1

Functions

Function is a relation that maps an object into an image

X to y : x  y

Diagram representations

1. Arrow diagram 4. Function notation : describing what happens to x values

X  Y for the arrow diagram shown in number 1,

the function notation is

2. Set of ordered pairs

{ (1,4), (2,5), (3,6) }

3. Cartesian plane (x and y axis)

For the relation of : X  Y Domain = set of objects : { 1 , 2, 3 }

Codomain = set of values of y : { 4, 5, 6, 7 }

Range = set of images : { 4, 5, 6 }

Types of relation

1. One – to – one 3 . One – to – many

2. Many – to – one 4. Many – to – many

The easiest way to see the types of relation is from an arrow diagram
 2

Criteria of a function

1. Each object must have ONLY 1 image

2. Relation must be one-to-one or many-to-one

a function. not a function (1 object has no image).

Graphs based on relations:

1. One – to – one 3. One – to – many

one x gives 2 values of y

2. Many – to – one 4. Many – to – many

One y gives 2 values of x combination of no.2 and no.3

Function undefined:

Example: function is undefined when the denominator / the bottom is 0

Example : t
find the value of k ?

To find the value of k , just solve the bottom = o  t ,  k= 2

Notes: x = object, f(x) = image

Question:

If t -5, find the value of a and b

 3

Absolute value function

t ⺁ t r r t ݅ r ,

Therefore, , plus or minus 2 (two answers)

Question : t t

Calculate: a) f(-2)

b) calculate the values of x when f(x) = 2

c ) sketch f(x) for t and write down the range

t
Inverse function

Steps : change name (y  x) and then change subject (to y) (or the other way around)

Example: t

⺁
⺁ t
 ⺁t
⺁t ⺁ r t ⺁ ݅h ⺁t⺁

l r݅ t ⺁ ⺁ t ⺁ t
t
 t

Example : if t

a) t
t substitute 2 into x

t
b) substitute 2 as t
t

Quadratic Functions

Domain : set of values of x Range : set of values of Y

t
Domain of = Range of (swap y to x)
t
Range of = Domain of (swap x to y)
 4

To have an inverse, a function must have a one-to-one relation. The graph must not surpass a
turning point.
t
The graph of h are always a reflection of one another in the line ⺁

You only need to swap the coordinates (x,y) to (y,x).

Quadratic graphs: from completing the square form: ࢞tെ t

Equation of axis symmetry: t  x=p

Turning point or vertex (p,q), and with y – intercept ( let x = 0) you can sketch the graph

(p,q)
章 ሔ
Axis symmetry: Axis symmetry:
(p,q) x=p x=p
Range : ⺁ Range: ⺁

For the domain of x For the domain of x

The t will have a negative symbol in front The t will have no symbol or a positive
of the square root, but ... symbol in front of the square root.

How to change ⺁ l into a completing the square form:

Make sure a = 1  t l

t t
Example : y = t = t = t t t

= t t t

If a 1 , factorise the ‘a’ out first. Example : y =  ⺁

2 t =2 t =2

Multiply the ‘2’ back into the bracket  2

Or : when a is not 1 :

⺁ t l

From the general form ⺁ l

t
The equation of axis symmetry is:

This is also the value of the x coordinate of the turning point, and you can get the value of ‘y’ by
substituting the x value into the function y or f(x). To sketch the graph, find also the y-intercept.
 5

From the graph given, the equation of axis symmetry or the x coordinate of turning point will be:

Quadratic inequalities:

If l where is positive and it has roots h :s

the solution will be h

If l where is positive and it has roots h :

the solution will be

Quadratic discriminants:

t l章  The curve has 2 DISTINCT REAL roots

 Has 2 x-intercepts
 The curve cuts x axis or a line cuts the curve at 2 different points

t l  The curve has 2 REPEATED REAL roots (equal roots)

 Has 1 x intercept ( at its vertex / max or min point)
 The curve TOUCHES x axis (at 1 point)
 X axis or a line is the TANGENT to the curve

t lሔ  The curve HAS NO real roots

 Has no x-intercept
 The curve doesn’t cut x axis or a line doesn’t meet the curve
 The curve is ALWAYS positive or ALWAYS negative ( means it doesn’t
touch x axis)

t l  The curve HAS REAL roots (doesn’t mention one or two, distinct or equal)
 The line meets / intersects the curve
 6

How do you obtain a quadratic equation from graphs given ?

