DIGESTIONS, OVERVIEW OF
METABOLISM AND METABOLISM
OF CARBOHYDRATES
by Breana Joelle Baydo &
Julia Mira Macapagal
TOPIC
OUTLINE
Digestions
Overview of Metabolism
Metabolism of
Carbohydrates
DIGESTION
What is it?
Enzymatic hydrolysis, often known
as hydrolysis catalyzed by an
enzyme, is the only kind of
hydrolysis used in chemical
digestion. Therefore, the same basic
mechanism of hydrolysis occurs in
the case of all three of the main
food types (carbohydrates,
proteins, and lipids). The type of
enzymes needed to promote the
hydrolysis reaction for each type of
food is only one factor to consider.
THREE Salivary
Digestion
STAGES
OF Gastric
Digestion
DIGESTION Intestinal
Digestion
STAGES OF DIGESTION
SALIVARY DIGESTION
Saliva contains the amylase enzyme, which is
secreted by the salivary glands
GASTRIC DIGESTION
gastric digestion occurs in the stomach which
focuses on the breakdown of proteins
INTESTINAL DIGESTION
primary site of intestinal digestion is the small
intestine
DIGESTION OF
CARBOHYDRATE
In an average human diet, only three major
sources of carbohydrates are included:
Starches, Lactose, Sucrose
We don't yet have an enzyme that can hydrolyze
cellulose during the digestion of carbohydrates.
IN THE STOMACH:
Ptyalin's function is lost in the acidic environment.
Therefore, there is no change in the amount of
carbohydrates in the stomach. Only some sucrose
is hydrolyzed by HCl.
IN THE INTESTINE:
DIGESTION OF
PROTEIN
digestion of protein occurs in different parts of the
digestive system:
Mouth, Stomach, Duodenum,
small intestine
proteins are polymers made of monomers called
amino acid.
IN THE MOUTH:
No chemical digestion of protein in the mouth.
Mechanical digestion increases the surface area
for the reaction, which makes the reaction easier.
IN THE STOMACH:
IN THE DUODENUM
IN THE SMALL
INTESTINE
Protein → Peptone → Polypeptide → Amino acid
DIGESTION OF
FATS
Digestion or
hydrolysis of fats
into glycerol or
fatty acids.
IN THE MOUTH
No digestion of fat occurs in the mouth cavity.
IN THE STOMACH
Fat digestion may take place in the stomach
because gastric lipase is present.
IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
Pancreatic lipase and bile salts work together to
primarily breakdown fat in the small intestine.
The lipase enzymes are water-soluble compounds and can
attack the fat globules only on their surfaces and splits into
free fatty acids and monoglycerides.
STAGES OF
METABOLISM
STAGES OF METABOLISM
Stage I
Biodegradation
Stage II
Biosynthesis
Stage III
Energy Production
SUBTYPES
OF METABOLIC
REACTIONS
CATABOLISM
Includes all metabolic reactions in
which LARGE molecules are broken
down to SMALLER ones
ANABOLISM
Includes all metabolic reactions in which
SMALL molecules are put together to form
LARGER ones
1. Nucleotides
METABOLIC
PATHWAY
Adenosine phosphates (AMP, ADP, ATP)
Uridine triphosphates (UTP)
Cytosine triphosphate (CTP)
Guanosine triphosphate (GTP)
2. Coenzymes
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD+)
Coenzyme A
3. High Energy Compounds
refers to the inorganic phosphate
STAGES OF
CATABOLISM
STAGES OF CATABOLISM
Stage I: Hydrolysis to
small subunits
Stage II: Conversion of
monomers
Stage III: Complete
oxidation/ATP produced
STAGES OF CATABOLISM
STAGE 1
Hydrolysis to small/macromolecules subunits
(BIODEGRADATION)
Write down all the
advantages
STAGES OF CATABOLISM
STAGE 2
Conversion of subunits to a form that can be
completely oxidized, usually acetyl CoA
(BIOSYNTHESIS)
Write down all the
advantages
STAGES OF CATABOLISM
STAGE 3
Complete oxidization of acetyl CoA and the
production of ATP (ENERGY PRODUCTION)
Write down all the
advantages
MAJOR PATHWAYS OF
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
METABOLIC PATHWAYS
OF GLUCOSE
GLYCOLYSIS
GLUCONEOGENESIS
GLYCOGENESIS
GLYCOGENOLYSIS
PENTOSE
PHOSPHATE
PATHWAY
GLYCOLYSIS
Embden-Meyerhof Pathway.
As you can see in the diagram, glucose reacts
with oxidizing agent NAD, since there is an
oxidizing agent the process is redox. Now it
oxidizes glucose to pyruvate and the NAD is
reduced to NADH.
STEP 1: IS CONVERTED TO GLUCOSE 6-
PHOSPHATE AND IT CONSUMES ATP. ATP
IS CONVERTED TO ADP, SO ONE OF THE
PHOSPHATES IN ADENOSINE
TRIPHOSPHATE IS TRANSFERRED TO
GLUCOSE.
STEP 2: IS CONVERSION OF GLUCOSE-6-
PHOSPHATE TO FRUCTOSE-6-PHOSPHATE.
