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Phy 1210

Mechanics

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37 views

Phy 1210

Mechanics

Uploaded by

abdulrasheed yusuf
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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J Nuthin Ape mS eDSthawmy SOV 2 Avy Fher MECHANICS 201"( Mechanics is the study of the motions of material bodies. It is subdivided into three sub disciplines Kinematics, Dynamics and Statics. Kinematics is the study and description of the possible motions of material bodies. Motion is a change in position in a time interval e.g. planetary motion with the earth being considered/ regarded as a particle. Dynamics is the study of the laws which determine, among all possible motions, which motion will actually take place in any given case. Here the concept of foree is introduced. Statics is the study of forces and system 0 forces, with particular reference to system of forces which act on bodies at rest, GENERAL MEASUREMENTS Measurement is way of comparison of an unknown quantity with a known standard quantity: e.g. we ‘measure mass by comparing the earth’s pull on a body with the ‘pull’ on a standard mass. A physical quantity is therefore made up of two parts; a number and a unit. If we say for example the length of wood is 20 m, it means the wood is 20 times the length of the ruler, which is a standard quantity. Units em of units accepted internationally is called the International System of Units (Shorten to SI ). in mechanics, the three basic or fundamental physical quantities are lengti. mass and dimesffith their respective basic or fundamental units of the metre(m), the kilogrammetkg), and the second(s). There are other units of other physical quantities, which are also considered basic or fundamenta], e.g. degree Celsi r Kelvin (°K), ampere (A), candela (Ca), and the mole, Below i a summary Of units of some/the quant icouittered. Quantities derived from basic or fundamental quantities are called ‘derived? quantities aitbtheir units referred to as “derived” units. Examples derived quantities are: density (derived from mass and volume); velocity (derived from length and time), momentum (derived from mass and velocity), etc. [Quantity | length | mass time | temperature | current | force _ | energy | power | momentum [st metre ackilogram | second | degree | ampere | newton | joule | watt | Newton second | afm [kg [s |[*CorK [A [N_ [J [WINS Some prefixes for multiple and sub-multiple units are: Prefix |T G M k m z a P |_& Bl tera) _| (gigay | (mega) | (kilo) _| (milli) | (micro) | (nano) _| (pico) _| (femto) Example [10 [10 | 10°w [103 [10%m [108A [10% 10% | 10%m ay) |G) fw) fq fmm) f(A) | om) [O™ | (fm) ey Dimensions By the dimensions of a physical quantity we mean the way the quantity is related to the fundamental quantities mass (M), length (L) and time (T). The symbols M. L and T denote the dimensions , length and time respectively. For example, the quantity Area, Area = length x breadth, will have dimension LxL or L? (unit is m2), Volume = (length x breadth x height), will have the dimension LxLxL or L? (unit is m’) Dimension of density (which is mass/volume) = M/L? or ML® (unit is kgm’) Dimension of velocity, “#sPlaceme mt is tT (unit is ms") time Dimension of frequency, ——, is T (unit is Hz ors!) * period” Dimension of Electric charge, (current x time) = A x T= AT (unit of electric charge is As) Dimension of Strain, extension /original length = L/L = No dimension (dimensionless) Uses of Dimensions The idea of dimension can be used to do the followin; i) Check iffa formula is correct or not. E.g., you can verify which of the two equations is each is correct: rere oT =2r, re Syl il a ssu?+Lat® or s=ut +—at 2 2 ii) Derive formule. Example: The velocity, V, of a transverse wave in a string depends on the tension F, in the string, its length |, and on its mass m, use the method of dimension to derive the relation ; Where k is a constant. ve \imass per unit length ‘Answer: The parameters above can be mathematically put as an equation | VeKPPm (a) where x, y,Zare numbers we hope to find by dimension and k is a constant, We can verify the dimensions of the following: V=LT, F=MLT?,1=L and m=M Ignoring the constant k for now, it follows from eqn. (a) that LT!