02A Lesson Proper for Week 7

DC POWER SUPPLY
A DC power supply is one that supplies a constant DC voltage to its load.
Depending on its design, a DC power supply may be powered from a DC source or from
an AC source such as the power mains.

A regulated power supply is an embedded circuit; it converts unregulated AC (Alternating

Current) into a constant DC. With the help of a rectifier it converts AC supply into DC. Its
function is to supply a stable voltage (or less often current), to a circuit or device that must
be operated within certain power supply limits. The output from the regulated power supply
may be alternating or unidirectional, but is nearly always DC. The type of stabilization used
may be restricted to ensuring that the output remains within certain limits under various load
conditions, or it may also include compensation for variations in its own supply source. The
latter is much more common today.

Block diagram of a DC Power Supply with waveform output

AC-DC CONVERSION BASICS

A power supply takes the AC from the wall outlet, converts it to unregulated DC, and
reduces the voltage using an input power transformer, typically stepping it down to the
voltage required by the load. For safety reasons, the transformer also separates the output
power supply from the mains input.
Figure 1, Figure 2, and Figure 3 illustrate the general transformation from AC to DC.
Alternating current takes the form of a sinusoidal wave with the voltage alternating from
positive to negative over time.

Figure 1: Alternating Current from Wall Outlet

In the first step of the process, the voltage is rectified using a set of diodes. Rectification
transforms the sinusoidal AC. The rectifier converts the sine waves into a series of positive
peaks.

Figure 2: Full Wave Rectified

Once the voltage has been rectified, there is still fluctuation in the waveform—the time
between the peaks—that needs to be removed. The rectified AC voltage is then filtered or
“smoothed” with a capacitor.
The capacitor is typically quite large and creates a reservoir of energy that is applied to the
load when the rectified voltage drops. The incoming energy is stored in the capacitor on the
rising edge and expended when the voltage falls. This significantly reduces the amount of
voltage droop and smooths out the voltage. Increasing the storage capacity of the capacitor
generally produces a higher quality power supply.

Figure 3: Full Wave Rectified + Capacitor

Once the voltage conversion is complete, there is still some variation in output, called ripple.
In a regulated power supply, the voltage is then passed through a regulator to create a fixed
DC output with less ripple.

REGULATED POWER SUPPLY THEORY

A regulated DC power supply is essentially an unregulated power supply with the addition of
a voltage regulator. This allows the voltage to stay stable regardless of the amount of
current consumed by the load, provided the predefined limits are not exceeded.
Block Diagram — Regulated Supply
In regulated power supply, a circuit continually samples a portion of the output voltage and
adjusts the system to keep the output voltage at the required value. In many cases,
additional circuitry is included to provide current or voltage limits, noise filtering, and output
adjustments.

SELECTING A POWER SUPPLY

When choosing a power supply, there are several requirements that need to be considered.
· The power requirements of the load or circuit, including
Ø voltage
Ø current
· Safety features such as voltage and current limits to protect the load.
· Physical size and efficiency.
· Noise immunity of the system.

CURRENT OVERLOAD WARNING

Along with the above considerations, the power supply must operate below its maximum
rated output current. Loads drawing more current than the adapter is rated for can cause
inconsistent results or device malfunction. Overloading the converter can lead to
overheating and ultimately failure, potentially causing a fire hazard or damaging the load
itself.

IMPORTANT SPECIFICATIONS
While all power supply specifications are valuable, some are more critical than others. A few
specifications of note are:
Output Current: The maximum current that can be supplied to the load.

Load Regulation: The load regulation is how well the regulator can maintain its output with
a load current change, and usually is measured in millivolts (mV) or as a maximum output
voltage.

Noise & Ripple: Noise is any added and unwanted electronic interference, and ripple is the
small variation in voltage when AC is transformed into DC. These are typically combined
into one measurement. In switching power supplies, the measurement is given in peak-to-
peak, showing the extent of the noise spikes that arise from the switching.

Overvoltage Protection: Sometimes output voltages can exceed their nominal values and
can damage the load. Overvoltage protection is a circuit that shuts down the power supply
should the voltage limits be exceeded.

Overload Protection: Overload protection is a safety measure used to prevent damage in

the event of a short circuit or overcurrent event. Much like the circuit breaker in a house, the
overload protection shuts off the power supply so the load will not be damaged.

