Rashtreeya Sikshana Samithi Trust

RV Institute of Technology and Management®

(Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)

JP Nagar, Bengaluru – 560076

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Department of Information Science and Engineering

Course Name: Analog and Digital Electronics

Course Code: 18CS33

III Semester

2018 Scheme
Prepared By:
Dr. Jyothi A P
Assistant Professor,
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
RVITM, Bengaluru – 560076

Dr. Niharika P. Kumar

Associate Professor,
Department of Information Science and Engineering,
RVITM, Bengaluru – 560076

Email: [email protected]
[email protected]
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Module 4
Introduction to VHDL; Latches and Flip-Flops
Syllabus:

VHDL description of combinational circuits, VHDL Models for multiplexers, VHDL Modules. Set Reset
Latch, Gated Latches, Edge-Triggered D Flip Flop, SR Flip Flop, J K Flip Flop, T Flip Flop, Flip Flop with
additional inputs, Asynchronous Sequential Circuits

INTROIDUCTION TO VHDL

The acronym VHDL stands for VHSIC-HDL (Very High Speed Integrated Circuit-Hardware Description
Language). VHDL is a hardware description language that is used to describe the behavior and structure of
digital systems. VHDL is a general-purpose hardware description language which can be used to describe
and simulate the operation of a wide variety of digital systems, ranging in complexity from a few gates to an
interconnection of many complex integrated circuits.
VHDL was originally developed to allow a uniform method for specifying digital systems. The VHDL
language became an IEEE standard in 1987, and it is widely used in industry. IEEE published a revised
VHDL standard in 1993. VHDL can describe a digital system at several different levels—behavioral, data
flow, and structural. For example,
o A binary adder could be described at the behavioral level in terms of its function of adding two binary
numbers, without giving any implementation details.
o The same adder could be described at the data flow level by giving the logic equations for the adder.
o Finally, the adder could be described at the structural level by specifying the interconnections of the gates
which make up the adder.
VHDL DESCRIPTION OF COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS:
In VHDL, a signal assignment statement has the form: signal name <= expression;
The expression is evaluated when the statement is executed, and the signal on the left side is scheduled to change
after delay. The square brackets indicate that after delay is optional. If after delay is omitted, then the signal is
scheduled to be updated after a delta delay, Δ (infinitesimal delay). A VHDL signal is used to describe

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a signal in a physical system. The VHDL language also includes variables similar to variables in
programming languages.
In general, VHDL is not case sensitive, that is, capital and lower case letters are treated the same by the
compiler and the simulator. Signal names and other VHDL identifiers may contain letters, numbers, and the
underscore character ( _ ). An identifier must start with a letter, and it cannot end with an underscore. Thus,
C123 and ab_23 are legal identifiers, but 1ABC and ABC_ are not. Every VHDL statement must be
terminated with a semicolon. Spaces, tabs, and carriage returns are treated in the same way. This means that
a VHDL statement can be continued over several lines, or several statements can be placed on one line. In a
line of VHDL code, anything following a double dash (--) is treated as a comment. Words such as and, or,
and after are reserved words (or keywords) which have a special meaning to the VHDL compiler.
The gate circuit of the following Fig 4.1 has five signals: A, B, C, D, and E. The symbol “ <= “ is the signal
assignment operator which indicates that the value computed on the right-hand side is assigned to the signal
on the left side.

Fig 4.1 Gate Circuit

Dataflow Description: The two assignment statements (given below) give a dataflow description of the
above circuit, where it is assumed that each gate has a 5-ns propagation delay. When these statements are
simulated, the first statement will be evaluated any time A or B changes, and the second statement will be
evaluated any time C or D changes. Suppose that initially A = 1, and B = C = D = E = 0; and if B changes to
1 at time 0, C will change to 1 at time = 5 ns. Then, E will change to 1 at time = 10 ns. C <= A and B after
5 ns; E <= C or D after 5 ns;
VHDL signal assignment statements (as given above) are concurrent statements. The VHDL simulator
monitors the right side of each concurrent statement, and any time a signal changes, the expression on the
right side is immediately re-evaluated. The new value is assigned to the signal on the left side after an
appropriate delay. This is exactly the way the hardware works. Any time a gate input changes, the gate
output is recomputed by the hardware, and the output changes after the gate delay. Unlike a sequential
program, the order of the above concurrent statements is unimportant.
Behavioral Description: A behavioral description of the above circuit shown is E <= D or (A and B);

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Parentheses are used to specify the order of operator execution.

