Study Guide Physics

Chapter 1; Measurements and Units

Section 1.01; Numbers and Units
a. Units
→ A physical quantity is made up of a number and a unit
- 10m = 10 times meter
we can combine units
- Speed = distance/ time
- meters/seconds =(m/s)
-
b. Prefixes
→ Prefixes make a unit bigger or smaller

c. Scientific Notation
→ 320,000 vs. 3.2 x 105
→ Above, the 3 and 2 are significant, the 0s where just to hold the decimal place
→ The exponent is the number of places we moved the decimal point to the left

Section 1.02; A system of Units

→ SI units (international system) = common system of units used by scientists
 a. Derived Units
→ From the 7 base units, we can combine them to create many different derived units
- speed: m/s
- acceleration m/s2
- área : m2
- density : kg/ m3
- force : kg m /s2

b. (specific) SÍ Units
→ Mass kg - measure of the amount of a substance
- the greater the mass of an object, the greater the force of gravity is on the object (F=mg)
- all objects resist changes in speed or direction. The greater the mass , the greater the
resistance
→ mass
- metric ton - medium sized car
- kg- bag of sugar
- g- a banknote
- mg- human hair
→ Time (s) - was defined as 1 / (60x60x24) of a day
- Now defined based on the resonance frequency of a cesium atom
→ Length (m) - defined as the distance light travels in 1 / 299,792,458 of a second
- km - 1/10 of a football field
- m- ½ the height of a person
- cm/ mm - the smallest measurement using a ruler
- um- bacteria
- nm-a few atoms

Section 1.03 ; Measuring length and time

a. Measuring Length
→ A ruler or tape measure is used
calipers can be used when a ruler cannot be placed next to an object. The length is then measured
using a ruler and the caliper
→ Micrometer- used to measure hundredths of a millimeter. It uses a barrel connected to a screw
thread
→ Vernier calipers- good for measuring diameters, among other dimensions. It uses a sliding
mechanism to measure external or internal measurements.

b. Measuring time
→ Stopwatch- analog or digital with buttons to star stop and reset the timer
→ You can use digital gates to take more accurate measurements of time

c. Error
→ There is error involved in making readings
- for mass, we subtract the initial reading of the scale when nothing is on it
- For length, using the micrometer or the vernier calipers, you subtract the reading when the
instrument is completely closed.

Section 1.04 ; Volume and density

a. What is volume and density
→ volume: quantity of space an object takes up
- SI units is m3
- We also use the L(Liter) and cm3 or mL
- Density: ratio of mass to volume
- water has a density of 1 g/cm3

b. Density calculations
→ If we know two of the following, for a given substance, we can calculate the third
- density, p
- mass, m
- volume, v

Section 1.05; Measuring Volume and density

a. Measuring volume
→ liquid can be measured using a graduated cylinder. These are usually marked in mL.
→ We read a graduated cylinder by looking at where the bottom of the meniscus is, not the water
level.
→ A regular solid can be measured using regular length measurements from section 1.03.
- rectangular block (V= lwh)
- cylinder (V= 𝝿2h)
- an irregular solid can be measured using water displacement
→ By placing an amount of water in graduated cylinder and placing the irregular object in the
cylinder, the rise in volume of the water tells us the volume of the solid

→ Alternatively we can use a special apparatus called a displacement can. We overflow the device
and palace a beaker under the nozzle to collect the water displaced by the object when placed in the
can.
 b. Measuring density
→ we don't measure density directly. We measure the mass and volume and calculate the density
→ We can use a hydrometer to roughly measure the density of a liquid. The number read is related to
the density of water
- in production processes, it is important to check the densities of different types of milk, beer
or other liquids
- Example using a hydrometer: a reading of 1.05 means the density 1.05 x density of water or
1.05g/cm3 or 1050 kg/m3

Section 1.06 ; Density

→ A substance will float or sink, (in a liquid or gas) based on its dentist and that of the fluid it is in
→ Ice is less dense than water
→ Hot air is less dense than cold air

Chapter 2 Physics Exam

Section 2.01; speed, velocity and acceleration
→ (average) speed = distance / time
→ Distance can be measured in meters (m) and time can be measured in seconds (s). So speed is
measured in meters/ seconds (m/s)

Velocity
→ definition : speed and direction. We choose which direction is positive (usually right or up is
positive)
→ Quantities, like velocity, with magnitude and direction are called vectores
→ v = ⃤ s/ time
→ It can be represented with a single headed arrow. →

