-dimensional map, this coordinate system can use simple
geometric relationships between the perpendicular axes on a grid system to define
spatial location. Figure 2b-1 illustrates how the location of a point can be defined on
a coordinate system.
Figure 2b-1: A grid coordinate system defines the location of
points from the distance traveled along two perpendicular axes
from some stated origin. In the example above, the two axes are
labeled X and Y. The origin is located in the lower left hand
corner. Unit distance traveled along each axis from the origin is
shown. In this coordinate system, the value associated with the
X-axis is given first, following by the value assigned from the
Y-axis. The location represented by the star has the coordinates
7 (X-axis), 4 (Y-axis).

Two types of coordinate systems are currently in general use in geography:

the geographical coordinate system and the rectangular (also
called Cartesian) coordinate system.

Geographical Coordinate System

The geographical coordinate system measures location from only two values,

despite the fact that the locations are described for a three-dimensional surface. The
two values used to define location are both measured relative to the polar axis of the
Earth. The two measures used in the geographic coordinate system are
called latitude and longitude.
Figure 2b-2: Lines of latitude or parallels are drawn parallel to
the equator (shown in red) as circles that span the Earth's
surface. These parallels are measure in degrees (°). There are 90
angular degrees of latitude from the equator to each of the poles.
The equator has an assigned value of 0°. Measurements of
latitude are also defined as being either north or south of equator
to distinguish the hemisphere of their location. Lines
of longitude or meridians are circular arcs that meet at the
poles. There are 180° of longitude either side of a starting
meridian which is known the Prime Meridian. The Prime
Meridian has a designated value of 0°. Measurements of
longitude are also defined as being either west or east of the
Prime Meridian.

Latitude measures the north-south position of locations on the Earth's surface relative

to a point found at the center of the Earth (Figure 2b-2). This central point is also
located on the Earth's rotational or polar axis. The equator is the starting point for the
measurement of latitude. The equator has a value of zero degrees. A line of latitude
or parallel of 30° North has an angle that is 30° north of the plane represented by the
equator (Figure 2b-3). The maximum value that latitude can attain is either 90° North
or South. These lines of latitude run parallel to the rotational axis of the Earth.
Figure 2b-3: Measurement of latitude and longitude relative to
the equator and the Prime Meridian and the Earth's rotational
or polar axis.

Longitude measures the west-east position of locations on the Earth's surface relative

to a circular arc called the Prime Meridian (Figure 2b-2). The position of the Prime
Meridian was determined by international agreement to be in-line with the location of
the former astronomical observatory at Greenwich, England. Because the Earth's
circumference is similar to circle, it was decided to measure longitude in degrees. The
number of degrees found in a circle is 360. The Prime Meridian has a value of zero
degrees. A line of longitude or meridian of 45° West has an angle that is 45° west of
the plane represented by the Prime Meridian (Figure 2b-3). The maximum value that
a meridian of longitude can have is 180° which is the distance halfway around a
circle. This meridian is called the International Date Line. Designations of west and
east are used to distinguish where a location is found relative to the Prime Meridian.
For example, all of the locations in North America have a longitude that is designated
west.

Universal Transverse Mercator System (UTM)
Another commonly used method to describe location on the Earth is the Universal
Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid system. This rectangular coordinate system is
metric, incorporating the meter as its basic unit of measurement. UTM also uses the
Transverse Mercator projection system to model the Earth's spherical surface onto a
two-dimensional plane. The UTM system divides the world's surface into 60 - six
degree longitude wide zones that run north-south (Figure 2b-5). These zones start at
the International Date Line and are successively numbered in an eastward direction
(Figure 2b-5). Each zone stretches from 84° North to 80° South (Figure 2b-4). In the
center of each of these zones is a central meridian. Location is measured in these
zones from a false origin which is determined relative to the intersection of the
equator and the central meridian for each zone. For locations in the Northern
Hemisphere, the false origin is 500,000 meters west of the central meridian on the
equator. Coordinate measurements of location in the Northern Hemisphere using
the UTM system are made relative to this point in meters in eastings (longitudinal
distance) and northings (latitudinal distance). The point defined by the intersection of
50° North and 9° West would have a UTM coordinate of Zone 29, 500000 meters east
(E), 5538630 meters north (N) (see Figures 2b-4 and 2b-5). In the Southern
Hemisphere, the origin is 10,000,000 meters south and 500,000 meters west of the
equator and central meridian, respectively. The location found at 50° South and 9°
West would have a UTM coordinate of Zone 29, 500000 meters E, 4461369 meters N
(remember that northing in the Southern Hemisphere is measured from 10,000,000
meters south of the equator - see Figures 2b-4 and 2b-5).