Structural Description: The above circuit shown can also be described using structural VHDL code. To do
so requires that a two-input AND-gate component and a two-input OR-gate component be declared and
defined.
Components may be declared and defined either in a library or within the architecture part of the VHDL
code. Instantiation statements are used to specify how components are connected. Each copy of a
component requires a separate instantiation statement to specify how it is connected to other components
and to the port inputs and outputs. An instantiation statement is a concurrent statement that executes
anytime one of the input signals in its port map changes. The circuit shown is described by instantiating the
AND gate and the OR gate as follows:
Gate1: AND2 port map (A, B, D);
Gate2: OR2 port map (C, D, E);
The port map for Gate1 connects A and B to the AND-gate inputs, and it connects D to the AND-gate
output. Since an instantiation statement is concurrent, whenever A or B changes, these changes go to the
Gate1 inputs, and then the component computes a new value of D. Similarly, the second statement passes
changes in C or D to the Gate 2 inputs, and then the component computes a new value of E. This is exactly
how the real hardware works. (The order in which the instantiation statements appear is irrelevant).
Instantiating a component is different than calling a function in a computer program. A function returns a
new value whenever it is called, but an instantiated component computes a new output value whenever its
input changes.
The following Fig 4.2 shows an inverter with the output connected back to the input. If the output is “0”,
then this “0” feeds back to the input and the inverter output changes to “1” after the inverter delay, assumed
to be 10 ns. Then, the “1” feeds back to the input, and the output changes to “0” after the inverter delay. The
signal CLK will continue to oscillate between “0” and “1”, as shown in the waveform. The corresponding
concurrent VHDL statement will produce the same result. If CLK is initialized to “0”, the statement
executes and CLK changes to „1‟ after 10 ns. Because CLK has changed, the statement executes again, and
CLK will change back to „0‟ after another 10 ns. This process will continue indefinitely.

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Fig 4.2 inverter with the output connected back to the input
The following Fig 4.3 shows three gates that have the signal A as a common input and the corresponding
VHDL code. The three concurrent statements execute simultaneously whenever a changes, just as the three
gates start processing the signal change at the same time. However, if the gates have different delays, the
gate outputs can change at different times. If the gates have delays of 2 ns, 1 ns, and 3 ns, respectively, and
A changes at time 5 ns, then the gate outputs D, E, and F can change at times 7 ns, 6 ns, and 8 ns,
respectively. However, if no delays were specified, then D, E, and F would all be updated at time 5 + Δ.

Fig 4.3 three gates that have the signal A as a common input and the corresponding VHDL code
In these examples, every signal is of type bit, which means it can have a value of “0‟ or “1‟. (Bit values in
VHDL are enclosed in single quotes to distinguish them from integer values). In digital design, we often
need to perform the same operation on a group of signals. A one-dimensional array of bit signals is referred
to as a bit-vector. If a 4-bit vector named B has an index range 0 through 3, then the four elements of the bit-
vector are designated B(0), B(1), B(2), and B(3). The statement B <= “0110”, assigns “0‟ to B(0), “1‟ to
B(1), “1‟ to B(2), and “0‟ to B(3).
The following Figure shows an array of four AND gates. The inputs are represented by bit-vectors A and B,
and the outputs by bit-vector C. Although we can write four VHDL statements to represent the four gates, it
is much more efficient to write a single VHDL statement that performs the and operation on the bit-vectors

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A and B. When applied to bit-vectors, the and operator performs the and operation on corresponding pairs
of elements.

Fig 4.4
Inertial delay model: Signal assignment statements containing “after delay” create what is called an inertial
delay model. Consider a device with an inertial delay of D time units. If an input change to the device will
cause its output to change, then the output changes D time units later. However, this is not what happens if
the device receives two input changes within a period of D time units and both input changes should cause
the output to change. In this case the device output does not change in response to either input change.
Example: consider the signal assignment C <= A and B after 10 ns; Assume A and B are initially 1, and A
changes to 0 at 15 ns, to 1 at 30 ns, and to 0 at 35 ns. Then C changes to 1 at 10 ns and to 0 at 25 ns, but C
does not change in response to the A changes at 30 ns and 35 ns; because these two changes occurred less
than 10 ns apart. A device with an inertial delay of D time units filters out output changes that would occur
in less than or equal to D time units.
Ideal (Transport) delay: VHDL can also model devices with an ideal (transport) delay. Output changes
caused by input changes to a device exhibiting an ideal (transport) delay of D time units are delayed by D
time units, and the output changes occur even if they occur within D time units. The VHDL signal
assignment statement that models ideal (transport) delay is signal name <= transport expression after delay
Example: consider the signal assignment C <= transport A and B after 10 ns; Assume A and B are initially
1 and A changes to 0 at 15 ns, to 1 at 30 ns, and to 0 at 35 ns. Then C changes to 1 at 10 ns, to 0 at 25 ns, to
1 at 40 ns, and to 0 at 45 ns. Note that the last two changes are separated by just 5 ns.
VHDL MODELS FOR MULTIPLEXERS:
The following Fig 4.5 shows a 2-to-1 multiplexer (MUX) with two data inputs and one control input.

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Fig 4.5 2-to-1 multiplexer

The MUX output is = ′ 0 + 1. The corresponding VHDL statement is F <=
(not A and I0) or (A and I1);
Alternatively, we can represent the MUX by a conditional signal assignment
statement, F <= I0 when A = “0‟ else I1;
This statement executes whenever A, I0, or I1 changes. The MUX output is I0 when A = “0‟, and else it is
I1. In the conditional statement, I0, I1, and F can either be bits or bit-vectors.
Signal name <= expression 1 when condition 1
else expression 2 when condition 2
.
.
else expression N
The following Fig 4.6 shows how two cascaded MUXes can be represented by a conditional signal
assignment statement. The output MUX selects A when E = “1‟; or else it selects the output of the first
MUX, which is B when D = “1‟, or else it is C.

