WEEK 7

THE NATURE OF CRITICAL WRITING

Transitioning from Critical Reading to Critical Writing

Reading and writing are the two of the macro skills essential for learning. Critical reading is not a process of
passive consumption, but one of interaction and engagement between the reader and the text. Therefore, when reading
critically and actively, it is important not only to take in the words on the page, but also to interpret and to reflect upon
what is read through writing and discussing it with others.
Reacting to a text is often done on an emotional and largely subjective, rather than on an intellectual and
objective level. It is quick but shallow.
For example, if we encounter a text that advances arguments with which we strongly disagree, it is natural to
dismiss those ideas offhand as not wrong and not worthy of our attention. Doing so would be reacting to the text based
only on emotions and on our pre-set opinions about its arguments. It is easy to see that reacting in this way does not
take the reader any closer to understanding the text. A wall of disagreement that existed between the reader and the
text before the reading continues to exist after the reading.
Hence, learning is limited and the reader may not be able to get any useful insight from the author because of
reluctance and doubt arising from questions on the author’s credibility. This is regardless of the subjectivity and possible
invalidity of the argument.
Responding to a text, on the other hand, requires a careful study of the ideas presented and arguments
advanced in it. It is analytical and evaluative. Critical readers who possess this skill are not willing to simply reject or
accept the arguments presented in the text after the first reading right away. They are open-minded and willing to learn
in spite of differences in beliefs and principles.
Hence, responding to a text is much more productive and progressive.

Reacting to Texts
 Works on an emotional level rather than an intellectual level
 Prevents readers from studying purposes, intended audiences, and contexts of texts they are working with
 Fails to establish dialog between the reader and the text by locking the reader in his or her pre-existing opinion about
the argument

Responding to Texts
• Works on an intellectual and emotional level by asking the readers to use all three rhetorical appeals in reading and
writing about the text
• Allows for careful study of the text's rhetorical aspects
• Establishes dialogue among the reader, text, and other readers by allowing all sides to reconsider existing positions
and opinions

Binary Reading
 Provides only "agree or disagree" answers
 Does not allow for an understanding of complex arguments
 Prevents the reader from a true rhetorical engagement with the text

Nuanced Reading
• Allows for a deep and detailed understanding of complex texts
• Takes into account "gray areas" of complex arguments
• Establishes rhetorical engagement between the reader and the text

CRITICAL WRITING VS DESCRIPTIVE WRITING

It is important that you understand the difference between descriptive writing and adopting a critical stance, and are
able to show clear evidence of your understanding in your writing.

Descriptive Writing Critical or Analysis Writing

States what happened Identifies the significance
States what something is like Evaluates (judges the value of) strengths and weaknesses
Gives the story so far Weighs one piece of information against another
States the order in which things happened Makes reasoned judgments
Says how to do something Argues a case according to evidence
Explains what a theory says Shows why something is relevant or suitable
Explains how something works Indicates why something will work (best)
Notes the method used Indicates whether something is appropriate or suitable
Says when something occurred Identifies why the timing is important
States the different components Weighs up the importance of component parts
States options Gives reason for the selection of each option
Lists details Evaluates the relative significance of details
Lists in any order Structures information in order (e g. of importance)
States links between items Shows the relevance of links between pieces of
Gives information information
Draws conclusions
Remember that critical writing is no longer about observation and imagination. Rather, it strongly calls for observation
and logic to raise solid arguments, supported by evidences that you will carefully elaborate in your text.
WEEK 8
CRITICAL WRITING IN THE ACADEME

Academic writing is far from a one-size-fits-all genre. Applicable to the broad variety of academic disciplines and their
unique approaches to conducting and documenting research efforts in the field, one might find it challenging to identify
clearly what constitutes academic writing.

Defining Critical Academic Writing

According to the University of Birmingham publication, “A short guide to critical writing for Postgraduate Taught
students,”
“Critical writing is an involvement in an academic debate. It requires „a refusal to accept the conclusions of other writers
without evaluating the arguments and evidence they provide.‟
A Lancaster University publication adds that “The aim of academic writing is not to present „the right answer,‟ but to
discuss the controversies in an intelligent way.”