 
Figure 2b-4: The following illustration describes the
characteristics of the UTM zone "29" found between 12 to 6°
West longitude. Note that the zone has been split into two
halves. The half on the left represents the area found in the
Northern Hemisphere. The Southern Hemisphere is located on
the right. The blue line represents the central meridian for this
zone. Locations measurements for this zone are calculated
relative to a false origin. In the Northern Hemisphere, this origin
is located 500,000 meters west of the equator. The Southern
Hemisphere UTM measurements are determined relative to a
origin located at 10,000,000 meters south and 500,000 meters
west of the equator and central meridian, respectively.

The UTM system has been modified to make measurements less confusing. In this
modification, the six degree wide zones are divided into smaller pieces or
quadrilaterals that are eight degrees of latitude tall. Each of these rows is labeled,
starting at 80° South, with the letters C to X consecutively with I and O being omitted
(Figure 2b-5). The last row X differs from the other rows and extends from 72 to 84°
North latitude (twelve degrees tall). Each of the quadrilaterals or grid zones are
identified by their number/letter designation. In total, 1200 quadrilaterals are defined
in the UTM system.

The quadrilateral system allows us to further define location using the UTM system.

For the location 50° North and 9° West, the UTM coordinate can now be expressed as
Grid Zone 29U, 500000 meters E, 5538630 meters N.
Figure 2b-5: The UTM system also uses a grid system to break
the Earth up into 1200 quadrilaterals. To keep the illustration
manageable, most of these zones have been excluded.
Designation of each quadrilaterals is accomplished with a
number-letter system. Along the horizontal bottom, the six
degree longitude wide zones are numbered, starting at 180°
West longitude, from 1 to 60. The twenty vertical rows are
assigned letters C to X with I and O excluded. The letter, C,
begins at 80° South latitude. Note that the rows are 8 degrees of
latitude wide, except for the last row X which is 12 degrees
wide. According to the reference system, the bright green
quadrilateral has the grid reference 29V (note that in this system
west-east coordinate is given first, followed by the south-north
coordinate). This grid zone is found between 56 and 64° North
latitude and 6 and 12° West longitude.

 
Each UTM quadrilateral is further subdivided into a number of 100,000 by 100,000
meter zones. These subdivisions are coded by a system of letter combinations where
the same two-letter combination is not repeated within 18 degrees of latitude and
longitude. Within each of the 100,000 meter squares one can specify location to one-
meter accuracy using a 5 digit eastings and northings reference system.

The UTM grid system is displayed on all United States Geological Survey (USGS)

and National Topographic Series (NTS) of Canada maps. On USGS 7.5-minute
quadrangle maps (1:24,000 scale), 15-minute quadrangle maps (1:50,000, 1:62,500,
and standard-edition 1:63,360 scales), and Canadian 1:50,000 maps the UTM grid
lines are drawn at intervals of 1,000 meters, and are shown either with blue ticks at the
edge of the map or by full blue grid lines. On USGS maps at 1:100,000 and 1:250,000
scale and Canadian 1:250,000 scale maps a full UTM grid is shown at intervals of
10,000 meters. Figure 2b-6 describes how the UTM grid system can be used to
determine location on a 1:50,000 National Topographic Series of Canada map.

Figure 2b-6: The top left hand corner the "Tofino"

1:50,000 National Topographic Series of Canada map is
shown above. The blue lines and associated numbers on the map
margin are used to determine location by way of the UTM grid
system. Abbreviated UTM 1,000-meter values or principle
digits are shown by numbers on the map margin that vary from
0 to 100 (100 is actually given the value 00). In each of the
corners of the map, two of the principle digits are expressed in
their full UTM coordinate form. On the image we can see
283000 m E. and 5458000 m N. The red dot is found in the
center of the grid defined by principle numbers 85 to 86 easting
and 57 to 58 northing. A more complete UTM grid reference for
this location would be 285500 m E. and 5457500 m N.
Information found on the map margin also tells us (not shown)
that the area displayed is in Grid Zone 10U and the 100,000 m
squares BK and CK are located on this map.

Distance on Maps

In section 2a, w e have learned that depicting the Earth's three-dimensional surface on

a two-dimensional map creates a number of distortions that involve distance, area, and
direction. It is possible to create maps that are somewhat equidistance. However, even
these types of maps have some form of distance distortion. Equidistance maps can
only control distortion along either lines of latitude or lines of longitude. Distance is
often correct on equidistance maps only in the direction of latitude.