Fig 4.6 cascaded MUX representation

The following Fig 4.7 shows a 4-to-1 MUX with four data inputs and two control inputs, A and B. The
control inputs select which one of the data inputs is transmitted to the output. The logic equation for the 4-
to-1 MUX is = ′ ′ 0 + ′ 1 + ′ 2 + 3. One way to model the MUX is with the VHDL statement F <= (not A
and not B and I0) or (not A and B and I1) or (A and not B and I2) or (A and B and I3);
Another way to model the 4-to-1 MUX is to use a conditional assignment statement (given in Figure below):

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Fig 4.7 MUX Code Segment

The expression A&B means A concatenated with B, that is, the two bits A and B are merged together to
form a 2-bit vector. This bit vector is tested, and the appropriate MUX input is selected. For example, if A =
“1‟ and B = “0‟, A&B = “10” and I2 is selected.
Instead of concatenating A and B, we could use a more complex condition also (as given in above Figure).
A third way to model the MUX is to use a selected signal assignment statement; we first set Sel equal to
A&B. The value of Sel then selects the MUX input that is assigned to F. The general form of a selected
signal assignment statement is

First, expression_s is evaluated. If it equals choice1, signal_s is set equal to expression1; if it equals
choice2, signal_s is set equal to expression2; etc. If all possible choices for the value of expression_s are
given, the last line should be omitted; otherwise, the last line is required. When it is present, if expression_s
is not equal to any of the enumerated choices, signal_s is set equal to expression_n. The signal_s is updated
after the specified delay-time, or after if the “after delay-time” is omitted.
VHDL MODULES:
To write a complete VHDL module, we must declare all of the input and output signals using an entity
declaration, and then specify the internal operation of the module using an architecture declaration. As an
example, consider the following Fig 4.8.

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Fig 4.8 declare all of the input and output signals

When we describe a system in VHDL, we must specify an entity and architecture at the top level. The entity
declaration gives the name “two_gates” to the module. The port declaration specifies the inputs and outputs to
the module. A, B, and D are input signals of type bit, and E is an output signal of type bit. The architecture is
named “gates”. The signal C is declared within the architecture because it is an internal signal. The two
concurrent statements that describe the gates are placed between the keywords begin and end.
Example: To write the entity and architecture for a full adder module. The entity specifies the inputs and
outputs of the adder module, as shown in the following Figure. The port declaration specifies that X, Y and
Cin are input signals of type bit, and that Cout and Sum are output signals of type bit.

Fig 4.9 full adder architecture

The operation of the full adder is specified by an architecture declaration (Fig4.9):
VHDL Modules
To write a complete VHDL module, we must declare all of the input and output signals using an entity
declaration, and then specify the internal operation of the module using an architecture declaration (Fig 4.10).
The two concurrent statements that describe the gates are placed between the keywords begin and end. When
we describe a system in VHDL, we must specify an entity and an architecture at the top level, and also specify
an entity and architecture for each of the component modules that are part of the system. Each entity
declaration includes a list of interface signals that can be used to connect to other modules or to the outside
world. We will use entity declarations of the form:
entity entity-name is
[port(interface-signal-declaration);]
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end [entity] [entity-name];

The items enclosed in square brackets are optional. The interface-signal-declaration
normally has the following form:
list-of-interface-signals: mode type [: _ initial-value]
{; list-of-interface-signals: mode type [: _ initial-value]};

Fig 4.10 VHDL Program Structure

In this example, the architecture name (Equations) is arbitrary, but the entity name (FullAdder) must match
the name used in the associated entity declaration. The VHDL assignment statements for Sum and Cout
represent the logic equations for the full adder. Several other architectural descriptions such as a truth table
or an interconnection of gates could have been used instead. In the Cout equation, parentheses are required
around (X and Y) because VHDL does not specify an order of precedence for the logic operators.
Four-Bit Full Adder: The Full Adder module defined above can be used as a component in a system which
consists of four full adders connected to form a 4-bit binary adder (see the following Fig 4.11).

Fig 4.11 FullAdder

First declare the 4-bit adder as an entity (see the following Figure). Since, the inputs and the sum output
are four bits wide, declare them as bit_vectors which are dimensioned 3 downto 0. Next, specify the FullAdder
as a component within the architecture of Adder4 (see the following Figure). The component specification is

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very similar to the entity declaration for the full adder, and the input and output port signals correspond to
those declared for the full adder. Following the component statement, declare a 3-bit internal carry signal C.
In the body of the architecture, create several instances of the FullAdder component. Each copy of
FullAdder has a name (such as FA0) and a port map. The signal names following the port map correspond
one-to-one with the signals in the component port. Thus, A(0), B(0), and Ci correspond to the inputs X, Y,
and Cin, respectively. C(1) and S(0) correspond to the Cout and Sum outputs.
Note that the order of the signals in the port map must be the same as the order of the signals in the port of
the component declaration.

