Materials Science and Chemistry

Atomic Structure, Molecular

Structure, Chemical Reactions and
Chemical Bonding

Danyuo, Yiporo (Ph.D.), Snr. Lecturer

A. Dominic (FI) 2023
Callister 7e. Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition,
Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University. 8/23/2023
Table of Content
❖ atomic structure and mass
❖Ions
❖Compounds and chemical bonds
❖The periodic table
❖Inorganic and organic chemistry
❖Chemical nomenclature
❖Insight into polymers

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Atomic structure

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q0UEMXM5MTI

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Electronic structure

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Electronic structure

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 Electron energy states
❖ have discrete energy states
❖ tend to occupy lowest available energy state.

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Electronic configuration Valence electrons are the
*The Laws electrons in the outermost
shell, or energy level, of
an atom.

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• A valence electron is an electron in
the outer shell associated with an
atom, and that can participate in the
formation of a chemical bond if the
outer shell is not closed.
• In a single covalent bond, both
atoms in the bond contribute one
valence electron in order to form a
shared pair.

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Survey of elements

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 The periodic table
Columns: Similar Valence Structure

Adapted from
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Fig.2.6, Callister 7e.
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Atomic structure (Try questions)
How many electrons, protons, and neutrons are there in
each of the following atoms?
(a) magnesium-24, 24Mg,
Protons= 12, Electrons = 12, Neutrons = 24-12=12
(b) tin-119, 119Sn
Protons= 50, Electrons = 50, Neutrons = 119-50=69

Consider the following nuclear symbols. How many protons, neutrons, and
electrons does each element have?
What element do R, and X represent?
(a) 30𝑅
14
Protons = 14, Electrons = 14, Neutrons =30-14 =16 ……Silicon
(b) 99𝑇
39
Protons = 39, Electrons = 39, Neutrons =99-39 =60 ……Yttirium

(c) 133
55𝑿
Protons = 55, Electrons = 55, Neutrons =133-55 = 78 ……Cesium

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Atomic structure
 IONS

❖ From the examples of monatomic ions shown, notice that the

monatomic anions have names ending in -ide, whereas cations
simply have “ion” added to the name of the element.
 Class based PhET simulations : Build an Atom

• Build an atom out of protons, neutrons, and electrons, and see how the
element, charge, and mass change. Then play a game to test your ideas!

Build an Atom - Atoms | Atomic Structure | Isotope Symbols - PhET Interactive

Simulations (colorado.edu)

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/build-an-atom/latest/build-an-atom_en.html
Electronegativity
❖Ranges from 0.7 to 4.0
❖Large values: tendency to acquire electrons

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Bonding forces and energies
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/ato
mic-interactions/latest/atomic-
interactions_en.html

F = kx
How will you relate to
Modulus, E?
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Properties from bonding

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Properties from bonding: thermal expansion coefficient

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 Atomic structure and Mechanical Properties
❖ Modulus of elasticity (the slope of the strain stress curve in the
elastic region) is related to the slope of the force-distance
curve.

❖ Not all properties can be predicted by the atomic structure!

❖ Two Al samples with different grain size have the same chemical
composition and thus equal modulus of elasticity but different
yield strengths (the level at which a material begins to
permanently deform)
 Types of bonding: ionic
❖ Occurs between + and - ions.
❖ Requires electron transfer.
❖ Large difference in electronegativity required.
❖ Example: NaCl

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g-tE6MN-wrE
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Examples of ionic bonding

❖ Predominant bonding in Ceramics

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Types of bonding: Covalent bonding
❖ similar electronegativity ∴ share electrons
❖ bonds determined by valence – s & p orbitals dominate bonding

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 Insight into polymers

❖The observable macroscopic properties of any polymer depend on

the
❖Identity of its constituent monomers
❖The number of monomers present
❖ And the way that the monomers are connected to one another.

❖ These Models shows how atoms are

arranged in molecules of polyethylene,
poly(vinyl chloride), and poly(vinylidene
chloride).

❖ It also illustrate how dramatically the

properties of a polymer can depend on its
atomic composition
Types of bonding: Metallic bonding
❖ Ions in a sea of electrons
❖ Attraction between free electrons and metal ions

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Types of bonding: Ionic-covalent mixed bonding

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Types of bonding: Secondary bonding
❖ Arises from interaction between dipoles

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 Chemical Nomenclature (Naming Ionic
Compounds)
•Identify and name the cation; the cation is the metal.
•Identify and name the anion, and change the suffix to -ide; the anion is the nonmetal

Once we know how to name both ions, an ionic compound is named simply by combining
the two names. The cation is listed first in the formula unit and in the name.
 Chemical Nomenclature (Naming Covalent
Compounds)
❖ A binary covalent compound is composed of two
different nonmetal elements
❖ In a binary compound, the element that appears first in
the formula also appears first in the name. whereas the
second element is described by replacing the ending
from its name with the suffix –ide

❖ Both elements will be preceded by a number-

designating prefix except that when there is only one
atom of the first element, it does not carry the prefix
mono

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 Name the following given their chemical
formula
Give the formula for each of the
following compounds:
(a) sulfur dichloride
SCl2
(b) dinitrogen pentaoxide
N2O5
(c) silicon tetrachloride
SiCl4 Name each of the following ionic compounds:
(d) diboron trioxide (commonly (a) K2S
Potassium sulfide
called boric oxide)
(b) CoSO4,
B2O3
Cobalt sulfate
(c) (NH4)3PO4,
Amonium phosphate
(d) Ca(ClO)2
Calcium hypochlorite