On a map that has a large scale, 1:125,000 or larger, distance distortion is usually
insignificant. An example of a large-scale map is a standard topographic map. On
these maps measuring straight line distance is simple. Distance is first measured on
the map using a ruler. This measurement is then converted into a real world distance
using the map's scale. For example, if we measured a distance of 10 centimeters on a
map that had a scale of 1:10,000, we would multiply 10 (distance) by 10,000 (scale).
Thus, the actual distance in the real world would be 100,000 centimeters.

Measuring distance along map features that are not straight is a little more difficult.
One technique that can be employed for this task is to use a number of straight-line
segments. The accuracy of this method is dependent on the number of straight-line
segments used (Figure 2b-7). Another method for measuring curvilinear map
distances is to use a mechanical device called an opisometer. This device uses a small
rotating wheel that records the distance traveled. The recorded distance is measured
by this device either in centimeters or inches.
Figure 2b-7: Measurement of distance on a map feature using
straight-line segments.

Direction on Maps

Like distance, direction is difficult to measure on maps because of the distortion

produced by projection systems. However, this distortion is quite small on maps with
scales larger than 1:125,000. Direction is usually measured relative to the location
of North or South Pole. Directions determined from these locations are said to be
relative to True North or True South. The magnetic poles can also be used to
measure direction. However, these points on the Earth are located in spatially different
spots from the geographic North and South Pole. The North Magnetic Pole is located
at 78.3° North, 104.0° West near Ellef Ringnes Island, Canada. In the Southern
Hemisphere, the South Magnetic Pole is located in Commonwealth Day, Antarctica
and has a geographical location of 65° South, 139° East. The magnetic poles are also
not fixed overtime and shift their spatial position overtime.

Topographic maps normally have a declination diagram drawn on them (Figure 2b-
8). On Northern Hemisphere maps, declination diagrams describe the angular
difference between Magnetic North and True North. On the map, the angle of True
North is parallel to the depicted lines of longitude. Declination diagrams also show the
direction of Grid North. Grid North is an angle that is parallel to the easting lines
found on the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid system (Figure 2b-8).
Figure 2b-8: This declination diagram describes the angular
difference between Grid, True, and Magnetic North. This
illustration also shows how angles are measured relative grid,
true, and magnetic azimuth.

In the field, the direction of features is often determined by a magnetic compass which
measures angles relative to Magnetic North. Using the declination diagram found on a
map, individuals can convert their field measures of magnetic direction into directions
that are relative to either Grid or True North. Compass directions can be described by
using either the azimuth system or the bearing system. The azimuth system
calculates direction in degrees of a full circle. A full circle has 360 degrees (Figure
2b-9). In the azimuth system, north has a direction of either the 0 or 360°. East and
west have an azimuth of 90° and 270°, respectively. Due south has an azimuth of
180°.
Figure 2b-9: Azimuth system for measuring direction is based
on the 360 degrees found in a full circle. The illustration shows
the angles associated with the major cardinal points of the
compass. Note that angles are determined clockwise from north.

The bearing system divides direction into four quadrants of 90 degrees. In this system,
north and south are the dominant directions. Measurements are determined in degrees
from one of these directions. The measurement of two angles based on this system are
described in Figure 2b-10.
Figure 2b-10: The bearing system uses four quadrants of 90
degrees to measure direction. The illustration shows two
direction measurements. These measurements are made relative
to either north or south. North and south are given the
measurement 0 degrees. East and west have a value of 90
degrees. The first measurement (green) is found in the north -
east quadrant. As a result, its measurement is north 75 degrees
to the east or N75°E. The first measurement (orange) is found
in the south - west quadrant. Its measurement is south 15
degrees to the west or S15°W.

Global Positioning Systems

Determination of location in field conditions was once a difficult task. In most cases,
it required the use of a topographic map and landscape features to estimate location.
However, technology has now made this task very simple. Global Positioning
Systems (GPS) can calculate one's location to an accuracy of about 30-meters
(Figure 2b-11). These systems consist of two parts: a GPS receiver and a network of
many satellites. Radio transmissions from the satellites are broadcasted continually.
The GPS receiver picks up these broadcasts and through triangulation calculates the
altitude and spatial position of the receiving unit. A minimum of three satellite is
required for triangulation.
Figure 2b-11: Handheld Global Positioning Systems (GPS).
GPS receivers can determine latitude, longitude, and elevation
anywhere on or above the Earth's surface from signals
transmitted by a number of satellites. These units can also be
used to determine direction, distance traveled, and determine
routes of travel in field situations.