Here are tips to help you reflect critical thinking in critical academic writing.
• Be sure to answer the right and relevant questions.
• Give enough contexts so that the reader can follow your ideas and understand your principles.
• Include references to the material you have read.
• Try to group different studies thematically or categorically and make links between ones that are related.
• Explain source material to your readers to show why it is valuable and relevant.
• Discuss the ideas that come from these source texts in your writing.
• Justify your judgments. Say why you think an idea is relevant, valid or interesting.
• Acknowledge the drawbacks or limitations of ideas, even the ones you disagree with.
• Avoid absolute statements. Use hedging language to make your statements more convincing.
• Do not be afraid to make intelligent suggestions, educational guesses or hypotheses.
• You are supposed to make judgments based on evidence, so your conclusions must be meaningful and
completely objective.
• Note that conclusions are usually plural. A single conclusion—rare but possible— is usually straightforward and
is worth discussing. Do not ignore arguments just because you disagree with them.
• Avoid praising authors just because they are famous in the field. Praise them for the substance of their work
assessed with objectivity, not with subjectivity.
• Check that your argument flows logically

Constructing a Good Academic Argument

A good academic argument makes an evidence-based claim designed to advance a specific field of study. It also
demonstrates an understanding of the foundational research for the claim and the implications of the results on the
field. Points of view can strengthen your argument, either by providing evidence to support your argument or by
providing food for thought when constructing your argument to effectively debate counterclaims.

A Belmont University resource titled, “Writing an Argument,” states:

“The purpose of argument writing is to present a position and to have an audience adopt or at least seriously consider
your argument.” Further, it notes that “Good argument writing is critical, assertion-with proof-writing. It should reflect a
serious attempt on the writer’s part to have considered the issue from all angles.”

The Simon Fraser University “Resources on argumentation in academic writing” claims that:
“Argumentation is less about trying to change „what readers believe, think, or do,‟ and more about convincing yourself
or others that specific facts are reliable or that certain views should be considered or at least tolerated”.
In another resource titled, “Building Good Arguments”, they describe six elements of a well-reasoned argument: claim,
reason, qualifier, warrant, backing, and conditions of rebuttal.
The Writing Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill offers that:
“…by considering what someone who disagrees with your position might have to say…, you show that you have thought
things through, and you dispose of some of the reasons your audience might have for not accepting your argument.”

Critically Evaluating Source Materials

According to the Cleveland State University Writing Center, “Critical reading means that a reader applies certain
processes, models, questions, and theories that result in enhanced clarity and comprehension.”
Critical evaluation of source materials allows you “to evaluate the strength of the argument being made by the work”.
The University of Toronto resource, “Critical Reading Towards Critical Writing” echoes this mindset, stating:
“To read critically is to make judgments about how a text is argued. This is a highly reflective skill requiring you to “stand
back” and gain some distance from the text you are reading.”
For those new to critical evaluation of a source, however, you should ask “What aspects are important to consider when
critically evaluating a source?”
According to Sheldon Smith, founder and editor of EAPFoundation.com in an article on Critical Reading, “In addition to
what a text says, the reader needs to consider how it says it, who is saying it, when it was said, where it was said (i.e.
published), and why it was said (i.e. the writer‟s purpose).”
Why is it important to be able to critically evaluate source materials?
The University of Minnesota Center for Writing says, “When you understand how what you read is written, you can work
to incorporate those techniques into your own writing”, while the Walden University Academic Skills Center offers that
“You are not simply absorbing the information; instead, you are interpreting, categorizing, questioning, and weighing the
value of that information” in support of critical reading processes.

Receiving Criticisms
Many times, critically evaluating the work of others is much easier than receiving critical feedback on your own writing
efforts. It is just harder to be at the receiving end.
According to Eric Schmieder, “I think you have to face criticism with an open mind and a willingness to learn. Sometimes
the comments are harsh, but mostly they are wellintentioned efforts to help you improve. Consider the source and
select ones whose feedback you value when possible.”
To better respond to critical feedback on your writing, TurnItIn offers seven ways to improve writing by receiving
feedback.

1. Feedback Connects to Your Goals

Feedback lets you know how much development you have made towards your writing goals and what else you need to
do to meet them. It also gives you a clearer picture of where you are in your timeline of progress.
2. Feedback Can Be More Important Than Your Score
Scores and grades only measure performance -- they do not tell you how to get better. Read all the comments and use
them to revise your work. A good score without feedback leaves you at a plateau while a bad score with feedback leaves
you an opportunity to progress and improve without limits.
3. Feedback Helps You Ask the Right Questions
You might not always understand the comments you get. You may even disagree with them, and sometimes you may
have trouble understanding how to apply them. Ask your instructor for more clarification and advice. Teachers prefer
assertive students that show interest for learning.
4. Feedback Lets You Determine What Is Most Important
Focus on the comments that will make your ideas clearer and help readers understand, then work your way down.
5. Feedback Aids in Revision and Practice
Use your comments to revise and practice your writing. You may also use your current feedback to reflect on the
mistakes that you have committed in the past.
6. Feedback Helps You Take Ownership of Your Writing
Find your voice as a writer, and establish your own style and principles.
7. Feedback Gets You on the Same Page as Your Teacher
Your teacher’s comments are there to help you, not criticize you. Your feedback is part of a conversation through which
your teacher is trying to support you and your writing development
WEEK 9
CRITICAL WRITING IN THE WORKPLACE

Critical writing, in this sense, largely refers to critical business writing.