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 Rules that allow us to write ionic chemical formulas
❖ Identify the cation.
❖ Cation is written first in the name of the compound.
❖ Write the correct formula and charge for the cation.
❖ Identify the anion.
❖ Anion is written last in the name of the compound.
❖ Write the correct formula and charge for the anion.
❖ Combine the cation and anion to produce an electrically neutral compound.
❖ If the charges on the cation and anion are equal in magnitude (i.e.
+1/-1, +2/-2, +3/-3), combine the cation and anion in a 1:1 ratio.
❖ If the charges on the cation and anion are NOT equal in magnitude, use
the charge on the cation as the subscript for the anion. Use the charge on
the anion (omitting the negative sign) as the subscript for the cation.
❖ Place parentheses around a polyatomic ion if you need more than one of
them in the final formula.
❖ Do not show the charges of the ions when you write the final formula for
the compound.
❖ Make sure that the subscripts for the cation and anion are the smallest
whole number ratio
 Try

❖Write the empirical formula for sodium carbonate

 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

❖ Chemical equations represent the transformation of one or more chemical

species into new substances.
❖ Reactants are the original materials and are written on the left-hand side of
the equation.
❖ Products are the newly formed compounds and are written on the right-
hand side of the equation.

❖ Chemical reactions must obey the law of conservation of matter.

❖ “The law of conservation of matter: matter is neither created nor

destroyed”

❖ The same number of atoms for each element must occur on both sides of the
chemical equation.

❖ A chemical reaction simply rearranges the atoms into new compounds.

 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
❖ Chemical equations may be balanced via inspection, which really means by
trial and error.

❖ Numbers used to balance chemical equations are called stoichiometric

coefficients.

❖ The stoichiometric coefficient multiplies the number of atoms of each element

in the formula unit of the compound that it precedes.

❖ Stoichiometry refers to the various quantitative relationships between

reactants and products.

Pay attention to the following when balancing chemical equations:

❖ Do not change species
❖ Do not use fractions (cannot have half a molecule)
❖ Make sure you have the same number of atoms of each element on both
sides
 Solvation
Solution: homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
Solvent: -solution component present in greatest amount
❖ Solute: -solution component present in lesser amount
❖ Concentration:- relative amounts of solute and solvent
❖ Concentrated:- many solute particles are present
❖ Dilute: -few solute particles are present
❖ Soluble -compounds dissolve readily in water.
❖ Insoluble - compounds do not dissolve readily in water
® Na + (aq) + Cl- (aq)
NaCl (s) ¾¾
HNO3 (aq) + NH 3 (g) ¾¾
® NH 4 NO3 (aq)
H+ (aq) + NO-3 (aq) + NH3 (g) ¾¾
® NH+4 (aq) + NO-3 (aq)

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Solvation
When a substance dissolves, does a chemical reaction always occur?
No.
What happens if it is not a reaction?
The solvent molecules are simply “slipping between” the substance molecules and disrupting
the intermolecular forces.
What is a concentrated solution? A dilute solution?
Concentrated solution: a solution in which the number of solute particles is high.
Dilute solution: solution in which the number of solute particles is low.

Balance the following equations and then write the net ionic equation.
Zn(s) + HCl(aq) H2(g) + ZnCl2(aq)
Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) H2(g) + ZnCl2(aq)
Zn(s) + 2 H+(aq) H2(g) + Zn2+ (aq)

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Mole
Calculate the molar mass of each of the following compounds.
(a)Fe2O3, iron(III) oxide,
M=2*55.84 + 3*15.9 = 159.7 g/mol
(b) BCl3, boron trichloride,
M=10.8+3*35.5=117.17 g/mol
(c) C6H8O6, ascorbic acid (vitamin C).
M= 6*12.01+8*1+6*15.99=176.12 g/mol

Calculate the mass in grams of 13.5 mol of

(a)vinyl chloride, C2H3Cl, the starting material for a plastic
M= 2*12.01+3*1+35.5= 62.52 g/mol
13.5 mol * 62.52 g/mol = 844.02 g
(b) capsaicin, C18H27NO3, the substance that makes red chili
peppers “hot,”
13.5 mol * 305 g/mol = 4117.5 g
(c) stearic acid, C18H36O2, used in soaps.
13.5 mol * 284 g/mol = 3834 g
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Mole
How many moles are present in the given quantities of explosives?
(a) 358.1g trinitrotoluene (TNT), C7H5N3O6,
358.1 g * 1mol/227g =1.577 moles
(b) 82.6 g nitromethane, CH3NO2,
82.6 g * 1mol/109g = 0.75 moles
(c) 1.68 kg RDX, C3H6N6O6
1680 g * 1mole/1056 g = 1.59 moles

How many grams of solute are present in each of these solutions?

(a) 37.2 mL of 0.471 M HBr
Moles = 0.471 M * 0.0372 L = 0.017 moles
0.017 moles * 80.9 g/mol = 1.3753 g
(b) 113.0 L of 1.43 M Na2CO3
Moles = 1.43 M * 113.0 L = 161.59 moles
161.59 moles * 83g/mole = 13411.97 g

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 Mole
Commercially available concentrated sulfuric acid is
18.0 M H2SO4. Calculate the volume of concentrated
sulfuric acid required to prepare 2.50 L of 1.50 M
H2SO4 solution.
C1*V1=C2*V2
18.0M * X L = 1.50 M * 2.50 L
X = 0.21 L of H2SO4 in 2.29 L water

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Summary

The number of protons in a nucleus determines the

chemical identity of an atom, and must be equal to the
number of electrons so that the atom is electrically neutral

Unequal numbers of protons and electrons results in a

charged particle, which is called an ion. Ions behave quite
differently from neutral atoms

The various types of chemical bonds, including covalent,

ionic, and metallic, can all be understood in terms of the
interactions between negative and positive charges

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Summary

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Questions

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