LATCHES & FLIP-FLOPS

Sequential switching circuits have the property that the output depends not only on the present input but also on
the past sequence of inputs. In effect, these circuits must be able to “remember” something about the past history
of the inputs in order to produce the present output. Latches and flip-flops are commonly used memory devices
in sequential circuits. Basically, latches and flip-flops are memory devices which can assume one of two stable
output states and which have one or more inputs that can cause the output state to change.
SET RESET LATCH:

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A simple latch can be constructed by introducing feedback into a NOR-gate circuit, as given in the
following Figure (a). As indicated, if the inputs are S = R = 0, the circuit can assume a stable state with Q =
0 and P = 1.

Fig 4.12 Conditions S=1, R=0 and S=1 R=1

(a) S = 0 & R = 0: A stable condition of the circuit because P = 1 feeds into the second gate forcing the
output to be Q = 0, and Q = 0 feeds into the first gate allowing its output to be 1.
(b) S = 1 & R = 0: An unstable condition or state of the circuit because both the inputs and output of the

second gate are 0; therefore Q will change to 1, leading to the stable state.

Fig 4.13 Conditions S=0, R=0 and S=0 R=1

(a) S = 0 & R = 0: The circuit will not change state because Q = 1 feeds back into the first gate, causing P to
remain 0 as in Fig 4.13.
Note that the inputs are again S = 0 & R = 0, but the outputs are different than those with which we started.
Thus, the circuit has two different stable states for a given set of inputs.
(b) S = 0 & R = 1: Q will become 0 and P will then change back to 1. An input S = 1 sets the output to Q = 1,
and an input R = 1 resets the output to Q = 0.The circuit is commonly referred to as a set-reset (S-R) latch
(restriction that R and S cannot be 1 simultaneously).
This circuit is said to have memory because its output depends not only on the present inputs, but also on the past
sequence of inputs. If we restrict the inputs so that R = S = 1 is not allowed, the stable states of the outputs P and
Q are always complements, that is, P = Q’. To emphasize the symmetry between the operation of the two gates,
the circuit is often drawn in cross-coupled form, as shown in the following Figure (a).

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Fig 4.14 SR Latch Representations

If S = R = 1, the latch will not operate properly, as shown in above Fig 4.14 (c). Note that, when S and R are
both l, P and Q are both 0. Therefore, P is not equal to Q’, and this violates a basic rule of latch operation.
The following Figure shows a timing diagram for the S-R latch. Note that when S changes to 1 at time tl, Q
changes to 1 a short time (ɛ - response time or delay time of latch) later. At time t2, when S changes back to
0, Q does not change. At time t3, R changes to 1, and Q changes back to 0 a short time (ɛ) later.
The duration of the S (or R) input pulse must normally be at least as great as ɛ in order for a change in the
state of Q to occur as in Fig 4.15.

Fig 4.15 SR Latch Timing Diagram

When discussing latches and flip-flops, we use the term present state to denote the state of the Q output of
the latch or flip-flop at the time any input signal changes, and the term next state to denote the state of the Q
output after the latch or flip-flop has reacted to the input change and stabilized. If we let Q(t) represent the
present state and Q(t + ɛ) represent the next state, an equation for Q(t + ɛ) can be obtained from the circuit
by conceptually breaking the feedback loop at Q and considering Q(t) as an input and Q(t + ɛ) as the output.
Then for the S-R latch;

The equation for output P is;

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These equations are mapped in the next-state and output tables as given in the following Table. The stable
states of the latch are circled. Note that for all stable states, P = Q except when S = R = 1. Making S = R =
1, a don‟t-care combination allows simplifying the next-state equation.

Fig 4.16
An equation that expresses the next state of a latch in terms of its present state and inputs will be referred to
as a next-state equation, or characteristic equation.
An alternative form of the S-R latch uses NAND gates, as shown in the following Fig 4.17.

Fig 4.17 SR Latch

Applications of S-R Latch: S-R latch is often used as a component in more complex latches and flip-flops
and in asynchronous systems. Another useful application of the S-R latch is for debouncing switches.
When a mechanical switch is opened or closed, the switch contacts tend to vibrate or bounce open and closed
several times before settling down to their final position. This produces a noisy transition, and this noise can
interfere with the proper operation of a logic circuit. The input to the switch in the following Figure is connected
to a logic 1 (+ V). The pull-down resistors connected to contacts a and b assure that when the switch is between
a and b the latch inputs S and R will always be at a logic 0, and the latch output will not
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change state. The timing diagram shows what happens when the switch is flipped from a to b. As the switch
leaves a, bounces occur at the R input; when the switch reaches b, bounces occur at the S input. After the
switch reaches b, the first time S becomes 1, after a short delay the latch switches to the Q = 1 state and
remains there. Thus Q is free of all bounces even though the switch contacts bounce.
GATED D LATCH:
A gated D latch (given in Fig 4.18 below) has two inputs—a data input (D) and a gate input (G). The D
latch can be constructed from an S-R latch and gates. When G = 0, S = R = 0, so Q does not change. When
G = 1 and D = 1, S = 1 and R = 0, so Q is set to 1. When G = 1 and D = 0, S = 0 and R = 1, so Q is reset to
0. In other words, when G = 1, the Q output follows the D input, and when G = 0, the Q output holds the last
value of D (no state change). This type of latch is also referred to as a transparent latch because when G = 1,
the Q output is the same as the D input. From the truth table, the characteristic equation for the latch is + = ′
+ GD

