Rapid Manufacturing

Prof. J. Ramkumar
Dr. Amandeep Singh Oberoi
Department of Mechanical Engineering & Design Program
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

Lecture – 39
Rapid Product Development, CAD (Part 3 of 3)

Welcome back to the lecture on Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:19)

So, till now, we studied curves, then we studied of the data points, which are generated,
and from that data points, we are trying to form these curves.

 The things which cannot be mathematically represented, are called as synthetic

curves.

 So, curves can be divided into two, one is analytical and another one is synthetic.

 Analytical means, where there is a clear definition of equation available. So,

when there is no clear definition of equation available, then we go for synthetic
curves.
  Easy to enter the data and easy to control the continuity of curves to be to be
designed.

 Requires much less computer storage for the data representing the curve.

 Having no computational problem and faster in computing time.

 Hermite cubic spline

 Bezier curves

 B-spline curves

 Rational B-spline curves

(Refer Slide Time: 01:16)

Hermite cubic spline:

 Hermite cubic spline are more general form of curves that can be defined through
a set of vertices.

 Spline is a piecewise parametric representation of the geometry of a curve, with a

specified level of parametric continuity.

So, moment I said cubic, it is of the third order.

  Each segment of the Hermite cubic spline, is approximated by a parametric cubic
polynomial to maintain a C2 continuity.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:13)

 The parametric equation of a Hermite cubic spline is given by:

 In an expanded form, the same equation can be represented like:

 where u is a parameter and Ci are polynomial coefficients.

 So, if you want to work in simple form, or a algebraic form or a long hand form,
then we will take it by this, but in computers, we always try to convert this into a
matrices form.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:48)

 And generally Hermite cubic spline is expressed in matrix form

(Refer Slide Time: 03:03)

Bezier curves:

 This can be written in matrix form:

(Refer Slide Time: 03:15)

Bezier curve properties:

 The Bezier curve passes through the first and the last control point, while it
maintains proximity to the intermediate control points.

 As such, the entire Bezier curve lies in the interior of a convex hull of a control
point.

 If we are control point is moved, the entire curve moves. Being polynomial
function Bezier curve are easily computed and infinitely differentiable.

 If the control points of the Bezier curve are transformed, the curve moves to the
corresponding new coordinate frame, without changing its shape.
  So, this gives you a freedom of transferring it from one software to the other
software, without any difficulty, or you have a user coordinate system, a world
coordinate system. From the world, you go to user coordinate system, from user,
you go to another user coordinate system.

 The object whatever you have created, will be shifted without any deformation or
change.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:32)

 B-splines can be of any degree, but in computer graphics, the degree of 2 or 3 are
generally found to be sufficient.

 You can go to nth degree; you will have more data. When you have more data,
you will also have more errors coming here and there. So, it is better to stop with
2 and 3 and you also make it computationally little easy.

 The third order polynomial equation requires 4 set of data points.

 The polynomial between xi and xi+1, can be defined as:

 Substituting the values of xi and xi+1 in the above equation, we get and for solving
for the constants.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:20)

 The B-spline curves have the flexibility of choosing the degree of curve,
irrespective of number of control points.

 With four control points, it is possible to get a cubic Bezier curve, with which B-
spline curve, one can get a linear quadratic or a cubic curve.

 B-spline also uses the bias functions (blending functions) and the equation is of
the form
(Refer Slide Time: 05:48)

The B-spline properties:

 The plotting of B-spline curve is done by varying the parameters of u over a

range of knot values.

 The knot vector adds flexibility to the curve and provides better control of its
shape.

 The partitioning of unity: For any knot span ,

 Positivity:
(Refer Slide Time: 06:18)

 The curve follows the shape of a control point and lies in the convex hull of the
control point.

 The entire B-spline curve can be a affinely transformed by transforming the

control points and redrawing the curve from the transformed points.

 These spline exhibits local control, which is not there in Bezier.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:42)

The B-spline properties for CAD:

  The local control can be achieved by changing the position of the control points.

 You are now getting into fragmenting the curve and moving each individual
fragment. The B-spline curve tightens, by increasing its degree, as the degree of
the B-spline is lower, it becomes close to the control polygon.

 If k=n+1, then the resulting B-spline curve is a Bezier curve.

 he B-spline curve is contained within the convex hull of its control points

 Affine transformation of the coordinate system do not change the shape of a B-

spline curve.

 Increasing the degree of the curve, makes it difficult to control, hence cubic B-
spline is sufficient enough to do majority of the applications

(Refer Slide Time: 07:39)

Rational Curves:

 A rational curve utilizes the algebraic ratio of 2 polynomials.

 They are important in CAD because of their invariance when the geometric
transformations are applied.

 The rational curve defined by (n+1) points is given by:

  where is a rational B-spline basic function and it is given by:

(Refer Slide Time: 08:33)

NURBS:

 The uniform cubic B-spline are the curves with the parametric intervals defined
at equal lengths.