=(MLT2)'x L’x M? Equating powers of M, L, and T on both sides, we have the following simultaneous equations O=x+z i xty i -1=-2x Solving, we shall have x='4, 2=-!4, and y= % V=kP*lm or Y= (2 er m|m — \\mass per unit length t iii) Eliminate redundancies or use to derive unit of a physical quantity. e.g. Pressure, P=F/A, thus unit of P isexpressed as. kgmr!s? rather than kgms®m? Question: What is the S.I unit of k so that velocity = k x density is dimensionally correct? velocity __ms' density — kgm Solution: kg-*mts Question: For temperature close to OK, the specific heat capacity for a particular solid is given by c=all" , where Tis its thermodynamic temperature and a is constant. What is the unit of a? Solution: Jkg'K" _ Nmkg'K"" _ kgms*mkg*K" i ee ae = o 7 =ms?K* Sealars and Vectors ‘A scalar quantity is one that has only magnitude or size: e.g. the length of a book, the number of desks in a classroom, the volume of a bottle and the speed of a car. A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. Examples are: force (to be meaningful it must have direction), velocity, acceleration, and displacement. Addition and subtraction of vectors. A vector is normally represented by straight line(magnitude) and arrow (direction). Suppose a train travels due east at 30kmir"' and a gil runs across in north-west direction at 6km™! We can find the velocity and direction of the gir! relative to the rail by adding the two velocities. Draw a line BA to represent 30kmhr in magnitude and direction and then from end of A, draw AC to represent 6kmbr! also in magnitude and direction. The line BC in magnitude and direction now represents the sum, or resultant, of the two velocities. Cc 6km.b! 30km.h* 6 A Question: A man walks 3km due north and then 4km due east, What is the resultant, or effect, of his journey? ‘Answer: Scale: lem represents 1km ( You can solve it by calculation also) 3km_ Resultant =5km ‘Now consider subtraction of vectors: -Q sr @ P-Q ‘The difference between the vectors P, Q is a vector P - Q which is the sum of P and (-Q). Note the direction of arrow of -Q ‘Triangular Law of vectors addition If three forces acting at a point (or on a body ) are in equilibrium and are joined head to tail to form a closed triangle, then each of the forces can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of the triangle taken in order. c R R=P+Q @ A P B 2.8.8 AB BC AC Lami’s Theorem If three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, each of the forces is proportional to the sine of the P Q_R angle between the other two. ie. 5 sina sinf sing Parallelogram Law of Vectors If two forces are represented in magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides of a constructed parallelogram, their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the common point of action. P R Scale drawing and measur... ean find R. It can also be using the cosine rule: D Q B Applying the cosine rule to triangle ABC, it can be shown that R= P? + Q? + 2PQcos = P?+Q? -2PQcos@ When 9=0°, R= P+Q When = 90°, R?= P?+Q? When = 180°, R= P-Q Vector Resolution This is the method of obtaining two vectors from a single vector. If two vectors can be represented by their resultant, then conversely one force can be represented by two forces. If-a vector (force, A) acting on a body at an angle @ with the horizontal direc component and vertical component are perpendicular to each other along the x- and y- axes respectively. in then the horizontal If we resolve OA, we get the horizontal component OX and the vertical component oy OX=OAcos, OY=OAsind MOTION Motion can be in one dimension, two dimensions or three dimensions Rest and Motion ‘A body is said to be at rest when it is not changing its position while a body is said to be in motion when it is changing its position with respect to time (in fact there is no absolute rest; rest is only relative). There are many different types of motion. Motion can be random, as in the case of motion of gaseous particles. It can be in a straight line. It can be rotational as in the case of a point on a spinning wheel and it can be oscillatory as in the case of a pendulum. A motion can also be translational, circular, vibratory ete. Distance, Speed, Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Distance is just magnitude without direction (scalar quantity) whereas displacement is a distance in a specified direction (vector quantity) Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance moved with time. In most cases, we deal with average speed because the speed varies during a journey. dis tance moved ae (measured in kan/h or m/s) time taken Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement with time. Compare this with the definition of speed above. The difference is that velocity has direction; therefore itis a vector quantity. A body is said to be moving with uniform velocity if its rate of change of distance moved ina specified direction is constant. Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity with time. If the velocity of a body is increasing it is called acceleration, if it is decreasing it is called retardation or deceleration. Average speed = Equations of Motion If the initial velocity of a moving body is u and the final velocity is v, the change in velocity = v —u If this change took place in time t, then Rate of change of velocity = "=" But acceleration, a, is rate of change of velocity, therefore, Making v the subject of the equation, we have v=utat ns) ‘The motion of the body with initial velocity u and velocity v ata later time, tis shown graphically below (velocity ~ time graph). Velocity (ms!) | Time, t (s) Distance traveled, s, is given by the area under the velocity — time _ s=ut+%(v-u)t =ut+ vt ie. SEAUHVYE veces Q) But from eqn. (1), veutat Therefore, s=A(ututatt ie. s=ut+ “’at @) Eliminating t in (2) using (1), we get vi=u? + 2a . Equations (1), (2) ,@3) and (4) are referred to as the equations of motion (in one dimension). ‘The simplest way to select which equation among three to use is to look at the problem you have been given, find which of the variables you have been given no information about and then find the equation which does not contain thet variable. Note: Equation I does not contain ‘s’, equation 2 does not contain ‘a’, equation 3 does not contain and equation 4 does not contain ‘t? For a body falling vertically downward, a= g and s=h, g is acceleration due to gravity ‘And for a body going vertically upwards; a= -g ‘At maximum height, v= 0, and for free fall, u= 0 Velocity - Time Graphs Consider a car, which starts from rest and accelerates uniformly until it reaches a velocity of ISm/s after 7s, It travels with uniform velocity for 10s and then is brought to rest in 5s. ‘The graph of this motion is shown below and is called velocity - time graph. Vel. (m/s) Lon, bea To find the distance traveled by car using the equations of motion, we will have to consider the journey in 3 sections; (a) when it is accelerating, (b) when it is traveling with uniform velocity, and (c) when it is being brought to rest. For section (a) using eqn. 1a x7x7 = 525m where u= 0 7 usingeqn.2 s=ur+ Yar? = Vx We could have obtained the same result by finding the area of triangle named (a) on the graph ‘Area (a) = ¥ base x height = % x 7 x15 = 52.5m ‘The distance traveled therefore is numerically equal to the area between the velocity ~ time graph and the time axis, while the acceleration calculated above is the gradient of the portion of the curve (a), i.e. 15/7m/s?. Use the formula to continue this problem and then check yours answers by finding the total area under the curve. Find the deceleration by calculation and by finding the gradient of the portion of the curve (c). Note it is a negative gradient, ie. a deceleration. Acceleration due to Gravity a = We can find the acceleration due to gravity by allowing a body to fall from ggetslising either a swinging solid pendulum or an electrical method to measure the time it takes to fall.a certain distance. Using the formula s= ut + % at? where u = 0 for free fall Then s Yat? ot a= 2% 2 As gis always used to denote the acceleration due to gravity, 2s ee Question: What is g when the length of pendulum, s, is 75cm and the time for 10 complete oscillations of the pendulum is 15.6s? Projectiles (Two dimension motion) A body is dropped freely from point P on top of a cliff and another thrown horizontally from P with initial velocity u will touch the gfotind at the same time. P Clift For the horizontal motion, velocity u= ZStance 2 ype time 1 For the free drop, s=ut+ sgt, u=0 and s=H nee= ve?) = &% (which looks si ="gt= “el = ‘which lool -H= et (2) ae looks sit ilar to equation of parabola y = ax’ So projectiles paths or trajectories of projectiles are parabolic in nature Y u “ x 04 < R : > Horizontal component of velocity = ucos0 Vertical component of velocity = usind For the vertical motion, v=u-+at where u=usin0, a=-g andv=0 , usind O=usind-gt > t= tis time taken to go up and is equal to time taken to come down. 2usind ‘ So total time for the whole motion = 2t = ——— g R is the maximum horizontal distance is referred to as the Range. & OA = R= horizontal velocity component x total time 2usin? _ u°>2cosdsind g & ie. R= ucos@ x 2t = ucos6 x uw’ sin20 g& R is maximum when sin26 = 1, i.e. @ = 45° R > since sin2@ = 2cos0sind 2 ie, Rao= g From v?