CHAPTER 1 - FLUID AND PROPERTIES

FLUID AND PROPERTIES

OBJECTIVES

General Objective : To know, understand and apply the measurement of

pressure and physical properties of fluid.

Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you should be able to :

⮚ Define and describe fluid characteristics.

⮚ Define types of pressure and solve the problem related to the

pressure gauge.

⮚ Define physical properties of fluid and solve the problems related

to the physical properties of fluid.

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CHAPTER 1 - FLUID AND PROPERTIES

1.1 Fluids and their Properties

1.1.1 Fluids

Fluid Mechanics is a section of applied mechanics, concerned with the static and
dynamics of liquids and gases.

1.1.2 Characteristics of Fluids

Knowledge of fluid mechanics is essential for the chemical engineer, because the
majority of chemical processing operations are conducted either partially or totally
in the fluid phase.

The handling of liquids is much simpler, cheaper, and less troublesome than
handling solids. Even in many operations a solid is handled in a finely divided state
so that it stays in suspension in a fluid.

In everyday life, we recognize three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas.
Although different in many respects, liquids and gases have a common characteristic
in which they differ from solids. Both are fluids, but lacks the ability of solids to offer
a permanent resistance to a deforming force.

A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously under the action of

shearing forces, however small they may be. Conversely, if a fluid is at rest, there can
be no shearing forces acting and, therefore, all forces in the fluid must be
perpendicular to the planes upon which they act.

1.2 DEFINITION OF PRESSURE

Fluid will exert a normal force on any boundary it is in contact with. Since these
boundaries may be large and the force may differ from place to place it is convenient to
work in terms of pressure, p, which is the force per unit area.

Force
pressure 
Area over which the force is applied (Equation 1.1)

Units : Newton’s per square metre, Nm-2,kgm-1s-2.

(The same unit is also known as Pascal, Pa i.e 1 Pa = 1Nm-2)
Also frequently used is the alternative SI unit the bar, where 1 bar = 105Nm-2

In a region such as outer space, which is virtually void of gases, the pressure is
essentially zero. Such a condition can be approached very nearly in a laboratory when a
vacuum pump is used to evacuate a bottle. The pressure in a vacuum is called absolute
zero, and all pressures referenced with respect to this zero pressure are termed absolute
pressures.

Many pressure-measuring devices measure not absolute pressure but only

difference in pressure. For example, a Bourdon-tube gage indicates only the difference
between the pressure in the fluid to which it is tapped and the pressure in the atmosphere.

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CHAPTER 1 - FLUID AND PROPERTIES

In this case, then, the reference pressure is actually the atmospheric pressure. This type of
pressure reading is called gauge pressure. For example, if a pressure of 50 kPa is measured
with a gauge referenced to the atmosphere and the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, then
the pressure can be expressed as either p = 50 kPa gauge or p = 150 kPa absolute.

Whenever atmospheric pressure is used as a reference, the possibility exists that

the pressure thus measured can be either positive or negative. Negative gauge pressure is
also termed as vacuum pressure. Hence, if a gauge tapped into a tank indicates a vacuum
pressure of 31 kPa, this can also be stated as 70 kPa absolute, or -31 kPa gauge, assuming
that the atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa .

1.2.1(a) Atmospheric Pressure, Patm

- The earth is surrounded by an atmosphere many miles high. The

pressure due to this atmosphere at the surface of the earth depends
upon the head of the air above the surface.
- The air is compressible, therefore the density is different at
different height.
- Due to the weight of atmosphere or air above the surface of earth,
it is difficult to calculate the atmospheric pressure. So, atmospheric
pressure is measured by the height of column of liquid that it can
support.
- Atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 101.325 kN/m2, which
is equivalent to a head of 10.35 m of water or 760 mm of mercury
approximately, and it decreases with altitude.