Fig 4.18 gated D latch

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EDGE-TRIGGERED D FLIP-FLOP:
A D flip-flop has two inputs, D (data) and Ck (clock). The small arrowhead on the flip-flop symbol
identifies the clock input. Unlike the D latch, the flip-flop output changes only in response to the clock, not
to a change in D.
o If the output can change in response to a 0 to 1 transition on the clock input, we say that the flipflop is
triggered on the rising edge (or positive edge) of the clock.
o If the output can change in response to a 1 to 0 transition on the clock input, we say that the flipflop is
triggered on the falling edge (or negative edge) of the clock.
o An inversion bubble on the clock input indicates a falling-edge trigger (Fig 4.19 (b)), and no bubble
indicates a rising-edge trigger (Figure (a)).
The term active edge refers to the clock edge (rising or falling) that triggers the flip-flop state change.

Fig 4.19 D FF
Since, the Q output of the flip-flop is the same as the D input, except that the output changes are delayed
until after the active edge of the clock pulse, as illustrated in the following Fig 4.20.

Fig 4.20 D FF Timing Diagram

A rising-edge-triggered D flip-flop can be constructed from two gated D latches and an inverter, as shown in
Figure the following Fig 4.21 (a). The timing diagram is shown in Fig 4.21 (b).

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Fig 4.21 D flip-flop

When CLK = 0, G1 = 1, and the first latch is transparent so that the P output follows the D input. Because G2
= 0, the second latch holds the current value of Q. When CLK changes to 1, G1 changes to 0, and the
current value of D is stored in the first latch. Because G2 = 1, the value of P flows through the second latch
to the Q output. When CLK changes back to 0, the second latch takes on the value of P and holds it and,
then, the first latch starts following the D input again. If the first latch starts following the D input before the
second latch takes on the value of P, the flip-flop will not function properly. Therefore, the circuit designers
must pay careful attention to timing issues when designing edge-triggered flip-flops. With this circuit,
output state changes occur only following the rising edge of the clock. The value of D at the time of the
rising edge of the clock determines the value of Q, and any extra changes in D that occur between rising
clock edges have no effect on Q.
A flip-flop changes state only on the active edge of the clock, the propagation delay of a flip-flop is the time
between the active edge of the clock and the resulting change in the output. However, there are also timing
issues associated with the D input.
To function properly, the D input to an edge-triggered flip-flop must be held at a constant value for a period
of time before and after the active edge of the clock. If D changes at the same time as the active edge, the
behavior is unpredictable.
The amount of time that the D input must be stable before the active edge is called the setup time (tsu), and
the amount of time that the D input must hold the same value after the active edge is the hold time (th). The
times at which D is allowed to change during the clock cycle are shaded in the timing diagram of the
following Fig 4.22.

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Fig 4.22 Set Up Time and Hold Time

The propagation delay (tp) from the time the clock changes until the Q output changes is also indicated in
the above Figure. Using these timing parameters, we can determine the minimum clock period for a circuit
which will not violate the timing constraints. Consider the circuit of following Fig 4.23 (a). Suppose the
inverter has a propagation delay of 2 ns, and suppose the flip-flop has a propagation delay of 5 ns and a
setup time of 3 ns. (The hold time does not affect this calculation). Suppose, as in following Figure (b), that
the clock period is 9 ns, i.e., 9 ns is the time between successive active edges (rising edges for this figure).
Then, 5 ns after a clock edge, the flip-flop output will change, and 2 ns after that, the output of the inverter
will change. Therefore, the input to the flip-flop will change 7 ns after the rising edge, which is 2 ns before
the next rising edge. But the setup time of the flip-flop requires that the input be stable 3 ns before the rising
edge; therefore, the flip-flop may not take on the correct value. Suppose instead that the clock period were
15 ns, as in following Figure (c). Again, the input to the flipflop will change 7 ns after the rising edge.
However, because the clock is slower, this is 8 ns before the next rising edge. Therefore, the flip-flop will
work properly. Note in Figure (c) that there is 5 ns of extra time between the time the D input is correct and
the time when it must be correct for the setup time to be satisfied. Therefore, we can use a shorter clock
period, and have less extra time, or no extra time. Figure (d) shows that 10 ns is the minimum clock period
which will work for this circuit.

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Fig 4.23 propagation delay (tp) from the time the clock
S-R FLIP-FLOP:
An S-R flip-flop (following Fig 4.24) is similar to an S-R latch in that S = 1 sets the Q output to 1, and R =
1 resets the Q output to 0. The essential difference is that the flip-flop has a clock input, and the Q output
can change only after an active clock edge.