1.

if vertex is given,

Let ⺁  ⺁ t

To find a, we substitute point (0,-3),  t t  t

⺁ t t

2.

if roots are given,

Let ⺁ t t ⺁ t t ⺁ t

To find a, we substitute point (0,-10),  t  t

⺁ t t ⺁ t t

Cubic Functions

l h

If t r t r ݅r If t t r t r ݅r
 7

Example 1: Sketch ⺁ t t

Has +a (becuase if the brackets are expanded it is ),

graph goes up first

It has 3 distinct roots : 1 , t ,5

Example 2: Sketch ⺁ t t

Has +a (becuase if the brackets are expanded it is ) , graph goes

up first

It has a distinct root : 5  (graph cuts x axis at x =5)

and repeated roots of 1  (graph touches x axis at x =1)

Coordinate Geometry
⺁ ⺁
Distance: t ⺁ t⺁ , Mid point:

⺁ t⺁
Gradient: t
,

from a linear equation with y as the subject, gradient will be the coefficient of x.

Equation of a straight line: ⺁ l r ⺁t⺁ t

When 2 lines are parallel: when 2 lines are perpendicular: l t r

t

Y intercept: the value of y when x = 0, x – intercept: the value of x when y = 0

Point of intersection: y1= y2, (do simultaneous equations to solve for x and y)

Angle between line with gradient ‘m’ and horizontal axis, = ht

Angle between 2 lines or tangents with gradient ‘m1’ and ‘m2’ ht t ht

ll
Area of a polygon in coordinate geometry: (close back with x1, y1)
⺁ ⺁ ⺁ ll ⺁

l⺁ l⺁ ll l⺁ t ⺁ l ⺁ l ⺁ l

Note : the modulus symbol is to make the area value positive.

 8

Binomial’s Expansion
t t
l l l l or:

t t t t
+

Example 1: t =

t t最

t t

t最 t ݅ h l h݅ h r

Or, t t最 ݅ l h݅ h r

㤵
Remember: r  r㤵 where 㤵 t t
r tr 㤵

㤵 l l l l l
Example:  㤵 㤵 l l l l

t t t
r tr

Notes:
r tr
To find a certain term in r

Example: Find the term independent of x in t

tr
r
Solution : r t
r r t t h r l t t h r

By trial and error we can let r = 4  t r t

 9

Indices Law :

t t

简 简 简 t

h ⺁
3( ) ( )
l l

Graph of h ln

Examples:

简 简
l 最     t

l t  quadratic in disguise

Let r r rt  r rt r t r

t ݅ r݅ ݅

l t  quadratic in disguise

Let r r rt  r rt r t r

t ݅ ݅

l t t  quadratic in disquise

Let r r t rt  rt r r r t

݅ t ݅ r݅
t
l t t  quadratic disguise

Let r  r t t rt rt t r
=0  r t rt

 rt r r r t

݅ ln t ݅ r݅
 10

Logarithms Law:

⺁ log Domain: x  0 Range : ⺁

b  0, b  1
log log log ln log

log log log ln

log log ln

log log ln

log log log

log
ln log
Change of base
log t log log t log = log t log t
t

璠
log log log 璠 t log t log t
t

Examples:

1.  log

t
2.  log t log  log t log

log log
t log log  t log log log 
log tlog

t
3. log t  简

简
4. log 简  =

5. ln 

6. log log  always keep all the logs on 1 side

 log   t  t
 t r l h 㤵 inside the log ⺁ r r

7. ln ln  ln t ln  ln

  t  t  t

8. If log 璠 log expressing in terms of P or Q:

a) log log log log log log 璠

b) log l log log t log t璠

c) log log log log log = 璠

 11

To change a curve equation into linear form:

1. Left side must have y and/or x, coefficient must be 1
2. The right side must have x and/or y
3. Another term must be a constant

Trigonometry

Arc length = r chord length = r ݅

Sector area = r Area of triangle bounded by radius and chord = r sin

Segment Area = r t sin segment perimeter = r + 2r ݅

Throughout the formula, angle must be in radian and the calculator must be in radian mode.