1. Plan
Always start by thinking about the purpose of the communication. The information and points that you want to present
in your writing should target the specific audience that you try to inform or convince.
2. Design an Outline
You need to outline your goals and the points that you want to write about to achieve those goals. List down everything
that you deem relevant and along the way, you might have to add or delete some points.
3. Research and Fact-Check to Ensure Depth of Information
The depth and amount of detail you include are also important. Sometimes, lots of detail is necessary, while in other
cases the focus should be on getting to the point quickly; this decision depends on your reader.
4. Pique the Readers’ Interest
One way to do this is to show readers how the information will impact them: “Let them know up front why the topic you
are addressing is of interest to them.”
5. Reach Your Audience
To effectively reach your audience, consider the terminology you use and the information you include. Using known
terms and clearly explaining information allows the reader to better understand the document.
6. Always Proofread
Finishing the last sentence is not the end of the writing process because professional writing is reader-, not writer-,
centered. Be certain that your audience understands the topic.

REASONS WHY BUSINESS WRITING SKILLS ARE IMPORTANT

There are three main ways of communication in business: verbal, non-verbal and written. Written communication,
although generally categorized under non-verbal communication, is separated as a different category for the sake of
discussion as it is the most widely applied form of business communication.
Written business communication includes emails, letters, technical reports and plain reports, company brochures, press
releases, manuals, presentation slides, case studies, sales materials, white papers, visual aids, social media updates, and
other business documents. Whether you are connecting internally with colleagues and executives or externally to
current and potential clients and customers, the way you write can either give your career a boost or hamper your
progression within the organization.
Why is business writing important?
1. Writing skills ensure effective business communication
Business correspondence helps a company connect with partners and stakeholders. If a text is poorly written and
structured, the message may be misinterpreted and may lead to loss of business transaction or even to permanent loss
of partnership.
2. Writing skills make the difference between "good" and "bad" employees
Crafting your own resume and cover letter may pose a real challenge, especially when you have to tailor fit them to the
position and industry that you are trying to apply for. Furthermore, a document filled with grammatical errors will not
impress anyone in the business organization, which you need to secure the job.
Professionals are good at composing clear messages. Employers value such workers. That is the reason why companies
invest so much in their recruitment and training processes.
Practice writing as often as you can in order to stand out among your co-workers. Senior management is generally more
favorable towards an employee who can create excellent documentation.
3. You demonstrate your intelligence with quality writing
A few grammatical or punctuation errors may seem minor, but people do notice them even when they do not show any
reaction and give you feedback. They tend to think that those who do not write well are less intelligent than those who
do.
Do not let anyone dismiss you because of your poor writing skills. A few minutes of proofreading can improve the way
you are perceived, prompting everyone to take you more seriously.
4. Good writers are credible
People with advanced writing skills are perceived as more reliable and trustworthy. Producing flawless documents will
also make you look more credible than those who produce subpar quality.
People, especially those from outside the business organization, will judge you the first time they see you.
Unfortunately, in most occasions, customers and clients first see you through your writing, whether it is via an email, a
sales letter or a phone call. Hence, it is crucial to establish a great first impression that might last a long time.
5. You can be more influential
Good persuasion skills help you to influence others to achieve your goals. This is especially true for those who will delve
deeper into the fields of marketing, sales, communications, public relations and law.
Professors assign their students to write persuasive essays in order to prepare them for the job market by developing
these significant skills.
If you are creating taglines and calls-to-action for your organization, you need to know how to develop a copy that will
encourage the reader to take action. If you are describing an innovative idea that can improve a process to your
manager, you should sound convincing.
6. Business writing conveys courtesy
Professionals take into consideration formatting and etiquette. They also pay attention to their personal tone, clarity,
and logic. They avoid poor word choice and grammar. These things can come across as lazy or even rude.
7. Writing skills help to keep good records
Information that is communicated orally is not kept for long. That is the reason why students take notes of lectures. As
scholars use their notes to write essays, you can apply your records in your work. Keeping a record of your writing,
especially when you belong to industries related to creativity and concepts can also help you build a reliable portfolio
that may be used for career advancement.
8. You boost your professional confidence
When written communication leads a business to another successfully completed project, you become more confident
and inspired, not to mention more eligible for promotion. Who does not like to advance in the career ladder?
9. You promote yourself and your career
The better your writing skills are, the more responsibility you will be given. That is great for you and your future career
success.
10. Business writing builds a solid web presence
Business is all about presentation. Owners aim to set up an effective online presence, especially nowadays that the
marketing game has turned digital. It helps potential customers discover the company and its products.
Quality content is a decisive factor here. A person who can present business in the best light and convince people to buy
products or services is an irreplaceable employee. You can even establish a lucrative career in marketing
communications and digital marketing with this.
WEEK 10
STRATEGIES IN CRITICAL WRITING