= u?+2as, at maximum height, v=0, s=H and ie. O=vesin’® - 2gH _, from which usin® Force and Newton’s Laws of Motion Newton’s First Law (also known as law of inertia): - A body will continue in its present state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted upon by another force. This property by which it continues in its existing state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line is called the inertia of the body. Inertia is the ability of the body to start moving or stop moving. Newton’s Second Law:- The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction of the force. change of momentum ie, Foo time am ie, Fem) t 1 » t Fama orF If we define F so that k= 1, then | F=ma This is the mathematical statement of Newton’s second law. ‘The SI unit of force is therefore the newton (N), this is the force which will produce an acceleration of Im/s? when it acts on a mass of | kg. Fo but Newton's Third Law. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. It means if a body A exerts a force (action) on body B, then B will exert an equal and opposite force (reaction) on A. : If these were not so, when we put a book on the desk it would pass straight through. To hold a book, we ‘must exert a force equal to the weight of the book. When we place a book on the desk the reaction of the desk must be equal and opposite to the force exerted by the book otherwise the book would move up or down. Action reaction forces always occur in pairs. The two forces act on different bodies, so only one of the forces is used in discussing the motion of one of the two bodies. In the case of a man standing in a lift moving upwards, for example, the upward reaction of the floor on the man is the force we need to take into account in applying F = ma to the motion of the man, The equal downward force on the floor is not required. Weight and Mass, is there a difference? When we talk of mass we are talking about the ‘quantity’ of the material, when we talk of weight we are talking about force of gravity acting on the body. Force of gravity is due to attraction of objects towards the earth’s center. The mass of an object is constant all over the universe, whereas its weight is a force whose magnitude depends on the value of g. The acceleration due to gravity, g, depends on the dj the place considered from the center of the earth; itis slightly greater at the poles than at the the earth is not perfectly spherical. If we took the same body to the moon, its weight would lessas the eee sida i les , Benet Daas ote A cere onke 9 5p ban eyes toe * grok ak goles than at og uel falls to the ground, its Suppose the weight of mass m is denoted by W. if the object is released so that acceleration is g. Now by second law, F = ma. Consequently the force acting on it, ie. its weight, is given by W=mg If we want to find the weight of a body, or force acting on the body accurately, we would have to know the value of g for each place on earth. Normally the average value of 9.81 m/s? is used for solving simply physics problems. Momentum L£we try to move a lorry by pushing we find it much more difficult than to push ear. We can stop a ball is traveling very fast, but we could not stop a lorry by our own force even if the lorry is only wi moving very slowly. The momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and its velocity. Momentum =my, expressed in kgms" ‘The Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum When two or more bodies act upon one other their total momentum remains the same, provided that no other force is acting on the system. Consider two objects A and B moving with initial velocities, u1 and uz which collide with each other and moved with a common velocity v. the total linear momentum of A and B before collision = the total linear momentum after collision ie. muy + maty = (mrt mv + 7 (m, +m,) If A and B are moving with different speeds after collision, or in opposite directions before collision, similay Ns: ,, ined i. v @ — After collision so that their common velocity is Before collisi Impulse Ifa force, F, acts for a short time, t, on a body of mass, m, the product of the force and the time is equal to the change in momentum. 