In any right-angled triangle , apply soh – cah – toa and Pythagoras theorem and use t for area.

For non right-angled triangle, apply: sin rule and cos rule:
 12

Graphs

⺁ ݅ ⺁ l

For sin l r cos l

Maximum value or minimum value is l h t l

The bigger value is called maximum value and the smaller is the minimum

a = amplitude or vertical stretch scale factor, b = number of cylces in 2 r

r݅ h
(if domain is in radian) or r݅ h
(if domain is in degrees)

c = vertical translation  graphs moves up / down by c units.

l

Note, if the value of a is negative, the graph will look up-side-down (due to reflection in x axis)

If a graph of Sin x or Cos x is given, we can see the period from the time / angle that it finishes its first
cycle.

From there, we can find the function of the graph, which is

 13

sin l r cos l
max ⺁tmin ⺁ r max ⺁ min ⺁
How do we obtained a,b,c values ? r݅ h
l

If the graph is upside-down then the value of must be negative.

Some special angles and their EXACT values:

0 30 45 60 90 Note:
Sin 1

Cos 1 0

Tan 0 1
 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 14

For any trigonometry solution, refer to:

Obtuse angle (180 t 璠tt Negative angle (t

Sin (180 t sin Sin (t t sin

Cos (180 t t cos Cos (t cos

tan (180 t t tan tan (t t tan

Reflex angle (180 璠ttt Complement angle (90 t

Sin (180 t sin Sin (90 t cos

Cos (180 t cos Sec (90 t cosec

tan (180 tan tan (90 t cot

Identities:

Reflex angle (360 t 璠t  ݅ l

Sin (360 t t sin l t ݅ ; ݅ t l

Cos (360 t cos  l

 l l l
tan (360 t t tan
sin cos
tan cot r
cos tan sin

sec l
l l sin
 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 15

VECTORS

If a point A has coordinates A(x,y)

A has a position vector ݅ ⺁ (Cartesian form) which can also be written as ⺁

Magnitude of is ⺁

݅ ⺁
Unit vector in direction of or parallel to r ⺁
⺁ ⺁

Note that a unit vector is a vector with length = 1 unit

From 2 points A(xa,ya) and B(xb,yb) we can create a vector ⺁ ݅ t

t
t t
⺁
If 2 vectors a and b are parallel then a= k b and ⺁

To find the position vector of M if M is mid point of AB:

To find position vector of D if ABCD is a parallelogram, and points A, B, C are given:

Example let ⺁
t

NOTE : if A, B and C are collinear (lie on the same straight line) then :
1. ݅ r r 2. The vectors share a common point

Example1:
 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 16

Vectors in velocity in and 

t t ⺁

represents the displacement of the particle

t

= t represents the original or starting point of the particle

t

t represents time

⺁ represents the direction of the particle in and direction

⺁

Speed = ⺁

For 2 colliding particles you just then have to equate and also equate t and t , make sure
you get the same value of t

Examples :
 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 17

DIFFERENTIATION

h⺁ t t
By first principle: h
lim
t
t

h⺁ t
By for formula: Y or f(x) = then h r l l

Examples:

t
=
t
t t

t t

N (any number) 0

Differentiating composite function (differentiating a bracket):

h⺁ t
If ⺁ then h
l l l (don’t forget to differentiate outside and inside of the
bracket)

Examples:

t t

t
4 t = t t t
t
t t

t
t t

Differentiating
h⺁
If ⺁ t h

h⺁
If ⺁ t h
 copy e and the power, differentiate the power to the
front.
 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 18

Differentiating ln
h⺁
If ⺁ ln t h

h⺁
If ⺁ ln t
h
x r

Note: Some properties of ln x can be used before differentiating. Examples:

t
t = t t最

ln  =
ln =

ln ln
ln  t


t t
ln
t
t

Differentiating r݅ r⺁ r l ݅

Angles don’t change but whatever inside the bracket as the angles, must be differentiated to the
front. All values of the angles are in radian for calculus, make sure the calculator is too.