1.2.1(b) Gauge Pressure, PG

- It is the pressure, measured with the help of a pressure

measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as
datum; in other words the atmospheric pressure at the gauge scale is
marked zero.
- The gauge pressure can be either positive or negative depending
on whether the pressure is above atmospheric pressure (a positive
value) or below atmospheric pressure (a negative value).

1.2.3(c) Absolute Pressure, PA

- It is the pressure equal to the algebraic sum of the atmospheric and

gauge pressures.

(Equation 1.2)

1.2.1(d) Vacuum, Pv
- In a perfect vacuum which is a completely empty space, the pressure is
zero.

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CHAPTER 1 - FLUID AND PROPERTIES

Pgau gauge pressure +ve Local

atmospheric
ge pressure
reference
pressure –ve

absolute pressure absolute pressure

Figure 1.2Pressure Gauges

1.2.3 Example 1.2.3.1

Define the following terms :

i. Pressure (P )
ii. Atmospheric Pressure ( Patm)
iii. Gauge Pressure ( PG )
iv. Absolute Pressure ( PA )
v. Vacuum ( Pv )

Example 1.2.3.2
What is the pressure gauge of air in the cylinder if the atmospheric gauge is
101.3 kN/m2 and absolute pressure is 460 kN/m2.

Example 1.2.3.3

Solution (1.2.3.3)

b Local
Example 1.2.3.4 atmospheric
pressure
A Bourdon pressure gauge attached to a boiler located at sea level shows a
reference
reading pressure of 7 bar. If atmospheric pressure is 1.013 bar, what is the
b = gauge pressure +vec Local
absolute pressure in that boiler (in kN/m2)? atmospheric
pressure
reference 4 | Page
a d = pressure
d –ve
 a = absolute pressure d = absolute pressure

CHAPTER 1 - FLUID AND PROPERTIES

SELF-ASSESSMENT

1.1 Assume the density of water to be 1000 kg/m3 at atmospheric pressure 101
kN/m2. What will be:
a) the gauge pressure
b) the absolute pressure of water at a depth of 2000 m below the free surface?

1.2 Determine in Newton per square metre, the increase in pressure intensity per
metre depth in fresh water. The mass density of fresh water is 1000 kg/m3.

a) specific volume of oil

FEEDBACK ON SELF-ASSESSMENT

1.1 a) 0 kN/m2 ,
b) 19721 kN/m2
1.2 9.81 x 103 N/m2

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Fluid Pressure and Depth

A fluid is a substance that flows easily. Gases and liquids are fluids, although sometimes
the dividing line between liquids and solids is not always clear. Because of their ability to flow,
fluids can exert buoyant forces, multiply forces in a hydraulic systems, allow aircraft to fly and
ships to float.

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CHAPTER 1 - FLUID AND PROPERTIES

The topic that this unit will explore will be pressure and depth. If a fluid is within a
container then the depth of an object placed in that fluid can be measured. The deeper the object
is placed in the fluid, the more pressure it experiences. This is because of the weight of the fluid
above it. The more dense the fluid above it, the more pressure is exerted on the object that is
submerged, due to the weight of the fluid.

The formula that gives the pressure, ‘P’ on an object submerged in a fluid is:

Where,
 (rho) is the density of the fluid,
 g is the acceleration of gravity
 h is the height of the fluid above the object

If the container is open to the atmosphere above, the added pressure must be included if
one is to find the total pressure on an object. The total pressure is the same as absolute pressure
on pressure gauge readings, while the gauge pressure is the same as the fluid pressure alone, not
including atmospheric pressure.

Pascal is the unit of pressure in the metric system. It represents 1 Newton/m2.

2.1 PRESSURE AND DEPTH

In Unit 1, we have defined the meaning of ‘pressure’. In this unit we will learn about the
relationship between pressure and depth.

When a liquid (such as water, oil etc) is contained in a vessel, it exerts force at all points
on the sides and bottom of the container. This force per unit area is called pressure. If F is the
force acting on an area a, then intensity of pressure is :

The direction of this pressure is always at right angle to the surface, with which the fluid
at rest, comes into contact.

