Chapter 7.

Cell structure and function

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The Fundamental Units of Life
▪ All organisms are made of cells
▪ The cell is the simplest collection of matter
that can be alive
▪ All cells are related by their descent from earlier cells
▪ Cells can differ substantially from one another but share
common features

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Cell Size

Electron microscopy

Super-
Light microscopy resolution
microscopy

Unaided eye

Nucleus
Length Most Smallest Small
of some Most bacteria bacteria Proteins molecules
nerve plant
Viruses
and and
Human muscle Chicken Frog Human animal Mito- Ribo-
height cells egg egg egg cells chondrion somes Lipids Atoms

10 m 1m 0.1 m 1 cm 1 mm 100 μm 10 μm 1 μm 100 nm 10 nm 1 nm 0.1 nm

Microscopy
▪ Microscopes are used to
visualize cells
▪ In a light microscope (LM),
visible light is passed through
a specimen and then through
glass lenses
▪ Light microscopes can magnify
effectively to about 1,000 times
the size of the actual specimen

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 ▪ Three important parameters of microscopy:
▪ Magnification, the ratio of an object’s image size to its
real size
▪ Resolution, the measure of the clarity of the image, or the
minimum distance of two distinguishable points
▪ Contrast, visible differences in brightness between parts of
the sample

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 ▪ to study subcellular structures
▪ Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) focus a beam of
electrons onto the surface of a specimen, providing images
that look 3-D
▪ Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) focus a beam
of electrons through a specimen, used mainly to study the
internal structure of cells

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Cell Fractionation
▪ Cell fractionation takes
cells apart and
separates the major
organelles from one
another
▪ Centrifuges fractionate
cells into their
component parts

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd. Figure 7.4

Concept 7.2: Eukaryotic cells have internal
membranes that compartmentalize their functions

▪ The basic structural and functional unit of every organism is

one of two types of cells: prokaryotic or eukaryotic
▪ Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea consist
of prokaryotic cells
▪ Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of eukaryotic
cells

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Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
▪ Basic features of all cells:
▪ Plasma membrane
▪ Semifluid substance called cytosol
▪ Chromosomes (carry genes)
▪ Ribosomes (make proteins)

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 ▪ Prokaryotic cells are
characterized by having
▪ No nucleus
▪ DNA in an unbound region
called the nucleoid
▪ No membrane-bound
organelles
▪ Cytoplasm bound by the
plasma membrane

Figure 7.5

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 ▪ Eukaryotic cells are characterized
by having
▪ DNA in a nucleus that is
bounded by a double membrane
▪ Membrane-bound organelles
▪ Cytoplasm in the region
between the plasma membrane
and nucleus
▪ Eukaryotic cells are generally much
larger than prokaryotic cells Figure 7.8a

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 ▪ The plasma membrane
is a selective barrier that
allows sufficient passage
of oxygen, nutrients, and
waste to service the
volume of every cell

Figure 7.6

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 ▪ Metabolic requirements set
upper limits on the size of cells
▪ The surface area to volume
ratio of a cell is critical
▪ As a cell increases in size, its
volume grows proportionately
more than its surface area

Figure 7.7

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A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell
▪ A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that divide the cell
into compartments—the organelles
▪ The basic fabric of biological membranes is a double layer of
phospholipids and other lipids
▪ Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles

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Figure 7.8a

ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM (ER)
Rough ER Smooth ER Nuclear
envelope
Nucleolus NUCLEUS
Flagellum Chromatin
Centrosome
Plasma
membrane
CYTOSKELETON:
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Ribosomes
Microvilli
Golgi apparatus
Peroxisome
Lysosome

Mitochondrion
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Figure 7.8b

Nuclear
envelope
NUCLEUS
Nucleolus
Rough ER
Chromatin
Smooth ER

Ribosomes

Golgi Central vacuole

apparatus
Microfilaments
CYTOSKELETON
Microtubules

Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Plasma
Chloroplast
membrane
Cell wall
Plasmodesmata
Wall of adjacent cell
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Concept 7.3: The eukaryotic cell’s genetic
instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the
ribosomes

▪ The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell

▪ Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make proteins

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The Nucleus: Information Central
▪ The nucleus contains most of
the cell’s genes and is usually
the most conspicuous organelle
▪ The nuclear envelope encloses
the nucleus, separating it from
the cytoplasm
▪ The nuclear envelope is a
double membrane; each
membrane consists of a lipid Figure 7.9b
bilayer

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 ▪ Pores, lined with a structure called a pore complex, regulate
the entry and exit of molecules from the nucleus
▪ The nuclear size of the envelope is lined by the nuclear
lamina, which is composed of proteins and maintains the
shape of the nucleus

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 ▪ In the nucleus, DNA is organized
into discrete units called
chromosomes
▪ Each chromosome contains one
DNA molecule associated with
proteins, called chromatin
▪ Chromatin condenses to form
discrete chromosomes as a cell
prepares to divide

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The nucleolus is located within the nucleus
and is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis

그림 2-2. Nucleolus의 구성 요소와 ribosome 합성

 그림 2-3. Nucleus안의 nucleolus에서 ribosome이 합성됨.