Acceleration
→ (average acceleration)=change in velocity / time
→a = ⃤ v/ t = (v-u)/t
- where v is the final velocity and u is the initial velocity
→ acceleration is a vector
→ It can be represented with a double- headed arrow
→ If we make the right positive then a double head arrow with 3m/s2 to the right.
→ 3m/s2 means its increasing 3m/s every second
→ -3m/s2 menad its decreasing 3m/s every second
→ deceleration; a negative acceleration

Section 2.02; Motion Graphs

Distance- time graphs

→ Time is recorded on the x-axis and distance on the y-axis
→ The slope (gradient) of the line ( ⃤ y/ ⃤ x) would be ⃤ s/ ⃤ t
→ speed = ⃤ s/ ⃤ t , so the slope of the lines gives us speed
→ The difference in slope means a difference a difference in speed
- hence gradient = speed
→ constant slope = constant speed
- there is no acceleration
→ The change in slope means a change in velocity. A change in velocity is acceleration. If the slope is
increasing its speeding up This means it is accelerating (positive )
→ The constant slope means it is not changing speed ( no acceleration). A slope of 0 means a velocity
of 0.

speed- time graphs

→ time is recorded on the x- axis and speed on the y axis
→ The slope (gradient ) of the line ( ⃤ y/ ⃤ x) would be ⃤ v/ ⃤ t
→ acceleration = ⃤ v/ ⃤ t. So the slope of the line gives us acceleration
→ The area under the curve is found by the multiplication. speed x time is distance
→ slope 0 = no changing speed (no acceleration). The area under the curve (line) by multiplying the
speed by the time (area of a rectangle )
→ A constant slope mean that it’s traveling with a constant acceleration
→ The area under the curve (line) can be found by multiplying the speed by the time and dividing by
2 (area of a triangle)

Section 2.04; Free Fall and SUVAT

g (acceleration)
→ g is the acceleration due to gravity, or the acceleration of free fall.
It is approximately 9.8 m/s2
→ All objects have this same acceleration due to free fall, although other forces may not fall at the
same speed .

direction (up and down)

→ we can decide if up is positive or down. I will normally choose it as positive. If up is positive, then
down is negative and g = -9.8 m/s2

SUVAT equations
a → acceleration
v → velocity (final velocity)
u → velocity (initial velocity)
t → time
s → displacement
meters (m) and seconds (s) are used as the units

(𝑣−𝑢)
𝑎 = 𝑡
(𝑢+𝑣) 𝑡
𝑠= 2
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2
𝑎𝑡 2
𝑣2 = u2 + 2as

So when solving equations involving acceleration, we need to ask ourselves what information we have
and what we are looking for.
Then we can choose the appropriate equation and solve for the unknown value.

Section 2.06 ; Forces in Balance

Basics on Force
→ force = a push or pull exerted by one object on another object
→ it is a vector, it has magnitude and direction
→ The SI unit for force is the Newton (N)
→ N = kg m/s2
→ 1 N = force required to accelerate a 2 kg object 1 m/s2

common forces
→ tensions - the force in a stretched material
→ Compression- the force in a compressed material
→ friction - the force that opposes the motion of one material sliding past another
→ air resistance - a type of friction
→ thrust - the force from an engine or rocket
→ weight - the gravitational force on an object
→ buoyancy - the upward force from a liquid or gas that makes something float

changes in motion
→ an object will tend to keep its velocity unless acted on by an outside force
→ This is Newton’s First Law of Motion
- objects at rest will stay at rest
- objects in motion will stay in motion (with the same velocity )
→ on earth, objects come to rest due to friction

Balanced Forces
→ An object may have several forces acting on it, and not change its velocity. This is due to the forces
being in balance
→ Note : in physics we typically evaluate vertical and horizontal components of velocity acceleration
(any vector ) separately.
→ These vertical forces are in balance, therefore there is no change in vertical velocity . For the first
two, the vertical velocity is 0. For the skydiver, the vertical velocity is terminal velocity.
Terminal Velocity
→ terminal velocity occurs when the force due to gravity acting on an object is equal to, but in
opposite direction to the force of friction due to air resistance acting on the same object.

Section 2.9; Force weight and gravity

gravitational force
→ gravitational force is a the pull from the earth towards itself
→ features of gravitational force
- all masses attract each other
- the greater the masses, the stronger the force
- the closer the masses the stronger the force
→ we notice the earth’s gravitational force because its mass is so large

weight
→ weight is another name for the earth’s gravitational force on an object. It is measured in Newtons
→ The weight of an object is calculated by multiplying the mass of the object by its acceleration due
to gravity.
- weight = mass x g / w= mg
- (in units) N = kg x m/s2 or N= kg x N/kg

gravitational field strength

→ gravitational field strength of the earth is (g) or 9.8 m/s2 or 9.8 N/kg
→ Be careful to use weight and mass correctly
→ Mass is the amount of substance
→ Weight is the gravitational force on an object which has mass
→ Since the gravitational field is “constant” on Earth, we sometimes use weight when we mena mass

calculating involving g
→ what is the acceleration of the rocket ?
→ We must calculate the net upwards force and then calculate the acceleration
→ Upward force = 3000 N
→ Downward force due to gravity
- w= mg= 200 kg x 9.8 N / kg = 1960 N