⺁ h⺁
h
sin cos
cos t sin
tan l
cot tl l
sec sec tan
l l t l l cot
Examples:

sin cos
cos

cos  t t sin t
t sin t

݅ = sin sin cos

݅ cos 
 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 19

Techniques of differentiation:

1. Product rule
h⺁
If ⺁ rl then h r r

2. Quotient rule
r h⺁ r t r
If ⺁ then h

Applications :

1. Tangent and Normal to the curve

h⺁
r h݅ r l݅ lrr r r h݅ t ⺁ ݅ ݅ l
h
h⺁
From h , substitute the given value of x inside, you will obtain m (for tangent)

To get the gradient of normal to the curve, you have to change the gradient of tangent, since they
t
are perpendicular to each other, we use the formula t r

After you obtain m2 (grad of normal) you can obtain the normal to the curve by using :

⺁ l r ⺁t⺁ t l ⺁ ݅ t ݅ t lrr l

2. Max / Min / turning or stationary point

To obtain the turning point: ࢞

t, solving for the value of x, then y.

To determine the nature (whether it is max or min):

h ⺁
substitute the value of x which was obtained earlier into h

h ⺁ h ⺁
If h
章 then it is a minimum point. If h
ሔ then it is a maximum point .

h⺁
When h 章 , the function is increasing

h⺁
When h ሔ , the function is decreasing

3. Rate of change
 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 20

h⺁ h⺁ h
If ⺁ then h
= h h

h⺁ h⺁ h
h
= rate of change of y, h
differentiate y in terms of x. h
= rate of change of x.

h h hr
Other examples: if r then
h hr h

h h hr
h
= rate of change of A, hr
differentiate A in terms of r. h
= rate of change of r.

4. Small Change

For ⺁ t lt h t lt ⺁ ⺁

l r h ⺁ ݅ h t r݅ ݅ t ݅ h ⺁r ݅ t r r h݅

⺁ l r h ⺁ ݅ h ⺁ t r݅ ݅ ⺁ t ݅ h r ݅ t r r h݅

h⺁ ⺁ h⺁
݅r ݅ h h r ݅ r t r݅ ݅ r ݅ ݅h l
h h

Therefore, h⺁ r݅ ݅ ⺁ ⺁

Example: ⺁ find the small change in y when x is changing from 3 to 3.1, thus find l
h⺁ h⺁
Solution: h
ht h

l t l
h⺁ ⺁ ⺁
Since h
 l
 ⺁ l

To find l , we use the formula h⺁ r݅ ݅ ⺁ ⺁

l l l
 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 21

INTEGRATION

h + c  indefinite integral

l
Integrating a linear bracket: l h l

To integrate from a to b: h = = f(b) – f(a)  definite integral

Examples:

⺁
⺁h

t t
l
t

l

t t

t
t
 t t

Note: expand the bracket if the bracket is non – linear



Applications:

1. To find the equation of a curve.

h⺁
Y= h
h , thus y = f(x) + c, sub in the value of (x,y) to obtain the value of c

2. To find area bounded by the curve and x axis or y axis

Area toward x axis = ⺁h (y has to be the subject)

⺁
Area toward y axis = ⺁
h⺁ ( x has to be the subject), examples:

⺁h
⺁
⺁ h⺁
 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 22

A= ⺁h
A= ⺁h ⺁h

A= ⺁ h ⺁ h

A= ⺁ ⺁ h -- y1 is the top graph

Integrating

h l h l

just copy the ‘e’ and the power, differentiate the power, put it at the bottom.
t
t
Example: h t
l

Integrating trigonometry function

Angles don’t change but whatever inside the bracket as the angles, must be differentiated to the
bottom.

All values of the angles are in radian for calculus, make sure the calculator is too.

