Calculus & Analytical Geometry Instructor: Dr.

Naila Amir
MATH- 101 (SEECS, NUST)
Scaling Graphs
Scaling a graph of a function
 Scaling is a non-rigid translation in which the size and shape of the graph of a function is
changed.
 To scale the graph of a function we stretch or compress it, vertically or horizontally. This
is accomplished by multiplying the function 𝑓, or the independent variable 𝑥, by an
appropriate constant.
 A vertical scaling multiplies/divides every 𝑦 −coordinate by a constant while leaving the
𝑥 −coordinate unchanged.
 A horizontal scaling multiplies/divides every 𝑥 −coordinate by a constant while leaving
the 𝑦 −coordinate unchanged.
Reflection a graph of a function
 A translation in which the graph of a function is mirrored about an axis.
 Reflections are just a special case of the scaling.
 To reflect about the 𝑦 −axis, multiply every 𝑥 by −1 to get −𝑥.
 To reflect about the 𝑥-axis, multiply 𝑓(𝑥) by −1 to get −𝑓(𝑥).
 2𝑓 𝑥 = 2 𝑥 4𝑓 𝑥 = 4 𝑥
yy

y
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 









x
        
x
        x 
        
















The graph 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑎 > 1, is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) but vertically
stretched by a factor of “𝑎”.
What if the value of 𝒂 was positive but less than 1?

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥
yyy



1 1 

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥
2 2






x
xx
















 1 
 1







𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥

4 4












The graph 𝑎𝑓(𝑥), where 0 < 𝑎 < 1, is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) but vertically
compressed by a factor of 𝑎.
What if the value of 𝒂 was negative?
yy



𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥




xx
  
 
     










−𝑓 𝑥 = − 
𝑥

So the graph − 𝑓(𝑥) is a reflection about the 𝑥 −axis of the graph of

𝑓(𝑥). The new graph is obtained by "flipping“ or reflecting the function
over the 𝑥 −axis.
 𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑥 3
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥3
y

y










x x

 
 
 
          












The graph 𝑓(−𝑥) is a reflection about the 𝑦 −axis of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥).
Summary

If 𝑎 > 1, then vertical stretch by a factor of 𝑎.

If 0 < 𝑎 < 1, then vertical compression by a factor of 𝑎.

If 𝑎 < −1, then reflection of graph.

𝑓(−𝑥) reflection about 𝑦 −axis vertical translation by 𝑘

𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑕 + 𝑘
horizontal translation by 𝑕

Note: We always perform reflections

before vertical and horizontal translations
Summary:
Consider the square root function, and then
 Stretch it by 2 units in the 𝑦 −direction.
 Shift it left 1 units, and
 Shift it up 1 units.
Combining Functions
Combining Functions
• There exist different ways to combine functions
to make new functions:
• Arithmetic Combinations of Functions that
includes Sums, Differences, Products and
Quotients.
• Composition of Functions.
 Arithmetic Combinations of Functions
Let f(x) = 5x+2 and g(x) = x2-1. Evaluate each combination at the point x=4. Note that:
f(4)=5(4)+2=22 and g(4)=42-1=15.
Arithmetic Combinations of Functions
• Two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 can be combined to
form new functions

𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 – 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔, 𝑓/𝑔

in a manner similar to the way we add,

subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers.
Sum of Functions
• We define the function 𝑓 + 𝑔 by:

(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)

– The new function 𝑓 + 𝑔 is called the sum of the

functions f and g.

– Its value at 𝑥 is 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥).

Sum of Functions
• Of course, the sum on the right-hand side makes sense only
if both 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are defined, i.e., if 𝑥 belongs to the
domain of 𝑓 and also to the domain of 𝑔.
– So, if the domain of 𝑓 is 𝐴 and that of 𝑔 is 𝐵, then the
domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔 is the intersection of these domains.
– That is, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.
– Note that the sum of two even functions is even, and
the sum of two odd functions is odd.
Differences, Products, and Quotients
• Similarly, we can define:
– the difference 𝑓 – 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔(𝑥),
– the product 𝑓. 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔(𝑥),
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
– the quotient 𝑥 = , as long as 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥)
Note:
• The difference of two even functions is even, and the
difference of two odd functions is odd.
• The product of two even functions is even, and the product of
two odd functions is even. The product of an even function
and an odd function is an odd function.
• The quotient of two even functions is even, and the quotient
of two odd functions is even. The quotient of an even function
and an odd function is an odd function.
Domain of Differences, Products, and
Quotients
• The domain of each of these combinations is the
intersection of the domain of 𝑓 and the domain of 𝑔.
In other words, both functions must be defined at a
point for the combination to be defined. One
additional requirement for the division of functions is
that the denominator can't be zero.

• Their domains are 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.

Algebra of Functions
• Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be functions with domains 𝐴 and 𝐵.
• Then, the functions 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 – 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔, and 𝑓/𝑔
are defined as follows.
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) Domain 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
𝑓−𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑥 −𝑔 𝑥 Domain 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
𝑓𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 Domain 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
𝑓 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥 = Domain *𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵|𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0+
𝑔 𝑔 𝑥
Example: Combinations of Functions
1
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥
𝑥−2

(a) Find the functions 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 – 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔, and 𝑓/𝑔

and their domains.