Fig 4.24 S-R flip-flop

The truth table and characteristic equation for the flip-flop are the same as for the latch, but the interpretation of
Q+ is different. For the latch, Q+ is the value of Q after the propagation delay through the latch, while for the
flip-flop, Q+ is the value that Q assumes after the active clock edge. The following Figure (a) shows an S-R flip-
flop constructed from two S-R latches and gates. This flipflop changes state after the rising edge of the clock.
The circuit is often referred to as a master-slave flipflop. When CLK = 0, the S and R inputs set the outputs of
the master latch to the appropriate value while the slave latch holds the previous value of Q. When

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the clock changes from 0 to 1, the value of P is held in the master latch and this value is transferred to the
slave latch. The master latch holds the value of P while CLK = 1, and, hence, Q does not change. When the
clock changes from 1 to 0, the Q value is latched in the slave, and the master can process new inputs. Figure
(b) shows the timing diagram. Initially, S = 1 and Q changes to 1 at t1. Then R = 1 and Q changes to 0 at t3.

Fig 4.25 Master Slave S-R flip-flop

For a rising-edge-triggered flip-flop, the value of the inputs is sensed at the rising edge of the clock, and the
inputs can change while the clock is low. For the master-slave flip-flop, if the inputs change while the clock
is low, the flip-flop output may be incorrect. For example, (in above Figure (b)), at t4, S = 1 and R = 0, so P
changes to 1. Then S changes to 0 at t5, but P does not change, so at t5, Q changes to 1 after the rising edge
of CLK. However, at t5, S = R = 0, so the state of Q should not change. We can solve this problem if we
only allow the S and R inputs to change while the clock is high.
J-K FLIP-FLOP:
The J-K flip-flop (shown in the following Fig 4.26) is an extended version of the S-R flip-flop. The J-K flip-flop
has three inputs—J, K, and the clock (CLK). The J input corresponds to S, and K corresponds to R. That is, if J =
1 and K = 0, the flip-flop output is set to Q = 1 after the active clock edge; and if K = 1 and J = 0, the flip-flop
output is reset to Q = 0 after the active edge. Unlike the S-R flip-flop, a 1 input may be applied

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simultaneously to J and K, in which case the flip-flop changes state after the active clock edge. When J = K
= 1, the active edge will cause Q to change from 0 to 1, or from 1 to 0. The next-state table and
characteristic equation for the J-K flip-flop are given in Figure (b).

Fig 4.26
Figure 4.26 (c) shows the timing for a J-K flip-flop. This flip-flop changes state a short time (tp) after the
rising edge of the clock pulse, provided that J and K have appropriate values. If J = 1 and K = 0 when Clock
= 0, Q will be set to 1 following the rising edge. If K = 1 and J = 0 when Clock = 0, Q will be set to 0 after
the rising edge. Similarly, if J = K = 1, Q will change state after the rising edge. Referring to Figure 11-
20(c), because Q = 0, J = l, and K = 0 before the first rising clock edge, Q changes to 1 at t1. Because Q = 1,
J = 0, and K = 1 before the second rising clock edge, Q changes to 0 at t2. Because Q = 0, J = 1, and K = 1
before the third rising clock edge, Q changes to 1 at t3. One way to realize the J-K flip-flop is with two S-R
latches connected in a master-slave arrangement, as shown in the following Figure.

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Fig 4.27 Master Slave JK FF

This is the same circuit as for the S-R master-slave flip-flop; except S and R have been replaced with J and
K, and the Q and Q outputs are feeding back into the input gates. Because S = JQ’Clk’ and R = K’QClk’,
only one of S and R inputs to the first latch can be 1 at any given time. If Q = 0 and J = 1, then S = 1 and R
= 0, regardless of the value of K. If Q = 1 and K = 1, then S = 0 and R = 1, regardless of the value of J.
T FLIP-FLOP:
The T flip-flop, also called the toggle flip-flop, is frequently used in building counters. Most CPLDs and
FPGAs can be programmed to implement T flip-flops. The T flip-flop (shown in the following Fig 4.28) has
a T input and a clock input. When T = 1 the flipflop changes state after the active edge of the clock. When T
= 0, no state change occurs. The next-state table and characteristic equation for the T flip-flop are given in
Figure (b). The characteristic equation states that the next state of the flip-flop (Q+) will be 1 iff the present
state (Q) is 1 and T = 0 or the present state is 0 and T = 1.

Fig 4.28 T FF Truth Table

The following Fig 4.29 shows a timing diagram for the T flip-flop. At times t2 and t4 the T input is 1 and
the flip-flop state (Q) changes a short time (tp) after the falling edge of the clock pulse. At times tl and t3 the
T input is 0, and the clock edge does not cause a change of state.

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Fig 4.29 T FF Timing Diagram

One way to implement a T flip-flop is to connect the J and K inputs of a J-K flip-flop together, as shown in
the following Figure (a). Substituting T for J and K in the J-K characteristic equation gives; + = ′ + ′
= ′ + ′ which is the characteristic equation for the T flip-flop. Another way to realize a T flip-flop is with a D flip-flop and an
exclusive-OR gate [Figure (b)]. The D input is Q ⊕ T, so Q+ = Q ⊕ TQ’ + T’Q, which is the characteristic equation for the T flip-flop.