THE ENZYME INVOLVED IN STEP 2 IS
PHOSPHO-GLUCOSE ISOMERASE.
FRUCTOSE-6-PHOSPHATE IS ISOMER TO
GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE.
STEP 3: ALSO KINASE, TRANSFER OF
PHOSPHATE GROUP FROM ATP TO
FRUCTOSE-6-PHOSPHATE SPECIFICALLY
TO CARBON 1 OF THE FRUCTOSE OR
FORMING FRUCTOSE-1-6 BY PHOSPHATE.
STEP 4: SO THERE ARE TWO PRODUCTS,
ONE MOLECULE OF GLYCEROLDEHYDE-3-
PHOSPHATE AND DIHYDROXYACETONE-
PHOSPHATE.
STEP 5: ONE OF THE PRODUCTS OF 4
WHICH IS DIHYDROXYACETONE-
PHOSPHATE IS CONVERTED TO
GLYCERALDEHYDE-3-PHOSPHATE AND
THAT IS STEP 5.
STEP 6: IT REQUIRES NAD SINCE THERE
ARE TWO GLYCEROLDEHYDE, SO THERE
WILL BE 2 NAD AND NADH (REDUCED
PRODUCT OF NAD).
STEP 7 & 10: IT GENERATES ATP.
FATES OF
PYRUVATE
Oxidation to Acetyl CoA
Reduction to Lactate
Reduction to Alcohol
PYRUVATE CONVERSION
TO ACETYL COA
1. Decarboxylation (loss of CO2)
2. OxidationWrite downwhich
by NAD* all the accepts
deficiency
the hydride anion.
3. Acetyl group linked to coenzyme
A via a thioester bond.
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
necessary for the cycle: riboflavin,
nicotinamide, pantothenic acid, &
thiamin
REACTION OF THE
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
Step 1: Formation of Citrate (condensation)
Step 2: Formation of Isocitrate (isomerization)
Step 3: Oxidation of Isocitrate and formation of
CO₂ (oxidation and decarboxylation)
Step 4: Oxidation of a-ketoglutarate and
formation of CO₂ (oxidation and
decarboxylation)
Step 5: Thioester bond cleavage in Succinyl CoA
& phosphorylation of GDP (phosphorylation)
REACTION OF THE
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
Step 6: Oxidation of Succinate (oxidation)
Step 7: Hydration of Fumarate (hydration)
Step 8: Oxidation of L-malate to regenerate
Oxaloacetate (oxidation)
Overall Reaction in the Citric Acid Cycle
Acetyl CoA + 3NAD+ FAD + GDP + Pi + 2H2O →
2CO2 + COA-SH+ 3NADH + 2H + FADH2 + GTP
ATP PRODUCTION
(CITRIC ACID CYCLE)
ATP PRODUCTION
SUMMARY
ATP PRODUCTION
SUMMARY
GLUCONEOGENESIS
it is the conversion of pyruvate to
glucose
Gluconeogenesis synthesizes glucose
from noncarbohydrate precursors and
is important for the maintenance of
blood glucose levels during starvation
or vigorous exercise
The reaction occurs mainly in the
liver and kidney
CORI CYCLE
during vigorous exercise, pyruvate produced by
glycolysis in muscles is converted to lactate by
lactate dehydrogenase
the lactate diffuses into the blood stream & is
carried to the liver
lactate is converted glucose by gluconeogenesis
the glucose is released into the blood stream and
becomes available for uptake by muscle
Ilustration of the cori cycle
The pancreas responds to low
blood sugar and the adrenal
GLYCO - gland to stress/threat. Both
situations require an increase in
GENOLYSIS blood glucose.
Glycogen phosphorylase is
is the breakdown of involved in glycogen degradation
glycogen into free glucose & is activated
units
Glycogen degradation is
controlled by glucagon Glycogen synthase is involved in
(pancreas) and glycogen synthesis & is
epinephrine (adrenal inactivated
gland).
REACTIONS
Step 1: Glycogen phosphorylase
catalyzes removal of an end glucose
THREE
as glucose-1-Phosphate
Step 2: Debranching enzyme
catalyzes removal of the last glucose
→
at an a(1 6) branch as glucose.
Step 3: Phosphoglucomutase
converts glucose-1-P to glucose-6-
P.
GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASE
in some inherited diseases, glycogen cannot be
reconverted back to glucose
Von Gierke’s Disease
the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate is lacking in the liver, which
results to glycogen accumulation
Pompe’s Disease
lack of lysosomal enzyme that acts in the breakdown of
glycogen
Forbe’s Disease
lack of a debranching enzyme that converts glycogen to
glucose
Glycogenesis
is the synthesis of glycogen from glucose
insulin (pancreas) stimulates synthesis of glycogen.
HORMONAL
CONTROL OF
CARBOHYDRATE
METABOLISM
INSULIN
a hormone produced by the beta cells of the pancreas
insulin promotes the uptake and utilization of glucose
by cells
its functions is it lowers blood glucose where it
activates the enzyme that catalyzed the conversion of
glucose to glycogen
EPINEPHRINE
known as adrenaline
released by the adrenal glands in response to
anger, fear or excitement
has the same function to glucagon but it is
release by the adrenal glands
THE END!
Thank you
for
watching!