→ So the net force is 1040 N upward

→ To find the acceleration we solve this equation F=ma for acceleration a = f/m
→ a = 1040 N /200 kg = 5.2m/s2

Physics Exam Chapter 4

Section 4.01 ; Work and Energy

Work
→ Works is whenever a force makes something move
→W=Fxd
→ J= Nm
→ How much work is done to move an object 3 meters when a 4 N force is applied?
- W= 4N * ·3N = 12J

Energy
→ Something “has energy” if it can be used to od work
- compressed spring
- fuel
- an elevated object
- a moving object
- a “hot “ object
→ Energy, like work, is also measured in Joules

Types of Energy
→ Kinetic Energy
→ Potential Energy
- gravitational potential Energy
- Elastic Potential Energy
- Chemical POtential Energy
- Electrical Potential Energy
- Nuclear Potential Energy
→ Thermal Energy
→ Radiated Energy

Section 4.02; Energy Transformation

conservation of energy
→ The law of conservation of energy
- energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can change from one form to another

Efficiency
→ transforming between different kinds of energy usually is not a 100% efficient process; we lose
useful energy in the process

work done and energy transformed

→ assuming a perfect efficiency (friction, no excess heat) the energy transformed equals the work
done
→ work done = energy transformed
Section 4.03; Calculating PE and KE

calculating PE
→ An object has gravitational potential energy (PE) due to the earth’s gravity and the object's position
above the ground
→ F= mg, h = distance above the ground
→ W = F*d so PE= mgh
→ example
- if a 2kg was 3 m above the ground its gravitational potential energy = 2kg * 9.8 m/s2 * 3m =
58.8J

Calculating KE
→ An object has kinetic energy (KE) due to its mass and speed
→ W = F*d = ma*d
- m(change in speed / t) * average speed (t)
- m *v* ½ v
- KE = ½ mv2
→ Example
- if a 2kg mass was 3m/s its kinetic energy = ½ * 2 kg (3m/m)2 = 9J

Solar Energy
→ Energy is a scalar quantity. The direction the object was moved / is moving not important to the
amount of energy it has

Problems

1. What is the stone’s KE when it has fallen half-way to the ground?

→ PE lost = KE gained
→ PE lost = mgh = 4kg *9.8m/s 2 * 2m = 78.4 J
→ KE gained = 7.8 J

2. What is the speed of the stone at the bottom of the hill ? (assume no friction forces)
→ Pe lost=KE gained
→ PE = mgh = 4 kg *9.8 m/s 2 * 5m = 196 J
→ KE= ½ mv2 = ½ (4kg ) v2 = 196
→ v2 = 9.8 m3/s2 or v = 9.90 m/s

Section 4.05 & 4.06 ; energy for electricity

thermal power stations

→ in most power stations, generators are turned by turbines blown by high pressure steam produced
by heating water
→ the steam is cooled by aire or nearby seas /rivers

energy spreading
→ when gerating electrical power, most of the energy is lost from the cooling od the reclaimed steam
→ Thermal energy spreads out. This diffusion of heat makes it hard to control and use efficiently
→ One way to use the excess what from the steam is to heat local buildings through these water pipes
ration

reaction for energy

→ the following is a basic chemical equation for the generation of energy

→ each fuel has other byproducts each which have negative effects on the environment

pollution
→ carbon dioxide is produced from burning fuel. Coal produces twice the amount of CO2 than
methane (per kJ of output)
- the sulfur in coal can help produce acid rain
→ transportation of fuel causes pollution
→ radiactive waste from nuclear power stations is highly toxic and must be safely stored

wind and water power

→ wind power and water power create no pollution but are expensive to build
→ their power is less “concentrated “ than more traditional forms of electrical power generation
→ They both function by having the fluid push a turbine. A generator converts the mechanical energy
into electrical energy