FLIP-FLOPS WITH ADDITIONAL INPUTS:

Flip-flops often have additional inputs which can be used to set the flip-flops to an initial state independent
of the clock. The following Fig 4.30 shows a D flip-flop with clear and preset inputs. The small circles
(inversion symbols) on these inputs indicate that a logic 0 (rather than a 1) is required to clear or set the flip-
flop. This type of input is often referred to as active-low because a low voltage or logic 0 will activate the
clear or preset function. We will use the notation ClrN or PreN to indicate activelow clear and preset inputs.
Thus, a logic 0 applied to ClrN will reset the flip-flop to Q = 0, and a 0 applied to PreN will set the flip-flop
to Q = 1.
These inputs override the clock and D inputs. That is, a 0 applied to the ClrN will reset the flip-flop
regardless of the values of D and the clock. ClrN and PreN are often referred to as asynchronous clear and
preset inputs because their operation does not depend on the clock.

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Fig 4.30 FLIP-FLOPS WITH ADDITIONAL INPUTS

The above table (Figure (b)) summarizes the flip-flop operation. In the table, c indicates a rising clock edge, and
X is a don‟t-care. The last row of the table indicates that if Clk is held at 0, held at 1, or has a falling edge, Q
does not change. The following Figure illustrates the operation of the clear and preset inputs. At t1, ClrN
= 0 holds the Q output at 0, so the rising edge of the clock is ignored. At t2 and t3, normal state changes
occur because ClrN and PreN are both 1. Then, Q is set to 1 by PreN = 0, but Q is cleared at t4 by the rising
edge of the clock because D = 0 at that time.

Fig 4.31 D FF Timing Diagram

In synchronous digital systems, the flip-flops are usually driven by a common clock so that all state changes
occur at the same time in response to the same clock edge. When designing such systems, we frequently
encounter situations where we want some flip-flops to hold existing data even though the data input to the
flip-flops may be changing. One way to do this is to gate the clock, as shown in the following Figure (a).

Fig 4.32 D FFSymbols

When En = 0, the clock input to the flip-flop is 0, and Q does not change. This method has two potential
problems. First, gate delays may cause the clock to arrive at some flip-flops at different times than at other
flip-flops, resulting in a loss of synchronization. Second, if En changes at the wrong time, the flipflop may
trigger due to the change in En instead of due to the change in the clock, again resulting in loss of

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synchronization. Rather than gating the clock, a better way is to use a flip-flop with a clock enable (CE).
Such flip-flops are commonly used in CPLDs and FPGAs. Figure (b) shows a D flip-flop with a clock
enable, which we will call a D-CE flip-flop. When CE = 0, the clock is disabled and no state change occurs,
so Q+ = Q. When CE = 1, the flip-flop acts like a normal D flip-flop, so Q+ = D. Therefore, the
characteristic equation is Q+ = Q•CE’ + D•CE. The D-CE flip-flop is easily implemented using a D flip-
flop and a multiplexer (Figure (c)). For this circuit, the MUX output is Q+ = D + Q•CE + Din•CE. Since,
there is no gate in the clock line; this cannot cause a synchronization problem.
Characteristic Equations of Flip-Flop:
The characteristics equations of flip-flops are useful in analyzing circuits made of them. Here, next output,
Qn+1, is expressed as a function of present output Qn and the input to the flip-flops. Karnaugh map can be
used to get the optimized expression.
S R Flip Flop

Fig 4.34 SR FF K Map

D Flip-Flop:

Fig 4.35 F FF K Map

JK Flip-Flop:

Fig 4.36 JK FF K Map

T Flip-Flop:

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Fig 4.37 T FF K Map

Characteristic Equations of SR, D, JK & T Flip-Flops
The characteristic equations for the latches and flip-flops discussed so far are:

Flip-Flops as Finite State Machine:

In a sequential logic circuit, the value of all memory elements at a given time defines the state of that circuit
at that time. Finite State Machine (FSM) concept offers a better alternative to truth table in understanding
progress of sequential logic with time.

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Fig 4.38 State Transition Diagram

Flip-Flop Excitation Table:
In synthesis or design problem, excitation tables are very useful. Excitation table of a flip-flop is looking at
its truth table in a reverse way; here, flip-flop output is presented as a dependent function of transition Q →
Qn+1 and comes later in the table.
Table: Flip-Flop Excitation Table

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Asynchronous Sequential Circuits

The signals on the feedback loops in a sequential circuit define the state of the circuit. In asynchronous
sequential circuits the state of the circuit can change whenever any input changes. The latches discussed in
this chapter are asynchronous sequential circuits. In addition, even though the output of a master-slave or
edge-triggered flipflop only changes on an edge of the clock input, the internal circuitry of the flip-flop is an
asynchronous circuit. In order for asynchronous circuits to operate in a well-defined manner, they must
satisfy several restrictions. Asynchronous circuits are not discussed in detail in this text, 1 but the examples
in this section illustrate some of these restrictions necessary for correct asynchronous circuit operation.
Consider the circuit in Figure (a). It has two feedback loops and, hence, four states. To analyze the circuit,
break the feedback loops at the outputs of gates 4 and 5. Label the gate outputs P* and Q*. The next-state
equations are P* = x'P + xQ and Q* = x'P' + xQ
Note that both equations contain static 1-hazards. P* contains a static 1-hazard for xPQ = 111 <→> 011.