The intensity of pressure at any point is the force exerted on an unit area at that point
and is measured in Newtons per square metre, N/m2 (Pascals). An alternative metric unit is bar,
which is in N/m2.

In this section, we are going to look into the relationship between depth and pressure.

Figure 2.1

Consider a vessel containing some liquid as shown in Figure 2.1. We know that the liquid
will exert pressure on all sides and the bottom of the vessel. Let a cylinder be made to stand in
the liquid as shown in the figure. The weight of liquid contained in the cylinder is ωhA where ;

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CHAPTER 1 - FLUID AND PROPERTIES

= Specific weight of the liquid

( where is water = 1000 kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s2)
h = Height of liquid in the cylinder
A = Area of the cylinder base

The pressure, at the bottom of the cylinder, will be due to the weight of the liquid
contained in the cylinder. Let this pressure be P.
Then,

which can also be shown as ,

This equation shows that the intensity of pressure at any point, in a liquid, is
proportional to its depth as measured from the surface (as is constant for the given liquid).
It is thus obvious, that the pressure can be expressed in either one of the following two
ways :
a) As force per unit area ( N/m2)
b) As height of equivalent liquid column
Example 2.1
a) Find the density of pressure p at a depth below the surface of a liquid of specific
weight = ρg if the pressure at the free surface is zero.
b) A diver is working at a depth of 20 m below the surface of the sea. How much greater
is the pressure intensity at this depth than at the surface? Take into consideration specific
weight of water is 10000 N/m3.

Solution to Example 2.1 (a)

The column of liquid (Figure 2.2) of cross-sectional area A extending vertically from the
free surface to the depth h is in equilibrium to the surrounding liquid under the action of its
weight acting downwards. The pressure force on the bottom of the column acting upwards, and
the forces on the sides due to the surrounding liquid must act horizontally since there can be no
tangential (shearing) forces in the liquid at rest.
For vertical equilibrium :
Force exerted on base = Weight of column of liquid

since

Since the same relation applies wherever the column is taken, it follows that :
The intensity of pressure is the same at all points in the same horizontal plane in a liquid
at rest.

Solution to Example 2.1 (b)

Putting = 10000 N/m3 and h = 20 m

Therefore,
P = 10000 x 20
= 200000 N/m2

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CHAPTER 1 - FLUID AND PROPERTIES

Example 2.2

Find the height of a water column which is equivalent to the pressure of 2 N/m2.
( Take into consideration specific weight of water, water = 1000 kg/m2 x 9.81 m/s2 )

Solution to Example 2.2

Taking the formula p = h

Putting p = 2 N/m2 and ωwater = 1000 kg/m2 x 9.81 m/s2

Therefore,
h=
h=

ACTIVITY 2.1

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT INPUT…!

2.1 Match the symbols below with their respective meanings.

2.2 Fill in the blanks with suitable words :

1. _______ exerts at all points on the sides and bottom of the container when a liquid
(such as water, oil etc) is contained in a vessel.

2. ______ (Pascal) is the measurement unit for the intensity of pressure at any point
with reference to the formula p = F / A.
3. or

4. Pressure can be expressed in two ways if force per unit area ( N/m2) and _______
of equivalent liquid column are given.

5. We can summarize that, intensity of pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the

same in all _________.

FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 2.1

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CHAPTER 1 - FLUID AND PROPERTIES

2.2

1. Force exerts at all points on the sides and bottom of the container when a liquid
(such as water, oil etc) is contained in a vessel.

2. N/m2 (Pascal) is the measurement unit for the intensity of pressure at any point
with reference to the formula p = F / A.

3. or

4. Pressure can be expressed in two ways if force per unit area ( N/m2) and height
of equivalent liquid column are given.

5. We can summarize that, intensity of pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the

same in all directions.

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