Experienced writers showcase flexibility in achieving their objectives by constantly exploring and discovering styles,
procedures, and ideas. They are not afraid to ask questions and question their own writing for a more balanced output.
After all, writing is all about thinking.
Only after the writer thoroughly examines the subject through writing and is satisfied with the ideas discovered, does he
or she polish the writing for the reader. This is where the writer starts deciding on the style and organization to be used
depending on the target readers and the nature of the text. This is where the writer also decides which critical strategies
to use for writing the final draft.
Critical thinking yields several strategies that you are likely to use in academic writing. Many of your writing assignments
may reflect just one of the strategies or a combination of them.
For the sake of clarity, these strategies have been arranged in the order of complexity of the critical thinking that they
require. Keep in mind that these strategies often overlap with each other. You may use comparison and contrast when
you are synthesizing information, but you may also synthesize the results of a causal analysis. You may also use several
of these analytical strategies when you write an evaluation.

Analysis
Analysis, the basis of many other strategies, is the process of breaking something into its parts and putting the parts
back together so that you can better understand the whole.
When you seek to explain the causes and effects of a situation, event or action, you are trying to identify their origins
and understand their results. You may discover a chain of events that explain the causes and effects. How you decide
where the boundaries of causal analysis are depends on your thesis and your purpose for writing.
Example of Writing Using Analysis
Critical thinking has been defined in a variety of ways for a variety of purposes. In a narrow sense, it means using the
strategies of informal logic to analyze and evaluate arguments, expose logical fallacies, and form your own logical
arguments that will hold up under the scrutiny of another critical thinker.... But in a wider sense, critical thinking can
mean any thinking that is assessed by criteria intended to result in good thinking. Thinking can be shallow, poor, one-
sided, self- deceiving, and ego-protecting. Critical thinking means examining your own and others' thinking to be sure
that it is good thinking (University of Maryland University College, 1996, pp. 1-4).

Synthesis
Synthesis is a tad more complex than the analytical strategies that have just been discussed. In synthesizing information,
you must bring together all your opinions and researched evidences in support of your thesis. You integrate the relevant
facts, statistics, expert opinions, and whatever can directly be observed with your own opinion and conclusions to
persuade your audience that your thesis is correct. Indeed, you use synthesis in supporting a thesis and assembling a
paper.
The example below shows the writer synthesizing his ideas about how prejudices and cultural orientation transform
voice as a writer at different stages of the writing process.
Example of Synthesis
Gender, race, and class prejudices can affect the development of a sense of self and voice. Likewise, the rhetorical
conventions discourse communities require can overwhelm the personal voices of individual writers. But despite these
pressures, a combination of spontaneous and deliberate strategies for writing and revising can help you capture your
authentic personal voice when you write. In the planning and outlining stage of the writing process, clustering and
nonstop freewriting can let you emotionally connect with the seemingly impersonal information absorbed from your
reading. At the draft-writing stage, open-ended freewriting can help you as you struggle to express your own
understanding and engagement with the subjects you write about. At the revising stage, several deliberate strategies
methodically applied can improve the tone, emphasis, and readability of the rough draft (University of Maryland
University College, 1996, pp. 5-21 and 5-22).

Evaluation
Evaluation is the most complex of all analytical strategies and uses many of the other analytical techniques. In applying
this strategy, you first establish the criteria you will use to evaluate your subject, apply them to the specific parts of the
subject you are judging, and draw conclusions about whether your subject meets those criteria. In the process of
evaluating a subject, you will usually be called upon to render some analysis and synthesis and even use persuasive or
argumentative techniques.
• establish the evaluation criteria
• select the characteristics you will apply those criteria to
• evaluate how well the selected characteristics meet the criteria
• present your results, along with examples, to support your premise

Persuasion
Persuasion is aimed at changing the beliefs or opinions of the readers or at encouraging them to accept the credibility or
possibility of your opinion or belief. You do not have to convince them to embrace and adapt to your own opinions and
beliefs offhand, although that is more preferential. Rather, you have to convince them to consider you by keeping an
open mind.
At some level, all writing has a persuasive element. You may simply be persuading your reader to continue reading your
writing or even to accept your credibility—that you know your subject area. In fiction writing, you persuade your readers
to believe your plot and dialogues, enough for them to finish the story down to the last chapter.
You can make your writing persuasive by responding to the needs and demands of your readers. When you keep them in
mind, you can identify with their points of view and attitudes. Use your style and tone to show respect for your reader.
Offer your reader arguments and evidences to support your opinion or belief.
WEEK 11
ARGUMENTS IN CRITICAL WRITING

Building Good Arguments

In building good arguments, students and professionals usually follow two established methods that are effective both
in academic and professional settings. You may choose whatever you deem is more effective depending on the type of
issue that you raise.