Fig 4.39 circuit's next-state table with the stable states

Fig 4.39 shows the circuit's next-state table with the stable states circled Consider starting the circuit in total
stable state xPQ = 111 and changing x to 0. The table indicates that the next state is PO = 10 (i.e.. P does not
change and Q changes to 0). However, assume the inverter for x has a delay large compared to the gate
delays. Then, when x changes to 0, the output of Gate 2 changes to 0 causing the outputs of both gates 4 and
5 to change to 0. When the x inverter output changes to 1, P = 0 prevents the output of Gate 1 from
changing to 1 so P remains 0; however, the output of Gate 3 changes to 1 and Q becomes 1. The circuit
stabilizes in state PQ = 01. This incorrect state transition is due to the static 1-hazard in P*, which causes a 0
glitch in P if the x inverter delay is large and, because of the feedback, P never changes back to 1. This
problem can be eliminated by designing the circuits to be free of hazards.
Even if the circuit is free of hazards, delays in the "wrong'" places in the circuit can cause incorrect state
transitions. Consider the circuit in Figure (a) starting the circuit in total stable state xPQ 010 and changing x

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to 1; the next-state table indicates the next state should be PQ will transition to state PQ = 11. The 1 to 0
change propagating through the x inverter, Gate 1 and Gate 4 will change P to 0. When P changes to 0, the
lower inverter output changes to 1 and, if line d at Gate 3 is still 1, Gate 3 and Gate 5 change to 1. With Q =
1, Gate 2 changes to 1 which causes Gate 4 to change back to 1. Note that this incorrect operation occurs
because the x change does not reach a portion of the logic for Q until after the change in P has propagated
back to the logic for Q. The potential for this incorrect operation can be detected by examining the next-
state table and determining whether the next state after a single change in an input is different from the next
state after three changes in that input. In the preceding example, starting in total stable state xPQ = 010 and
changing x to 1 produces next state PQ= 00. Changing x back to 0 produces next state PQ= 01. Finally,
changing xa third time to 1, produces next state PQ 11. The table is said to contain an essential hazard at
total state xPQ = 010.
Essential hazards are properties of the next-state table; they cannot be eliminated by modifying the circuit's
logic. To prevent incorrect operation due to essential hazards, it is necessary to control the delays in the
circuit. In general, it may be necessary to insert delays in the feedback loops of the circuit. For the above
example, this would require inserting delays at the outputs of Gates 4 and 5. Inserting delays in the feedback
loops, assures that input changes propagate through the next state logic before changes in the state variables
feedback to the inputs of the logic.
Both of the problems noted above are due to more than one signal in the circuit changing with the circuit’s
response depending on which signal(s) propagate through the circuit first. The static hazard causes a glitch
if an input change propagates over some path in the circuit more quickly than it propagates over another
path. For the essential hazard problem he two signals changing are an external input and a state variable. In
both cases there is a "race" between two signal changes with the circuit operation depending on which signal
wins the race. A similar problem can exist if two (or more) inputs to an asynchronous circuit can change at
the same time. Consider the next state table in Figure and consider starting in total state xyPQ= 1011 and
changing both x and y to 0 at the same time. The table indicates the next state should be PQ 11. If the y
change propagates through the cireuit first, then the circuit enters total state xyPQ= 1011. Then after the x
change propagates through the circuit, the total state becomes xyPQ = 0011. However, if the x change
propagates through the circuit first, the total state becomes xyPQ= 0100. Then, after the y change
propagates through the circuit, the total becomes xyPQ= 0000. The final state depends upon which input
change propagates fastest and, hence, the final state may not be PQ = 11, as indicated by the next-state table.

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Fig 4.40 input change

A Similar race problem can occur if more than one state variable changes as at (approximately) the same
time. Consider the next-state table in following figure. The total state xPQR = 0000 has next state PQR =
011 when x changes to 1. If Q changes first, the circuit will transition to state PQR=010 and then to POR =
011. However, it R changes first, the circuit transitions to state PQR 001 and may stabilize there. There 1s a
race between the Q and R changes and, since the circuit can enter two different states depending which
signal changes first, the race is called a critical race.

Fig 4.41 critical race

There is a race between the P and Q signals when the circuit starts in total state xPQR = 1011 and x changes
to 0. In this case, the circuit will enter state POR= 101 no matter which state variable changes first, so the
race is not critical.
In general, it is not possible to fix the problem with races between state variables by inserting delays in the
circuit. For correct operation an asynchronous circuit must not contain any critical races.

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