Efficiency: Efficiency is the ratio of power being pulled from the power grid that is
effectively being converted to DC power. A good SMPS power supply will operate with at
least 80% efficiency and, with a proper system design, can operate at even higher rates. An
efficient system will reduce heat generation and can save energy.
Voltage Regulator

Voltage regulator is one of the most widely used electronic circuitry in any device. A
regulated voltage (without fluctuations & noise levels) is very important for the smooth
functioning of many digital electronic devices. A common case is with micro controllers,
where a smooth regulated input voltage must be supplied for the micro controller to function
smoothly. Voltage regulator is the preferred device. It generates a fixed output voltage that
remains constant for any changes in an input voltage or load conditions. It acts as a buffer
for protecting components from damages. A voltage regulator is a device with a simple
feed-forward design and it uses negative feedback control loops.

There are mainly two types of voltage regulators: Linear voltage regulators and switching
voltage regulators; these are used in wider applications. The linear voltage regulator is the
easiest type of voltage regulator. It is available in two types, which are compact and used in
low power, low voltage systems.

The main components used in the voltage regulator are

· Feedback Circuit
· Stable Reference Voltage
· Pass Element Control Circuit
The voltage regulation process is very easy by using the above three components. The first
component of the voltage regulator like is a feedback circuit that is used to detect the
changes within the DC voltage output. Based on the reference voltage as well as feedback,
a control signal can be generated and drives the Pass Element to pay off the changes.

How Voltage Regulator Works

A voltage regulator circuit is used to make as well as maintain a permanent output voltage
even when the input voltage otherwise load conditions are changed. The voltage regulator
gets the voltage from a power supply and it can be maintained in a range that is well-suited
with the remaining electrical components.

Types of Voltage Regulators

Basically, there are two types of Voltage regulators: Linear voltage regulator and Switching
voltage regulator.
· There are two types of Linear voltage regulators: Series and Shunt.
· There are three types of Switching voltage regulators: Step up, Step down, and
Inverter voltage regulators.
Linear Voltage Regulators
The Linear regulator acts as a voltage divider. In the Ohmic region, it uses FET. The
resistance of the voltage regulator varies with load resulting in constant output voltage.
Linear voltage regulators are the original type of regulators use to regulate the power
supplies. In this kind of regulator, the variable conductivity of the active pass element like
a MOSFET or a BJT is accountable to change the output voltage.

Series Voltage Regulators

A series voltage regulator uses a variable element placed in series with the load. By
changing the resistance of that series element, the voltage dropped across it can be
changed. And, the voltage across the load remains constant.
The amount of current drawn is effectively used by the load; this is the main advantage of
the series voltage regulator. Even when the load does not require any current, the series
regulator does not draw full current. Therefore, a series regulator is considerably more
efficient than a shunt voltage regulator.

Shunt Voltage Regulators

A shunt voltage regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to the ground
through a variable resistance. The current through the shunt regulator has diverted away
from the load and flows uselessly to the ground, making this form usually less efficient than
the series regulator. It is, however, simpler, sometimes consisting of just a voltage-
reference diode, and is used in very low-powered circuits wherein the wasted current is too
small to be of concern. This form is very common for voltage reference circuits. A shunt
regulator can usually only sink (absorb) current.
Switching Voltage Regulators
A switching regulator rapidly switches a series device on and off. The switch’s duty cycle
sets the amount of charge transferred to the load. This is controlled by a feedback
mechanism similar to that of a linear regulator. Switching regulators are efficient because
the series element is either fully conducting or switched off because it dissipates almost no
power. Switching regulators are able to generate output voltages that are higher than the
input voltage or of opposite polarity, unlike linear regulators.

Step-Up Switching Converters also called boost switching regulators, provide a higher
voltage output by raising the input voltage. The output voltage is regulated, as long as the
power is drawn is within the output power specification of the circuit. For driving strings of
LEDs, Step up Switching voltage regulator is used.
Step Up Voltage Regulators

Assume Lossless circuit Pin= Pout (input and output powers are same)
From this, it is inferred that in this circuit
· Powers remain the same
· Voltage increases
· Current decreases
· Equivalent to DC transformer
Step Down (Buck) Voltage Regulator
It lowers the input voltage.

Step Down Voltage Regulators

Step down converter is equivalent to DC transformer wherein the turns ratio is in the range
of 0-1.