4 ie. Ft=mv-mu 4 The product Ft is called the impulse. Circular Motion When a body moves in a straight line we describe it as a linear motion. There are numerous cases of objects moving in a curve about some fixed point. Examples are the continuous revolving of the sun and ‘moon round the sun, the to-and- fro movement in circular path about the fixed axis of the wheel of the rim of the balance-wheel of a watch, etc. These types of motion are called circular motions. , B 10 \ ) Consider the movement of an object from A to B so that the radius OA moves through an angle 0, its angular velocity, «, about O is defined as the change of the angle per second. Thus if t is the time taken by object to move from A to B, Angular velocity, = 2 is expressed in radian per second (rad s!) 1 ie O=ot which is analogous to the formula ‘distance = uniform velocity x time’. The time T to describe the circle once is known as the period of the motion and is given by the expression, T= 2 since 27 radians is the angle one revolution. @ By trigonometry definition, if sis the length of are AB then 42. Dividing by t, the time taken to move from A to B, 58 an But s/t = speed, v, of the rotating body, and @/t is the angular velocity. vero Angular Acceleration Ifa particle is moving in a circle of radius r, its uniform speed v is constant but its direction changes continuously. This gives rise to an acceleration a which is also constant in magnitude (but not zero) but continuously changing in direction. v is always tangent to the circle in the direction of motion; the acceleration a is always directed radially inward. Because of this, a is called a radial or centripetal, acceleration. Centripetal means "’seeking the center”. The force exerted by the body opposite to the centripetal force is called centrifugal force. ¥ a=vo=— or ra? r The force F required to keep an object of mass m moving in a circle of radius r is # m— = mro* r Vv ‘Simple Harmonic Motion Any oscillatory or vibratory motion that repeats itself at equal intervals of time is a periodic motion. The periodic motion, whose acceleration is always proportional to its displacement and directed towards its mean position, is known as a simple harmonic motion (SHM). Examples of SHM are motions of, simple pendulum, spiral spring hang vertically loaded, loaded test tube to float vertically, liquid in a tube, prongs of a sounding tuning fork and many others. SHM is closely associated with circular motion. i Let x be the displacement from a fixed point O in the path, and o®x the magnitude of the acceleration towards O at this distance, where is constant, then, acceleration, a is a= -ox ‘The acceleration is in opposite direction to that in which x increases, that’s why we have the minus. a= -@*x_ is the fundamental equation representing a simple harmonic motion, and may be written ax i 22 2 sels dt This because displacement x divide by time tis velocity, ie. v= dt die d\d) de All equations used in SHM can be derived by calculus (i.e. Differentiation and integration of equations). ‘The period, T, of a simple harmonic motion, which isthe time taken for one complete oscillation as "7 aw. afd) and_v divide by t will give the acceleration, ic, a= = =|) = = ‘The Simple pendulum We want to show that the motion of a simple pendulum is a SHM. c 5 Pendulum is displaced from mean position O to A by are distance x ie. arcOA length of pendulum OC = angle of displacement ‘The forces in play are as shown in the diagram. The radial fore F=ma =~ mgsin® Gis small, -. sin € sowehave ma=-mg0, but 0= = 7 mgcos0 therefore ma=~-mg(2) mg t Sas 3 i sete iy we can see that acceleration due to gravity g, is a constant and so also is the length, | so that the value of g/l will automatically be constant which denote a. Asearlier stated, since we get a= -0°x , by definition, it shows the motion is SHM. athe ok = off = o- A rn long AC, te Be DPE + RE = Graket 4 6 eh Pes mgr, Kes bos ngh- gee ecg ot. mast R fr wha Da Tow % yan ta crapeved (li, akong Pome ; Now petiod, 7 = 2% = E = ag CE ta is tn tonctioe equation for the period of pendulum ® \s Ve Yt we know. Thus we have shown that the motion of a simple pendulum is SHM. Example: {A displacement of a motion is given by y= rsinoxt. Establish that itis a SHM Solution: y= rsinot a locity, —— =racosat velocity, v= 2 acceleration, a= # 7 4 rocosot) =- ra%sinat = - ©*(rsinot) = -0?y dt therefore it’s equation of a SHM. Universal Gravitation . Newton’s law of gravitation states that any two bodies will attract each other with a force