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Ribosomes: Protein Factories
▪ Ribosomes are complexes made of ribosomal RNA and protein
▪ Ribosomes synthesize proteins in two locations:
▪ In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
▪ On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear
envelope (bound ribosomes)

Figure 7.10
Concept 7.4: The endomembrane system
regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell

▪ The endomembrane system consists of

▪ Nuclear envelope
▪ Endoplasmic reticulum
▪ Golgi apparatus
▪ Lysosomes
▪ Vacuoles
▪ Plasma membrane
▪ These components are either continuous or connected via
transfer by vesicles

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The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory

▪ The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope

▪ There are two distinct regions of ER:
▪ Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
▪ Rough ER, whose surface is studded with ribosomes

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Figure 7.11
Functions of Smooth ER / Rough ER

▪ The smooth ER
▪ Synthesizes lipids
▪ Metabolizes carbohydrates
▪ Detoxifies drugs and poisons
▪ Stores calcium ions

▪ The rough ER
▪ Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins (proteins
covalently bonded to carbohydrates)
▪ Distributes transport vesicles, secretory proteins surrounded by
membranes
▪ Is a membrane factory for the cell

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The Golgi Apparatus:
Shipping and Receiving Center

▪ The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs

called cisternae

Figure 7.12
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 ▪ The Golgi apparatus
▪ Modifies products of
the ER
▪ Manufactures certain
macromolecules
▪ Sorts and packages
materials into transport
vesicles

그림 2-5. Rough ER과 Golgi를 통과하면서

단백질에 붙은 탄수화물이 변형됨.
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Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

▪ A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes

that can digest macromolecules
▪ Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic environment
inside the lysosome
▪ Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membranes are made by
rough ER and then transferred to the Golgi apparatus for
further processing

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 ▪ Some types of cell can engulf another cell by phagocytosis;
this forms a food vacuole
▪ A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests the
molecules

Figure 7.13
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 ▪ Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own
organelles and macromolecules, a process called autophagy

Figure 7.13

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Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments

▪ Vacuoles are large vesicles derived from the ER and Golgi

apparatus
▪ Vacuoles perform a variety of functions in different kinds of cells

▪ Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis

▪ Contractile vacuoles, found in many
freshwater protists,
pump excess water out of cells
▪ Central vacuoles, found in many
mature plant cells, hold organic
compounds and water

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The Endomembrane System: A Review

▪ The endomembrane system is a complex and dynamic

player in the cell’s compartmental organization

Figure 7.15
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Endomembrane system을 통한 단백질 이동

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그림 2-8. 단백질 생성 후 주요 경로
Concept 7.5: Mitochondria and chloroplasts
change energy from one form to another
▪ Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a
metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate ATP
▪ Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the sites of
photosynthesis
▪ Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles

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The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria
and Chloroplasts

▪ Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities with bacteria:

▪ Enveloped by a double membrane
▪ Contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules
▪ Grow and reproduce somewhat independently
in cells

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Figure 7.16

The endosymbiont theory

Endoplasmic Nucleus
reticulum
Nuclear
envelope Engulfing of oxygen-
using nonphotosynthetic
prokaryote, which
Ancestor of becomes a mitochondrion
eukaryotic cells (host cell)

Mitochondrion
Engulfing of
photosynthetic
prokaryote Chloroplast
At least
Mitochondrion one cell Nonphotosynthetic
eukaryote

Photosynthetic eukaryote
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Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion

▪ They have a smooth outer membrane

and an inner membrane folded into
cristae
▪ Cristae present a large surface area for
enzymes that synthesize ATP
▪ The inner membrane creates two
compartments: intermembrane space
and mitochondrial matrix
▪ Some metabolic steps of cellular
respiration are catalyzed in the
mitochondrial matrix Figure 7.17

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Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy

▪ Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, as well as enzymes

and other molecules that function in photosynthesis
▪ Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green organs of plants and in
algae
▪ Chloroplast structure includes
▪ Thylakoids, membranous sacs,
stacked to form a granum
▪ Stroma, the internal fluid
▪ The chloroplast is one of a group of
plant organelles, called plastids

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Peroxisomes: Oxidation

▪ Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic

compartments bounded by a single
membrane
▪ Peroxisomes produce hydrogen
peroxide and convert it to water
▪ Peroxisomes perform reactions with
many different functions
▪ How peroxisomes are related to other
organelles is still unknown
Figure 7.19

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Concept 7.6: The cytoskeleton is a network
of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell

▪ The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending throughout

the cytoplasm
▪ It organizes the cell’s structures and activities, anchoring
many organelles
▪ It is composed of three types of molecular structures
▪ Microtubules
▪ Microfilaments
▪ Intermediate filaments

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Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support and Motility

▪ The cytoskeleton helps to

support the cell and maintain its
shape
▪ It interacts with motor proteins
to produce cell motility
▪ Inside the cell, vesicles can
travel along tracks provided by
Figure 7.21
the cytoskeleton

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Components of the Cytoskeleton