Step Up/Step Down (Boost/Buck)

It is also called a Voltage inverter. By using this configuration, it is possible to raise, lower or
invert the voltage as per the requirement.
· The output voltage is of the opposite polarity of the input.
· This is achieved by VL forward- biasing reverse-biased diode during the off times,
producing current and charging the capacitor for voltage production during the off times
· By using this type of switching regulator, 90% efficiency can be achieved.

Step Up/Step Down Voltage Regulators

Types of IC Voltage Regulators

There are basically four types of IC voltage regulators:
1. Fixed positive voltage regulator
2. Fixed negative voltage regulator
3. Adjustable voltage regulator
4. Dual-tracking voltage regulator

Fixed Positive Voltage Regulator

This IC regulator provides a fixed positive output voltage. Although many types of IC
regulators are available, the 7800 series of IC regulators is the most popular. The last two
digits in the part number indicate the d.c. output voltage. For example [See Table], the 7812
is a + 12V regulator whereas the 7805 is a + 5V regulator. Note that this series (7800
series) provides fixed regulated voltages from + 5 V to + 24V.

Circuit Diagram of Fixed Positive Voltage Regulator

The figure above shows the circuit diagram of fixed positive voltage regulator . You can see
how the 7812 IC is connected to provide a fixed DC output of + 12V. The unregulated input
voltage Vi is connected to the IC’s IN terminal and the IC’s OUT terminal provides + 12V.
Capacitors, although not always necessary, are sometimes used on the input and output.
The output capacitor (C2) acts basically as a line filter to improve transient response. The
input capacitor (C1) is used to prevent unwanted oscillations.

Fixed Negative Voltage Regulator

This IC regulator provides a fixed negative ouput voltage. The 7900 series of IC regulators
is commonly used for this purpose. This series (7900) is the negative-voltage counterpart of
the7800 series [See Table below]. Note that 7900 series provides fixed regulated voltages
from – 5V to – 24 V.
Circuit Diagram of Fixed Negative Voltage Regulator

You can see how 7912 IC is connected to provide a fixed d.c. output of – 12 V. The
unregulated negative input voltage Vi is connected to IC’s IN terminal and the IC’s OUT
terminal provides – 12 V. Capacitors used in the circuit perform the same function as in a
fixed positive regulator.
Adjustable Voltage Regulator
The adjustable voltage regulator can be adjusted to provide any d.c. output voltage that is
within its two specified limits. The most popular three-terminal IC adjustable voltage
regulator is the LM 317.
Circuit Diagram of Adjustable Voltage Regulator

The LM 317 is a three-terminal positive adjustable voltage regulator and can supply 1.5 A of
load current over an adjustable output range of 1.25V to 37V. The figure above shows an
unregulated power supply driving an LM 317 circuit. The data sheet of an LM 317 gives the
following formula for the output voltage:

This formula is valid from 1.25 V to 37V.

Dual Tracking Voltage Regulator

The dual-tracking regulator provides equal positive and negative output voltages.
This regulator is used when split-supply voltages are needed.
Circuit Diagram of Dual Tracking Voltage Regulator

Circuit Diagram of Dual Tracking Voltage Regulator

The RC 4195 IC provides d.c. outputs of + 15V and – 15V. The device needs two
unregulated input voltages. The positive input may be from + 18V to + 30V and the negative
input from – 18V to –30V. As shown, the two outputs are ± 15V. The data sheet of an RC
4195 lists a maximum output current of 150 mA for each supply and a load regulation of
3mV. Adjustable dual-tracking regulators are also available. These regulators have outputs
that can be varied between their two rated limits.
Features Packaging
IC voltage regulators are available in a variety of IC package types. Dual in-line packages
(DIP) can be made of ceramic (CIP) or plastic (PDIP). Quad flat packages (QFPs) contain a
large number of fine, flexible, gull wing shaped leads. SC-70, one of the smallest available
IC packages, is well-suited for applications where space is extremely limited. Small outline
(SO) packages are available with 8, 14, or 20 pins.

Transistor outline (TO) packages are commonly available. TO-92 is a single in-line package
used for low power devices. TO-220 is suitable for high power, medium-current, and fast-
switching products. TO-263 is the surface-mount version of the TO-220 package. Other IC
packages for IC voltage regulators include shrink small outline package (SSOP), small
outline integrated circuit (SOIC), small outline package (SOP), small outline J-lead (SOJ),
discrete package (DPAK), and power package (PPAK).