Toulmin Method
Philosopher Stephen Toulmin offers six elements of a well-reasoned argument and explains how they all work together.
The basic format of the Toulmin Method is as follows:

1. Claim
A claim is a debatable statement that requires proof.
• Fact
Example: Today is Sunday.
• Judgment or Evaluation
Example: Brand X is more effective in removing stains than Brand Y.
• Policy
Example: All students, both senior high school and college, should wear their IDs at all times inside school
premises.

Keep in mind that a claim is only the starting-point for a fully developed argument.

2. Reason
A reason is a statement justifying the claim (e.g. a “because”-clause). A reason then invites evidence (sometimes called
data) to support a claim and show its validity.
For example:
"You do not have to study for the exam [CLAIM] because classes are suspended today” [REASON].
How do you know that?
“The University has already made an announcement through their social media accounts and official website”
[EVIDENCE].
However, will your audience believe the evidence? That might depend on the credibility of University’s social media
pages and website, or whether whomever you are trying to convince is willing to accept that the social media accounts
and the website you stated are authentic and verified. If your audience accepts the evidence, they will see your claim as
valid.

3. Qualifier
A qualifier is a word or phrase (adjective or adverb) that limits the scope or “generalizability” of your claim. Without a
qualifier, your claim may seem too broad or unrealistic for your readers.
For example, if you say "The citizens dislike the current government" you would be making an overstatement or
overgeneralization. It is simply not true that "all" citizens dislike the current government. Hence, a more reasonable
claim, a claim for which you are likely to find supporting evidence, would be "Many citizens dislike the current
government."
Using qualifiers appropriately also helps you to avoid binary or “either/or” thinking, which can invalidate an argument.
Instead of using the following qualifiers:
• always
• never
• all
• none, no
• totally, completely, absolutely

Try using the following qualifiers:

• sometimes, at times, occasionally, usually, frequently
• many, many a, some, more (or if applicable, a precise number or amount)
• a small number, a few, most (or if applicable, a precise number or amount)
• likely, possibly, probably

4. Warrant
A warrant is an assumption or point of agreement shared by the arguer and the audience. In argument, we rely
frequently on these fundamental shared assumptions. Warrants may remain unspoken (but understood) when a writer
and reader can be expected to know or agree on them. This is normally the case for general knowledge and widely
accepted facts.
If readers do not share the same assumptions about the validity of the writer’s evidence, or if they do not recognize the
assumption, they might not accept the evidence or claim.

5. Backing
Backing is additional information that justifies or enhances the credibility of your evidence. You need this to ensure that
you audience will accept your evidences or claims.
For example, if you give evidence like "Our Lady of Fatima University is one of the topquality educational institutions in
the Philippines," you may need to add, "They have produced hundreds of board exam top-notchers in the past with a
100% passing rate for many college programs across its six campuses."
For this backing to work, you and your audience must share an understanding about what having numerous board exam
top-notchers and a perfect passing rate implies. This understanding would be a warrant.

6. Conditions of Rebuttal
Conditions of rebuttal are the potential objections to an argument. To deal with possible objections, imagine a skeptical
yet reasonable reader poking holes in your claim and reasons or coming up with opposite, equally valid reasons.
Finally, this diagram shown below may help you visualize how all the elements in Toulmin's model work together:
Thinking critically: argumentation
Claim: Inner-city art schools must receive more government funding.
Evidence (Data): Studies show that a vibrant arts scene improves the local economy.
Warrant: Art is fundamental to cultural life; people want to live where art flourishes.

Rogerian Method
The Rogerian Method (named for, but not developed by, influential American psychotherapist Carl R. Rogers) is a
popular method for controversial issues. This strategy seeks to find a common ground between parties by making the
audience understand perspectives that stretch beyond (or even run counter to) the writer’s position. It places an
emphasis on reiterating an opponent's argument to his or her satisfaction. The persuasive power of the Rogerian
Method lies in its ability to define the terms of the argument in such a way that:
• your position seems like a reasonable compromise
• you seem compassionate and empathetic

The Rogerian Method features the following elements:

1. Introduction
Introduce the issue to the audience while sticking with objectivity as much as possible.
“The issue of whether nursing students should apply for internship in hospitals with COVID-19 cases or not is still subject
to extensive discussion.”