F, which is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distant apart, =gitis me Mr Peon If ml = m2= I kg and r= Im then F = G, So G is the force of attraction between two bodies of unit masses placed at unit distance apart. G is known as universal gravitational constant and has a value 6.67 x 10™Nn? kg ‘The equation above is mathematical statement of the Newton’s law of gravitation. Ifthis attraction does not exist, we would be thrown off the earth's surface as it rotates. The mass of the earth ean be determined from the gravitational law. Ifthere ie no gravitational attraction, we cannot pour liquids, and could even have difficulty in controlling movement, as our bodies are not used to working in a weightless state Because the moon has a smaller mass we would be able to jumb much higher there as the gravitational force will be ess. If we were able to to stand on Mars we would find it difficult even to lift our fet, because Mars has greater mass than earth, Gravitational Field A gravitational field is the region under the influence of gravitation. The region around the earth under the influence of the force of gravity is the gravitational field of the earth. Any point outside the gravitational field or region is considered to be at infinite distance with respect to the field strength. Gravitational field is example of vector field, each point in this field having a vector associated with it. 13 Gravitational potential The amount of work done in taking a unit mass from infinity to a poi as the gravitational potential at that point. ‘The conventional value of gravitational potential of all points at infinity (outside gravitational field) is taken as zero. On the earth’s surface, of radius r the gravitational potential is given by the expression in the gravitational field is known v= ‘The negative sign indicates that the potential at infinity (zero) is greater than the potential close to the earth’s surface, Escape Velocity ‘A rocket can be made to completely escape from the gravitational attraction of the earth and travel towards the moon, so that it eventually comes under the gravitational attraction of the moon. At present soft landings on the moon have been made possible by firing retarding retro rockets. Suppose a rocket of mass m is fired from point P on the earth's surface so that it just escapes from the gravitational influence of the earth. ‘Then work done =m x potential difference between infinity and that point P GM r = mx the kinetic energy of the rocket = the work done GM ie. bm? = mx 2 ay from which, -¥=) 2GM x vauanyefeseibe , GM now, it can be shown that 7 therefore v= gr if we take g = 9,8m/s?, r= 6.4x10%km, weestimate v= 11 km/s this means, with initial velocity of 11 km/s, a rocket can be made to escape the earth’s gravitational field. ‘This idea is used in taunching satellites into orbits round the earth. Center of gravity ‘The point at which a single upward force can be applied, to hold a body in a state of equilibrium is called the center of gravity Cecenter of mass) of the body. The center of gravity is the point at which the whole weight of the body can be considered to be acting, For bodies that are symmetrically shaped the position of center of gravity is easy to understand. For a circular disc, center of gravity is at its center. The center of gravity of a plane rectangular shaped body will be at the intersection of the diagonals. We can find the center of gravity of a body experimentally by suspending it from two different points. The centre of gravity will be vertically below the point of suspension in each case. Center of gravity aw Note that the whole weight of a body can be represented by a single force acting at the center of gravity. Center of gravity is loosely referred to as center of mass because they coincide Static and Dynamic equilibrium conditions When several various act upon a body in different directions they form what is called system of forces. For the body to be in equilibrium, the following conditions must be satisfied: - i. A body is in equilibrium ifthe algebraic sum of all the forces about the body is zero, ii, If the algebraic sum of all the resolved components of all the forces in any direction is zero ( triangle of forces). i, Whe frees are 3or moe and are ine head tio fom clas wipe or polygon Lf fe SF ten se pein tee oa ogee Oey Boren ped SUG SE crcie Warr Monients ad I Silke of moments ‘A system of forces acting on a rigid body may tend to rotate the body. This