(b) Find (𝑓 + 𝑔)(4), (𝑓 – 𝑔)(4), (𝑓𝑔)(4), and (𝑓/𝑔)(4).

Solution: (a)
• The domain of 𝑓(𝑥) is *𝑥|𝑥 ≠ 2+ and the domain of 𝑔(𝑥) is
*𝑥|𝑥 ≥ 0+.

• The intersection of the domains of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) is:

*𝑥 | 𝑥 ≥ 0 and 𝑥 ≠ 2+ = ,0, 2) ∪ (2, ∞).
1
• 𝑓+𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑥 +𝑔 𝑥 = + 𝑥 Domain*𝑥|𝑥 ≥ 0 and 𝑥 ≠ 2+
𝑥−2

1
• (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = − 𝑥 Domain*𝑥|𝑥 ≥ 0 and 𝑥 ≠ 2+
𝑥−2
Solution: (a)
𝑥
• 𝑓𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = Domain 𝑥 𝑥 ≥ 0 and 𝑥 ≠ 2
𝑥−2

𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 1
• (𝑥) = = Domain*𝑥|𝑥 > 0 and 𝑥 ≠ 2+
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥) (𝑥−2) 𝑥

– Note that, in the domain of 𝑓/𝑔, we excluded 0 because

𝑔(0) = 0.
Solution: (b)
• Each of these values exist because 𝑥 = 4 is in the domain of
each function.
1 5
– 𝑓+𝑔 4 =𝑓 4 +𝑔 4 = + 4= .
4−2 2
1 3
– 𝑓−𝑔 4 =𝑓 4 −𝑔 4 = − 4= − .
4−2 2
1
– 𝑓𝑔 4 = 𝑓 4 𝑔 4 = 4 = 1.
4−2
𝑓 𝑓 4 1 1
– 4 = = = .
𝑔 𝑔 4 4−2 4 4
Arithmetic Combinations of Functions
Let f(x) = 5x+2 and g(x) = x2-1. Evaluate each combination at the point x=4. Note that:
f(4)=5(4)+2=22 and g(4)=42-1=15.

Note:
• It doesn't matter if we combine and then evaluate or if we evaluate and then
combine.
• In each of the above problems, the domain is all real numbers with the exception of
the division. The domain in the division combination is all real numbers except for 1
and -1.
Composition of Functions
• Now, let’s consider a very important way of combining
two functions to get a new function.
– Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥2 + 1.
– We may define a function 𝑕 as:
𝑕 𝑥 = 𝑓∘𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥2 + 1 = 𝑥 2 + 1.
– The function 𝑕 is made up of the functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 in an
interesting way: Given a number 𝑥, we first apply to it
the function 𝑔, then apply 𝑓 to the result.
Composition of Functions
• In this case,
– 𝑓 is the rule “take the square root.”
– 𝑔 is the rule “square, then add 1.”
– 𝑕 is the rule “square, then add 1, then take
the square root.”
• In other words, we get the rule 𝑕 by applying the
rule 𝑔 and then the rule 𝑓.
Composition of Functions
• In general, given any two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔, we start with a
number 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑔 and find its image 𝑔(𝑥). If this
number 𝑔(𝑥) is in the domain of 𝑓, we can then calculate the
value of 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)).
• The result is a new function 𝑕(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) obtained by
substituting 𝑔 into 𝑓. It is called the composition (or composite)
of 𝑓 and 𝑔 and is denoted by 𝑓 ◦ 𝑔 (“𝑓 composed with 𝑔”).
• The domain of 𝑓 ◦ 𝑔 is the set of all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑔 such
that 𝑔(𝑥) is in the domain of 𝑓. In other words, (𝑓 ◦ 𝑔)(𝑥) is
defined whenever both 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) are defined.
Example: Composition of Functions
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 – 3.

(a) Find the functions f ◦ g and g ◦ f and their domains.

(b) Find (f ◦ g)(5) and (g ◦ f )(7).

Solution:
(a) We have:
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥 − 3) = (𝑥 − 3)2
and
𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥2 = 𝑥2 − 3 .

The domains of both f ◦ g and g ◦ f are ℝ.

(b) We have:
(𝑓 ◦ 𝑔)(5) = 𝑓(𝑔(5)) = 𝑓(2) = 22 = 4
(𝑔 ◦ 𝑓 )(7) = 𝑔(𝑓(7)) = 𝑔(49) = 49 – 3 = 46
Example: Composition of Functions
If f(x) = 𝑥 and g(x) = 2 − 𝑥, find the following functions and
their domains.
(a) f ◦ g
(b) g ◦ f
(c) f ◦ f
(d) g ◦ g
Solution:
4
(a) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓( 2 − 𝑥) = 2−𝑥 = 2−𝑥
The domain of f ◦ g is:
*𝑥 | 2 – 𝑥 ≥ 0+ = *𝑥 𝑥 ≤ 2 = – ∞, 2 .

(b) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑔 𝑥 = 2− 𝑥
For 𝑥 to be defined, we must have 𝑥 ≥ 0. For 2 − 𝑥 to be
defined, we must have 2 – 𝑥 ≥ 0, that is 𝑥 ≤ 2, or x ≤ 4. Thus, we
have: 0 ≤ x ≤ 4. So, the domain of g ◦ f is the closed interval [0, 4].
Practice: Compute part (c) and (d).