▪ Three main types of fibers make up the cytoskeleton

▪ Microtubules are the thickest
▪ Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the thinnest
components
▪ Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a middle range

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Microtubules

▪ Microtubules are hollow rods about 25 nm in diameter and

about 200 nm to 25 microns long
▪ Microtubules are constructed of dimers of tubulin
▪ Functions of microtubules:
▪ Shaping the cell
▪ Guiding movement of organelles
▪ Separating chromosomes during cell division

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Centrosomes and Centrioles
▪ In animal cells, microtubules
grow out from a centrosome
near the nucleus
▪ In animal cells, the centrosome
has a pair of centrioles, each
with nine triplets of microtubules
arranged in a ring
Figure 7.22

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd. 그림 2-9. Centrosome과 centriole

Cilia and Flagella
▪ Microtubules control the beating
of flagella and cilia, microtubule-
containing extensions that
project from some cells
▪ Many unicellular eukaryotes are
propelled through water by cilia or
flagella
▪ Cilia and flagella differ in their
beating patterns

Figure 7.23

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 ▪ Cilia and flagella share a
common structure
▪ A group of microtubules
sheathed by an extension of
the plasma membrane
▪ A basal body that anchors
the cilium or flagellum
▪ A motor protein called
dynein, which drives the
bending movements of a
cilium or flagellum

Figure 7.24
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Figure 7.24

Plasma
Outer microtubule membrane
0.1 μm doublet
Motor proteins
(dyneins)
Central
microtubule
Microtubules Radial spoke
(b) Cross Cross-linking
Plasma protein between
membrane section of
motile cilium outer doublets
Basal body

0.1 μm
0.5 μm Triplet
(a) Longitudinal section
of motile cilium

(c) Cross section

of basal body
Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
▪ Microfilaments are solid rods
about 7 nm in diameter, built as a
twisted double chain of actin
subunits
▪ A network of microfilaments helps
support the cell’s shape
▪ Bundles of microfilaments make
up the core of microvilli of
intestinal cells

Figure 7.25

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Microfilaments that function in cellular motility
contain the protein myosin in addition to actin

Muscle cell
0.5 μm

Actin
filament
Myosin
filament
Myosin
head

(a) Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction

Figure 7.26a
Cells crawl along a surface by extending
pseudopodia (cellular extensions) and moving toward them

Video: Amoeboid movement

Figure 7.26b

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7pR7TNzJ_pA
Cytoplasmic streaming is a circular flow of
cytoplasm within cells, driven by actin-myosin interactions

Video: Cytoplasmic Streaming

30 μm
Organelles

(c) Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells

Figure 7.26c
Intermediate Filaments

▪ Intermediate filaments range in diameter from

8 to 12 nanometers, larger than microfilaments
but smaller than microtubules
▪ Intermediate filaments are more permanent cytoskeleton
fixtures than the other two classes
▪ They support cell shape and fix organelles in place

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Concept 7.7: Extracellular components and
connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities

▪ Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are external

to the plasma membrane
▪ These extracellular materials and structures are involved in a
great many cellular functions

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Cell Walls of Plants

▪ The cell wall is an extracellular structure that distinguishes

plant cells from animal cells
▪ Prokaryotes, fungi, and some unicellular eukaryotes also
have cell walls
▪ The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and
prevents excessive uptake of water
▪ Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in
other polysaccharides and protein

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그림 2-10. Plant cell wall의 구성 성분
 ▪ Plant cell walls may have multiple
layers:
▪ Primary cell wall: Relatively
thin and flexible
▪ Middle lamella: Thin layer
between primary walls of
adjacent cells
▪ Secondary cell wall (in some
cells): Added between the
plasma membrane and the
primary cell wall Figure 7.27

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The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells

▪ Animal cells are covered by

an elaborate extracellular
matrix (ECM)
▪ The ECM is made up of
glycoproteins such as
collagen, proteoglycans,
and fibronectin
▪ ECM proteins bind to receptor
proteins in the plasma
membrane called integrins Proteoglycan
complex

Figure 7.28
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 ▪ ECM can regulate a cell’s
behavior by communicating
with a cell through integrins
▪ The ECM around a cell can
influence the activity of gene
in the nucleus
▪ Mechanical signaling may
occur through cytoskeletal
changes that trigger chemical
signals in the cell
그림 2-12. Integrin에 의해
microfilament의 구조 변화

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Cell Junctions

▪ Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems often

adhere, interact, and communicate through direct physical
contact

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Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells

▪ Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant cell walls

▪ Through plasmodesmata, water and small solutes (and
sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell to cell

Cell walls

Interior
of cell

Interior
of adja-
cent cell
0.5 μm Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes
Figure 7.29

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Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and
Gap Junctions in Animal Cells

▪ At tight junctions,
membranes of neighboring
cells are pressed together,
preventing leakage of
extracellular fluid
▪ Desmosomes (anchoring
junctions) fasten cells together
into strong sheets
▪ Gap junctions
(communicating junctions)
provide cytoplasmic channels Figure 7.30
between adjacent cells
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