introduces the idea of the turning effect or moment of a force, which is usually defined as follows: The moment of a force about a given point is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the point to the line of action of the force. oO Thus the moment of a force P about. a point O is P x ON, where ON is the perpendicular drawn from O to : the line of action of P. Principle of moments states that if a body is in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments about ‘any point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments F; Ri ° 1 Consider a rod balanced horizontally by forces as shown above. If we take moments about the point P ‘The sum of clockwise moment = Fa(t2 + 13+ 14) + Fara ‘The sum of the anticlockwise = Fir; + S(t +1) 15, therefore by the principle of moments F(t nitty) + Par = Fin + S(n+ 3) However ifthe moments are taken about point Q, we have ‘The sum of clockwise moment = R(r2+ 13) + Fara ‘The sum of the anticlockwise = Firrtn+n)+ Fits and R (2+ ty) + Fats = Fiert a+ 3 + Fara Example ‘Aman is working on a plank, which is placed horizontally across two supports so that equal lengths project at each end. If the plank is Sm long and has a mass of 30kg, what is the greatest distance from each end of the plank at which the supports can be placed, so that a man weighing 80kg can stand anywhere on the plank without it falling off the supports? Solution To solve this problem, note that the man has no danger standing anywhere between P and Q. There will problem when he stands at A or B, So we only need to find the value x ‘Suppose the man stands at A, if we take moments about P The sum of clockwise moment = 30 x (2.5 -x) The sum of the anticlockwise = 80 times x= 80x 30x (25-2) =80x ie. 110) Couple and torque Two equal and opposite forces whose lines of action do not coincide are said to form a couple and the turning effect of moment of the couple is called torque. A 0 m Fi To form a couple, Fi = F2=F 16 and torque = one of the forces forming the couple and perpendicular distance between them F x distance AB WORK, ENERGY AND POWER In Physics we use the word work in a different way itis used by most people. Work is said to be done when a force produices motion in the direction of the force. Examples 1. Aman carried a bucket on level ground for 10 meters, when he has stopped, what work has he done? ‘The man is moving horizontally while the force acting on the bucket acts vertically; therefore no distance has been moved in the direction of the force. In this case using physics definition, no work has been done. 2. Arman carries a bucket up a vertical ladder for a distance d. what work has he done? ‘The force has been moved a distance d in the direction of the force. Therefore the work done on the bucket will be F x d 3. Aman carries a bucket up a ladder sloping at an angle 6° with the horizontal. What work has he done? 2 Work done on bucket = F x s = F x dsin6 Work is defined as the product of the force applied and the distance moved in the direction of the force ‘The SI unit of work is called the joule, J; this is the work done when the point of application of a force of | newton (N) moves through | meter in the direction of the force. (Remember | newton is the force, which will produce an acceleration of 1 m/s? when it acts on a mass of | kg) Energy The energy of a body is defined as its capacity for doing work. As it is defined in terms of its ability to do work, the unit of energy is the same as that of work, i.e. the joule. We will meet the unit of the joule again in the sections of on heat and electricity. Energy can be obtained from many sources, the sun, water, the effort of man, the wind, from chemical action and so on. Mechanically, a body can possess energy or have the ability to do work for two reasons, either because of its position, or because of its motion. These two kinds of energy are called potential energy (P-E) and Kinetic energy (K.E) respectively. A body will often possess a combination of P.E and K.E Potential energy is the energy a body possesses becauise of it position. ‘ A body of mass m raised to a height h where its v = 0, its total gravitational potential energy, P.E, is given by the equation P.E=mgh where g is acceleration die to gravity. Kinetic energy is the energy a body possesses because of its motion. e When the raised body is released to fall freely, its total KE when it hits the ground is given by the equation KE=%mv? where v is the final velocity. Law of conservation of energy states that the total energy in a given system is always constant *, atpoint A, PE=mgh, K.B=0 A | at point B, P.E=mgx, K.E='myv?