2. Opposing View
Explain the other side’s position in an unbiased way.
“Some parents believe that internship in hospitals, in spite of the current pandemic, is essential for learning and for
boosting the students’ professional and technical competence.”

3. Statement of Validity (Understanding)

This section discusses how you acknowledge how the other side’s points of view can be valid under certain
circumstances. You identify how and why their perspective makes sense while you still present your own argument.
“Those parents who agree with the internship argue that working in hospitals amidst the surge in COVID-19 cases opens
up more opportunities for the students to learn and accept the reality of their future profession.”

4. Statement of Your Position

In this section, you explain your own stance.
“Students should not be forced to pursue internship in hospitals with active cases of COVID-19 because the risks and
disadvantages outweigh the projected benefits.”

5. Statement of Contexts
Explore scenarios in which your position has merit.
“However, although the lack of professional merit and insufficiency in technical knowledge among students increase
their chance of contracting the infection, internship should still be offered as an option, provided that all safety
standards and protocols are strictly observed.”

6. Statement of Benefits
You should conclude by explaining to the opposing side why they would benefit from accepting your position.
“Although both sides offer their own advantages and disadvantages, the safety of the students should still be prioritized
above everything else as learning does not mean anything if something bad happens to the students in the process.”
You have to be objective as much as possible without sacrificing your own stance. You should end your argument with
clarity about what you are arguing for.
Strategies for Critical and Effective Reading and Writing

What is critical thinking?

• Purposeful goal-directed thinking
• Aims to make judgments based on evidence/fact rather than guesswork/opinion
• Reflective and reasonable thinking that focuses on what to believe and do (Ennis, 1985).
• Memorizing does not require critical thinking—application does!

Are you a critical thinker? Do you:

• Base judgments on facts and reasoning?
• Support views with evidence?
• Evaluate the credibility of sources?
• Turn mistakes into learning opportunities?
• Ask “why” and “why not”?
• Seek themes, patterns?
• Follow hunches?

Critical Thinking Skills: You can improve yours!

• Learning is developmental
o No limits to the development of the human brain or capacity to learn—the neuron’s ability to make and
strengthen connections is lifelong.
• Students can improve critical thinking skills with practice
o Gather objective information
o Put info in context
o Don’t jump to conclusions

Reading Strategies
Passive Reading Habits: Take the Quiz!
• Do you memorize exact phrases?
• Do you try to memorize everything?
• Do you review by re-reading the textbook word for word?
• Do you review ideas without knowing what questions they answer?
• Do you review without knowing how you are expected to apply the info on a test?
• Do you set aside lots of time for one review right before the test?

Preparing to Read

Learn how to use your textbook: Find the index, appendices and glossary.
Preview the material by reading:
• Chapter title and intro
• Headings and subheadings
• Boldfaced/italicized words
• Visual cues
• Chapter summary and review questions

As You Read
• Pay special attention to main ideas and supporting details
• Reexamine graphs, charts and illustrations. Be sure to read captions under visual aids
• Ask yourself questions: “Do I understand what I’m reading?” “Does this make sense to me?
• Annotate:
o Highlight
o Write notes
o Make a table or visual

After You Read

• Think about what you’ve learned. Can you answer the chapter questions?
• Can you apply what you’ve learned to the Computing programme?
• Can you restate the main ideas in your own words?
• Mark down any points you don’t understand in the margins or notebook—ask your instructor to explain next
class!

In Other Words…
• Reading the text several times is not enough!
• You must actively participate while you read.
o Think about what you already know
o Identify topics you don’t understand with questions
o Reorganize information for better retention
o Pick out points you think will be on the test— apply what you are reading
Discussion
• Are you most often an active or a passive reader? Explain.
• Share an active reading strategy that has worked for you in school or work.
• What are the differences between active reading and studying?