Section 4.04 ; Efficiency and power

efficiency
→ not all the energy used goes towards useful work. In many cases heat is a byproduct (like with an
engine )
- efficiency = seful work done / total energy input OR
- useful energy output / total energy input
power
→ the rate at wich work is done is called power
→ the SI unit is the watt (W)
→ 1 W = 1J per second
→ power = work /time or = energy transformed / time (P=W/t)
→ efficiency = useful power output / total pwoer input

problems
1. a crane lifts a 100 kg block to a height of 16 m in 20 s . If the power input to the motor is
1000 W what is its efficiency?
→ W = mgh = 100kg * 9.8 m/s * 16 m = 15680 J
→ Power output = W/t = 15680 J /20 s = 784 W
→ Efficiency = output / input = 784 W/ 1000 W
- 78.4 %
 2. A car has a steady speed of 30 m/s . If the total frictional force on the car is 700 N what useful
power output dos the engine deliver to the wheels?
→ At steady speed, there is no acceleration, so the frictional forces = the forward force
→ power = F* d/t = 700 N * 30 m /1 s = 21000”
→ Power = F*speed

Section 4.07; energy resources

→ energy sources can be renewable or non- renewable

- wood is renewable ; we can grow more of it
- oil is non- renewable; once used it cannot be replaced

non- renewable resources

→ fossil fuels
- coal, oil and natural gas come from the remains of plantas and animals which lived long aog.
They are concentrated sources of energy
- fracking is a controversial process for removing natural gas from shale
- when burned, they produce waste gases that pollute the atmosphere
→ nuclear fuels
- most uranium. 1 kg contains the same amount of energy as 55 metrci tons of coal. Energy is
released by splitting the nuclei of the uranium atoms
- the waste material is dangerous, and stays radioactive for thousands of years
- nuclear plants are expensive to construct and decommission

renewable energy
→ hydroelectric
- a river fills a lake behind a dam. Water flowing down from the lake turns generators
→ tidal
- similar to hydroelectric. The lake fills when the tide comes in and empties when it goes out
→ wave
- generators are driven by the up-and-down motion of waves at sea
→ wind
- generators are driven by wind turbines
→ geothermal
- water is pumped down into the hot earth and returns hotter
→ solar
- converts radiation from the sun into electricity
→ biofuels
- made from plants from which their seed can be replanted

Chapter 6 and 7 Waves

6.1 ; Transversal / Longitudinal Waves
- There are everal different types of waves
- Some of their properties are true across all types, while other properties are only true for a
specific type of wave
- Transversal waves: The wave motion, or oscillations are in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of travel
- Longitudinal waves: The wave motion, or compressions, are in the direction of travel
 - Light waves (electromagnetic waves)
- Sound waves
- Speed (m/s)
- Sound waves travel at 343 m/s
- Light waves travels about 3 x 10 to the fifth times faster than sound (300,000 times)
- Wavelength is the size of the wave
- It is calculated by taking the two points on adjacent waves in the same location
- Amplitude is the maximum distance a point moves from it’s rest position when a
wave passes
- Frequency is the number of waves that pass a certain point per second
- Period is time for one oscillation. Period = 1/ frequency
- Speed (velocity), frequency (f) and wavelength (λ)are related by the following
equation
- V= fλ

6.2 ; wave effects

- reflection= waves reflect off surfaces with the same angle that they hit
- In the diagram, i=r
- The frequency of a wave doesn’t change, even when changing mediums
- So, if the waves are closer together (when going over the shallow part), that means their
wavelength is smaller, so, according to the equation, speed must be smaller too .
- Diffraction- when going through an opening, the wave bends around the edges
- With a small enough opening, it looks like a point source
- Sound light, and radio signals all undergo reflection, refraction an diffraction. This suggest
that they travel as waves for example ;
- Light reflects from mirrors ; sound reflects from the hard surfaces
- Light bends when it passes from air into glass or water
- Sound bends around obstacles such as walls, and buildings, which is why you can
hear around corners
- Light spreads when it passes through tiny holes and slits. This suggests that light
waves must have much shorter wavelengths than sound
- Some radio signals can bend round very large obstacles such as hills . This suggests
that radio waves must have long wavelengths
 - Sound waves are caused by compressing and stretching particles . (They are a type of
longitudinal waves). If there are no particles (vacuum) there cannot be sound. Although its
easiest to think of sound moving through air, it can move through liquids and solids too
- Hard surfaces reflect sound and cause echoes . We can dampen sound (absorb the energy in
the wave ) by using padded objects like furniture carpets and curtains
- Porous material also help dampen sounds
- ALso, having transition between slid and air help as well. Windows with Theo glass panes
and air between act as a sound barrier in addition to a thermal barrier
6.5 ; properties of sound waves
- higher pitch (higher frequency )
- The human ear can hear frequencies between 20 Hz and 20 kHz
- Octaves in music are the same not but higher or lower. By the same note, we mean some
doubling of the frequency
- More molecules vibrating, means louder sound (higher amplitude ). This is most easily seen
on an oscilloscope, that changes the longitudinal sound waves in an easier to see visual
transverse wave