 The most common scheme, scheme used in all CAD systems is there non
uniform rational B-spline, allowing an non uniform knot vector.

 It includes both Bezier and B-spline curve.

 The rational form of B-spline can be written as:

 where wi is the weighing factor for each of the vertex.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:06)

NURBS:

 They have all B-spline surface abilities. In addition, they overcome the limitation
of B-spline surfaces, by associating each control point with a weight.

 Uniform representation of large variety of curves and surfaces can be done by

using NURBS.

 NURBS are invariant during geometric transformation, as well as projections.

 NURBS is flexible for designing a large variety of shape, by manipulating the

control points and the weights.

 The weights in the NURBS data structure do determines the amount of surface
deflection towards and away from the control points.

 It makes it possible to create curves, that are true conic sections. Surface based
on conics arcs and spears can be precisely represented by NURBS surface.

 So, the evaluation of NURBS is reasonably faster and numerically stable.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:08)

 Number facilities available in NURBS such as knot

intersection/refinement/removal, degree of elevation, splitting, etc. makes them
ideal to be used throughout the design process.

 NURBS surfaces can be incorporated into an existing solid model by stitching the
NURBS surface to the solid model. So, if you want to add a pack to the solid
surface, it is possible.

 Reverse engineering is heavily dependent on NURBS surfaces to capture

digitized points into surfaces.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:47)

So, the problem with the NURBS are:

 Analytical curves and surfaces requires additional storage.

 NURBS parameterization can often be affected by improper application of

weights, which can lead to subsequent problems in the surface construction.

 Not all geometric interrogation techniques work well with NURBS.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:04)

When we talk about solid models, there are 6 different varieties of solid models. The
most common one, which is boundary representation, in this the solid is divided into
several boundaries. So, each boundary is stored.

1. Boundary Representation:

 The object is represented by means of a bounded face, that enclose it. So, the
solid bounds each boundary.

 Each face is represented by its bounding edges and vertices.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:40)

2. Constructive Solid Geometry:

 The object is represented by an ordered tree of the Boolean operations.

 Non-terminal nodes represent Boolean operators such as regularised union,

intersection or difference.

 The terminal nodes represent a primitive solid and transformation data.

 So, the solid can be drawn through constructive solid geometry. This is not a
unique way, there are several ways to use Boolean operations to represent a solid.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:17)

3. Cell Decomposition:

 The object is presented as a sum or union of a set of cells, into which it is

divided.

 The disjoint cells can be of any shape and size.

 This representing technique is the base of the finite element modelling.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:44)

 4. Spatial Occupancy Enumeration:

 The object is represented by a list of the cubical disjoint spatial cells that it
occupies.

 This is a special case of the cell decomposition, where the shape of the cells is
cubical.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:07)

5. Primitive Instancing:

 The object is represented by a set of solid primitive, such as cuboid, cylinders,

cones, etc.

 Each primitive is usually defined parametrically and located in a space.

 So, this becomes easier, representing a cube in a parametric form is easy.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:34)

6. Sweeping:

 It can be used in making a solid model.

 The object is represented by moving a curve or a surface along some paths.

 This method is useful to model constant cross-sectional parts and symmetrical

parts.

So, all these 6 methods are used to represent a solid.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:10)

Constructive Solid Geometry:

 Otherwise called as CSG

 The CSG is a modelling method that defines the complex solids as compositions
of simple solid primitives.

Simple solid primitives are already discussed in the previous lectures.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:28)

  The terminal nodes can be either primitive or primitive with transformations.

 Non-terminal nodes are either Boolean operators or solid object motions.

 Each non-terminal node represents a combination of two solid primitives in trees.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:50)

Feature Recognition and Design:

 The feature recognition involves the identification and grouping of features

entities from a geometric model.

 Such post definition of features can be done interactively or automatically. So, as

soon as the CAD is drawn, the feature extraction is done.

 Usually identified entities are extracted from the model and additional
engineering information, such as tolerance and non-geometric attributes are then
associated with the feature entities.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:23)

 So, you have a user, a CAD software, and a geometric model. So, the feature
recognition procedure is followed. Feature extraction procedure is followed. And
then what you get is a feature model.

 So, there is a template, it quickly identifies the features and then it starts doing it.
So, all predefined features are already available.

 So, it splits the moment it sees the full CAD model, it gets divided into some
models or features. And, each feature is a recognition is one and then extraction
is two.

 Recognition and extraction, this goes back and forth. So, recognition is based on
the features and templates are extracted procedures. So, we do it and we get is a
feature model.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:26)

Feature Based Design:

 Design by features, or so called feature based design uses a library of 2D or 3D

features as design primitives on the product modelling level.

 The use of feature provides a more natural interface between design and solid
model.

 In mechanical design for example, a designer can work directly with the high
level entities, such as pocket, rather than associated low level entities, in which
the vertices and edges form your pocket.

 The feature allows the capability of providing additional information useful for
the process planning.