=mgh - mgx h | xalB | at point, P.E=0, K.E=%mv? vv what the conservatidli law is saying, at any point along AC, the sum of K.E and P.E is constant Power is defined as the rate of work done, work _ Fxs lime where s is distance and v is velocity. The unit of power is joule per second (Js) or watt (W) = Fxv i.e. powe Friction To move one body across another requires a force, The name given to the force of resistance, which opposes this motion, is friction, Friction is due to adhesion of one surface on another. When we work, we require friction to hold our feet stationary whilst we propel our body forward. Static and Dynamie friction Ifa force is applied to a body on a flat surface and is gradually increased, a stage will be reached when the body will just begin to slide. The frictional forces brought into play just before the body slips is maximum for the two surfaces and is called the ing fr The ratio of the limiting friction to the reaction of the plane is called the co-efficient of static friction and is denoted by pis Once the body has started to slide, it is found that a force smaller than the limiting friction is required to keep the body sliding. The frictional force brought into play when a body is sliding is called the dynamic friction. ‘The ratio of the dynamic friction to the reaction of the plane is called the co-efficient of dynamic friction and is denoted by j, . We can write a general equation, which is true for both static and dynamic friction ing,the motion. This force is Try to slide a body 0 ae overcomes F, the body begins to move. called static friction, + 18 ‘The maximum applied force that is requires for just start sliding the body is called the * limiting frictional force’. The ratio 1, Sf is called the co-efficient of static friction Even during sliding motion, a frictional force exists that opposes the motion. This is called dynamic or kinetic friction, Fy. The ratio yz, =“ is called the co-efficient of static friction If F is force that makes body to slide or move, then resultant force, F’ is P=P-Fy =F-pR Acceleration produced by a body with uniform velocity under a frictional force can be gotten as follows: FE - Pema = a=— = Poms m m Inclined Plane Ba Fs For equilibrium, sum of forces along surface equals zer0, i.e. Fe-_mgsind = 0 ie. Fs=mgsind a) Also, for equilibrium, sum of forces perpendicular to surface equals zero ie, R - mgeosd =0 ise, R= mgeos0 If we divide (1) by (2), 4s = tan Hence, 1s can be found by knowing @, the angle of friction (also known as limiting angle or repose angle) ‘Simple Machines Machines are devices by means of which we can apply a force greater than the effort we actually make ‘on one point to overcome a force at some other point conveniently. Machines are also used when an effort made at one point is needed to overcome a force at another point. Examples of a simple machine are levers, pulleys, inclined planes, screw, hydraulic machine, wheel and axle, and many others. The mechanical advantage (M.A) of a machine is defined as the ratio of the load L to aw Load 1 Effort E The speed ratio or velocity ratio (V.R) of a machine is defined as the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the load in the same time. _ distance moved by the effort © distance movedby load in the sametime The efficiency € ofa machine is defined as the ratio of useful work produced by machine to the total work put into the machine, expressed in percentage. ie. sR = mgsind mg 2) effort E. ie. 19 Efficiency, «= MOAOUPU gg, work input ‘i _ load x distance moved by the load i y= Sewn ee me an effort x distance moved by the effort = MALS soo VR = A x 100% VR Levers are classified into three classes namely: - }) fits class levers; the fulcrum isin the middle between load and effort. Examples are crowbar ii) aanlilis levers: the load is in the middle between fulcrum and effort. Examples are ind bottle opener. iii) thd roar a te effort is nthe middle between load and fulerum. Examples are foreeps. We have various ways of getting the M.A, V.R or « for each type of simple machine Tien q Load x di «Effort x de Pulleys system: 7D. E E = L | Single fixed pulley L Single moving pulley 4 pulleys used in two blocks | L=E ye =2E =he | nMaA= 7222 oa i | E Incline plane ~ bs \ bs 0 bd

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