Writing Effectively

Effective Writing Basics

Tips that can improve your writing in any medium

Five keys to effective writing

• Put the reader first
o Communication = understanding
o Write to Express not Impress
o Use words readers can picture
o Tie in to the reader’s experience
o WIIFM – What’s in it for me
• Use simple words and short sentences
o Example
 Per our conversation, I am enclosing herewith a remittance of $25 for the balance due on my
account. (18 words)
 As we discussed, here is the $25 remaining on my account. (11 words)
 Here is the $25 remaining on my account. (8 words)
o Example
 As pertaining to the question of whether or not to construct a new storage facility, corporate
management will ascertain the appropriateness of such an issue in the near future.
 Management will decide next week whether to build a new storage facility.
o Tip
 Avoid wordy prepositional phrases
 In the amount of (for)
 In order to (to)
 Due to the fact that (because)
 In the event that (if)
 During the time that (when, while)
• Use jargon only when necessary
o Example
 The new FMIS system from Global provides VOR/DME nav redundancy, as well as enhanced
GPS capability.
 Global's new flight management system provides several ways to navigate your airplane,
including the latest in satellite navigation.
o Example
 While the new ST7000 provides extensive memory and is extremely user compatible, it lacks the
requisite capacity for calculating at a high rate of speed.
 Our computer system is easy to use and has enough memory, but it is too slow.
o Example
 Demand-side capacity combined with transmission wheeling contracts and local generation
resources will be able to meet local demand and spinning reserve requirements for the next five
years.
 SMUD will be able to save and produce enough power to meet local needs for the next five
years.
• Write with verbs and nouns
o Use the active voice
o When it is okay to use passive voice
o Example
 The company (S) sells (V) insurance (O).
 Not: Insurance is sold by the company.
 The construction crew repaired the road.
 Not: The road was repaired by the construction company.
 Tests showed the new material did not wear well.
 Not: When tests were run, it was discovered that good wear is not exhibited by the new
material.
o Example
 Choose the right verb and the right noun
 Mr. Johnson ran quickly across the four-lane street, almost falling down when he
stepped in a large hole in the concrete. (22 words)
 Mr. Johnson sprinted across the boulevard, stumbling when he stepped in a pothole. (13
words)
 • Format to improve readability
o Use lists, bullets, charts, tables, indents, italics, bolds, headings and subheadings
o The 100-word rule

Plan, organize, write

• Before you begin
o Who is the audience (“My audience is _________.”)
o Purpose of the message (“My purpose is________.”
o How will the reader use the information (“So that the reader will________.”)
• As you begin
o Assemble all useful information
o Determine what’s important
o Choose what to leave out
o Group information logically
• Four ways to organize
o Division
o Compare/contrast
o Cause/effect
o Problem-analysis solution
• Develop an outline
• Write
o Write the easiest part first
o Develop major sections one at a time
o Introduction for main ideas
o Main point in first paragraph
o Turn off your internal editor
• 90% of writing is re-writing and editing
• Let the document cool
• Run a Fog test
• Aim to cut first draft by at least 10%

Division
• Start with main idea, then discuss the parts
• Example:
o ACME Corporation faces four problems that threaten its competitiveness:
 Outdated marketing plan
 Poor service record
 High prices
 Low Morale
Compare/Contrast
o Use familiar to explain unfamiliar
o Put the conclusion up front
o Example:
 If we expand in the West we will face the same challenges as we did in expanding to the South:
 Lack of identity
 Poor distribution
 Short p-term cash flow problem
 Untrained labor force

Problem-Analysis-Solution
• Find a straightforward way to offer recommendations
• Example:
o The shipping dock’s inability to ship product fast enough results from a inefficient tracking system. The
solution is to:
 Invest in a new computer system
 Retrain staff
 Inform customers of realistic shipping times
 Budget for overtime to meet peak demand

Cause/Effect
• Presents a clear-way analysis
• A-B; A-B-C-D; ABCD-E
• Example:
o Reorganizing the marketing department will cause two benefits and one problem:
 Improved accountability
 Better communication
 Problem – poorer service to industrial customers
Make the most of your memory: the key to effective studying
Your ability to remember is affected by—
• Distractions
• Time of day
• Comfort Level
• Stress
• Interest in material
• Level of motivation

General to Specific
Before learning new material, get a general overview

Make it Meaningful
Ask yourself, “How will I use this information?”

Create Associations
Relate what you’re learning to what you know

Learn Actively
Manipulate and change the information

Reduce Distractions
Turn off the TV!