 Since features reflect specific manufacturing process, they assure the parts can be
produced.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:18)

Feature-based design:

 So, you have a CAD software, geometric model, feature model. So, feature, you
pick it up from the feature library , a process library is there, you try to get that
and then see what is going on.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:32)

Feature Based Design:

  The integration of design by feature and feature recognition is applicable for
design and manufacturing integration.

 While in the recognition process, the user builds the geometric model of a part,
that is successfully mapped into the feature based model.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:01)

Feature Interactions:

 On the other hand, intersecting features are present on conventional

representation and not generated by the feature operations.

 I have a cup, this is an intersecting feature, the handle getting integrated are
represent. The conventional representations are not generated in feature
operation.

 The algorithms are needed to extract both intersecting and interacting features,
but operating on different input representations that are available today.

 So with this, we try to do feature interaction and feature extraction, interaction

and extraction is done and we try to get the 3D object.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:42)

 The feature interaction problem can be treated as a problem of feature

relationships.

 There is no existing feature recognition system, that got recognise all 3D solid
primitives features as of today.

 The reminder of the section defines the problem of the interacting features with
an example. The interacting features are very common on manufacturing
designed objects.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:18)

Feature Based Design:

 The design by features, or the so called feature based design, uses a library of 2D
and 3D features as design primitives on the product modelling level.

 The use of these features provides a more natural interface between design and
solid model.

 In mechanical design, for example, if there is a pocket, so, this pocket is fully
taken into existence, rather than splitting it into lines and planes.

 The feature allows the capability of providing additional information used for
process planning.

 Since features reflect simple manufacturing processes, they assure that the path
can be produced. So, this is how the procedure is. So, you have your CAD
software, where in which you do geometric modelling and you have a feature
modular. This comes and does extraction of the features, and then this talks to the
user, is the designer.

 So, just by knowing the feature, the process is pulled out and you try to get it. So,
this is a simple schematic diagram of feature based design. The integration of
design by feature and feature recognition is applicable for design and
 manufacturing integration today. So, design feature is a designer one, feature
recognition application is the manufacturing one. A user can create a context
dependent representation, that is specific and informative enough to satisfy the
requirement of the application.

 While in the recognition process, the user builds the geometric model of your
part, that is successfully mapped into the feature based model.

 The feature recognition is also used to directly recognise features from the CAD
model. It is easy to derive a geometric feature from a higher level entities of a
path model, in which each feature is associated with their component of a solid
body.

 On the other hand, to transform the geometric model into a feature representation
is very difficult. Intersecting features are represented on conventional
representations and not generated by feature operation.

 Intersecting features are always a challenge. For example, you have a cylinder,
you have a plane, cuts it, and then you get an ellipse. And now if this ellipse is
attached to some other cylinder. So, it is an interesting feature.

 Intersecting features are represented on conventional representation and not

generated by feature operation. There are several algorithms that are used today
for extracting both intersecting and interacting features. The feature interaction
also takes a different means in the process planning.

 If the set of machining features is not machined in the correct sequence, no

feature can interact with another feature already in the part, thus generating an
incorrect part. So now, we talking about CAD to CAM.

 All these things are rapid manufacturing, just doing CAD alone does not matter
for manufacturing. So, doing CAD and transforming the data to CAM and doing
it automatically, needs all these features for recognition model.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:27)

 The feature interaction problem can be treated as a problem of feature

relationships.

 There is no existing feature recognition system that could recognize all type of
3D solid feature primitives and their various interacting combinations.

 The reminder of this section defines the problem of intersecting features with an
example. The interacting features are very common or manufacturing design
objects.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:54)

In this lecture, what all we saw was:

 What are the function of CAD and CAM?

 What are the CAD, CAM standards?

 What are the functions of geometric modelling?

 Importance of synthetic curves, Bezier, B-spline and NURBS.

 Define constraint based modelling.

 Explain CSG.

 Define feature recognition and explain its procedure.

 Define design by features and explain its procedure.

 What is feature interaction?

So, these are the topics, we saw in this lecture of CAD. If CAD does not exist, CAM
does not exist; if CAM does not exist, rapid manufacturing does not exist.

All these things come from CAD. So, if you know to represent CAD properly, then the
next step is taken care. In CAD, you have geometric, simple geometric and complex,
you have analytical surface and free form surface or synthetic surfaces. So, in analytical
surfaces, parametric forms can be done. In synthetic surfaces, you have to work on
features like curves. So, these curves are B-spline, Bezier, NURBS, all these
representations you have to use for developing a freeform surface using synthetic curves.
Till now we were only talking about a single curve.

Suppose you have a big curve and we discretize it into several small curves and the
radius of each curve is changing, then the problem of, first getting continuity and then
smoothness of the continuity and control points in each curve is a challenge. Then we
have taken it to the next level, feature recognition. Today, the talk of the town is, feature
recognition through CAD, one is extraction of details, the other is interaction or when
there is a intersection of details, then how do you extract those features. This is what we
saw in this lecture.

Thank you very much.