Monitor Your Learning

Ask yourself questions at the end of section
Unit Test

1. Reading and writing are the two of the macro skills essential for learning.
• True
2. Reacting to a text is often done on an emotional and largely subjective.
Responding to a text is analytical and evaluative.
• Both statements are true
3. The disadvantage of responding to a text is the readers might not get useful insight from the author due to the
doubtfulness on the author's credibility.
• False
4. Academic writing is far from a one-size-fits-all-general.
In academic writing, you have to justify your judgments and say why you think an idea is relevant, valid or
interesting.
• Both statements are true
5. In critical writing, include references to the material you have read.
Check that your argument flows logically.
• Both statements are true
6. Do not share intelligent suggestions, educational guesses or hypotheses in your writing because it will make your
writing bias.
You are supposed to make judgments based on evidence, so your conclusions must be meaningful and
completely objective.
• First statement is false. Second statement is true.
7. Praise the authors in your writing especially if they are famous in the field.
Note that conclusions are usually singular, a plural conclusion is rare but possible.
• Both statements are false
8. Do not ignore arguments just because you disagree with them.
Check that your argument flaws logically.
• Both statements are true
9. According to Lancaster University publication, the aim of academic writing is not to present the right answer, but
to discuss the controversies in an intelligent way.
• True
10. In critical writing, give enough context so that the reader can follow your ideas and understand your principles.
Disregard the drawbacks or limitations of ideas, even the ones you disagree with.
• First statement is true. Second statement is false.
11. Choose the seven ways to improve writing by receiving feedback according to Turnitin.
• Feedback aids in revision and practice
• Feedback connects to your goals
• Feedback helps you ask the right questions
• Feedback helps you take ownership of your writing
• Feedback can be more important than your score
• Feedback gets you on the same page as your teacher
• Feedback lets you determine what is most important
12. Choose the correct definitions of critical writing and descriptive writing. Descriptive writing (4 answers)
• Gives the story so far
• States the order in which things happened
• States what something is like
• Says when something occurred
13. Choose the correct definitions of critical writing and descriptive writing. Critical writing (4 answers)
• Argues a case according to evidence
• Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses
• Draws conclusion
• Indicate whether something is appropriate or suitable
14. Writing skills make the difference between "good" and "bad" employees.
• True
15. Professionals usually pay attention to the content and they don't consider formatting and etiquette anymore.
• False
16. The better your writing skills are, the more responsibilities you will be given.
• True
17. A few minutes of proofreading might lead into late submission of your work.
• False
18. A document filled with grammatical errors will impress anyone in the business organization.
• False
19. If a text is poorly written and structured, the message may be misinterpreted and may lead to loss of business
transaction or even to permanent loss of partnership.
• True
20. If your employees are good in writing, they are also great influential and it will be easier for them to persuade
their clients.
• True
21. When you are in the field it shows that good writers are credible that those who do not write well.
 • True
22. Identify the strategy in critical writing based from the given statement. It is the process of integrating the
relevant facts, statistics and expert opinions to your opinions and research evidences in support of your thesis.
• Synthesis
23. Identify the strategy in critical writing based from the given statement. It means attempting to convince a reader
of the correctness of your conclusion.
• Persuasion
24. Identify the strategy in critical writing based from the given statement. It means establishing criteria to measure
ideas and information, and then examining whether the parts meet the criteria.
• Evaluation
25. It is the process of breaking something into its parts and putting the parts back together so that you can better
understand the whole.
• Analysis
26. Identify the six elements of a well-reasoned argument from Stephen Toulmin (answers may be repeated so read
the statements carefully) 1. A statement justifying the claim.
• Reason
27. Identify the six elements of a well-reasoned argument from Stephen Toulmin (answers may be repeated so read
the statements carefully) 2. Without this element, your claim may seem too broad or unrealistic for your
readers.
• Qualifier
28. Identify the six elements of a well-reasoned argument from Stephen Toulmin (answers may be repeated so read
the statements carefully) 3. An assumption or point of agreement shared by the argue and the audience.
• Warrant
29. Identify the six elements of a well-reasoned argument from Stephen Toulmin (answers may be repeated so read
the statements carefully) 4. A word or phrase (adjective or adverb) that limits the scope or "generalizability" of
your claim.
• Qualifier
30. Identify the six elements of a well-reasoned argument from Stephen Toulmin (answers may be repeated so read
the statements carefully) 5. You need this element to ensure that your audience will accept your evidences or
claims.
• Backing
31. Identify the six elements of a well-reasoned argument from Stephen Toulmin (answers may be repeated so read
the statements carefully) 6. These statements are the potential objections to an argument.
• Conditions of rebuttal
32. Identify the six elements of a well-reasoned argument from Stephen Toulmin (answers may be repeated so read
the statements carefully) 7. This elements helps you to avoid binary or "either/or" thinking, which can invalidate
an argument.
• Qualifier
33. Identify the six elements of a well-reasoned argument from Carl R. Rogers. 1. This section discusses how you
acknowledge how the other side's point of view can be valid under certain circumstances.
• Statement of validity
34. Identify the six elements of a well-reasoned argument from Carl R. Rogers. 2. In this section, you explain own
stance.
• Statement of your position
35. Identify the six elements of a well-reasoned argument from Carl R. Rogers. 3. Explore scenarios in which your
position has merit.
• Statement of contexts
36. Identify the six elements of a well-reasoned argument from Carl R. Rogers. 4. It is where you introduce the issue
to the audience while sticking with objectivity as much as possible.
• Introduction
37. Identify the six elements of a well-reasoned argument from Carl R. Rogers. 5. This element explains the other
side's position in an unbiased way.
• Opposing view
38. Identify the six elements of a well-reasoned argument from Carl R. Rogers. 6. In this element, you should
conclude by explaining to the opposing side why they would benefit from accepting your position.
• Statement of benefits