⺁
⺁h
cos sin
sin t cos
l tan
l l t cot
sec tan sec
l l cot tl l
Examples

⺁
⺁h

cos sin

sin  l  
t
 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 23

Remember: to use some of the trigonometry function identities before integrating, such as:

t r r t t lt h݅ ݅ Results
tan
h l t h

We can also evaluate an integral using the reverse differentiation method

h
Example: find h ln t l ݅ h ln h

h⺁
Solution: by using product rule, h ln x
x
x ln

h
Since h
ln ln

tr ln h ln r r h݅ r ݅ ݅

Ln h h ln

Ln h ln

ln h ln t

Properties of Integrals

1. h l h

2. h t h

3. h h h

l l
4. h h h

Examples:

Given that h

Calculate :

a) h

b) h
 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 24

c) t h

d) h h

e) Calculate k, if h

Factor and Remainder’s Theorem and Polynomial

Polynomial is an equation of x with highest power of n, n 章 ݅ ݅ rl

Example: t ݅ ⺁ ݅ h r

t ݅ ⺁ ݅ h r

If a polynomial ݅ h݅ ݅h h ⺁ ݅ r h݅ ݅ r

Then, we let ݅ t , the remainder is t

But, if a polynomial
݅ h݅ ݅h h ⺁ r hr ݅l h݅ ݅ r t݅ t r h l h h݅ ݅ ݅ t r ݅ h rl

Example: t t t t r ݅ h r݅ ݅

Therefore, the remainder is ࢞t

 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 25

t t t最
The division of t
l hr݅ ݅ t

t t t最
t t

Factorising and solving cubic and quartic polynomial.

Example: factorise fully and solve P(x) = 0, where t t最

a d

Firstly we have to guess the 1st root. The possibilities of the rational roots are all factors of d and
l r h
all

In this case the possibilities are : (ignore because they are equal to a and 2)

So, for this question the total possibilities of rational roots is 8. (

Guess the first root ...

Show that P(root) = 0

Long division to get the quadratic factor factorised P(x)

Solve P(x) = 0

How do we form a cubic equation from the given roots ?

Example 1. Roots are 1, -2 (repeating roots)

Example 2: the graph of P(x) cuts x axis at -2 and touches x axis at 1, passing through (0,4)

Example 3: find a quartic equation that has roots h t (by first stating the other 2 roots)
note: use ࢞ t ali࢞ ili th th br roots

The other 2 roots are:

The equation is:

 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 26

Permutation and Combination

I. Multiplication ways :

If there are number of ways of doing A and number of ways of doing B

Then the total number of ways of doing A and B is number of ways of A x number of ways of
B

Examples:

1. There are 5 shirts and 3 pairs of jeans, how many ways can you wear your outfit?

2. There are 2 roads from town A to town B, and there are 3 roads from town B to town C,
how many ways can you get to town C from town A ?

3. How many ways can you form a 4-digit number using digits 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 if you can
reuse the digits (such as 1120, 1233, 3333,...), if:

a. there is no restriction

b. there is no digit 3

c. there is at least one digit 3

NOTES:

 Forming a number of 2 digit or 2 digit onwards MUST NOT start with digit 0 ( 351 is
correct, 0351 is wrong because it is still a 3-digit number 351)
 Forming a code or a password, it CAN start with 0 (such as 007, 000, 012,...)
 Forming a number with repetition of digit (such as 222, 112, ...), you MUST use
multiplication way but NOT using n! Or nPr.
 Forming a number WITHOUT repetion of digit (such as 123, 987,...) we can use
multiplication way OR use n! Way or nPr way.

II. n! (read as n factorial)

n! is used to arrange ALL numbers/ letters/ things / people without repetition.

㤵
If there are k of them repeating then it becomes : 㤵

㤵
If there are k and l of them repeating then it becomes : 㤵 㤵
 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 27

Examples:

1. Arrange all letters from TSUNAMI

2. Arrange all letters from : M I C R O W A V E, if :

a. There is no restriction

b. Letters M and W are at the 2-ends

c. Vowels are at the 2-ends

d. Vowels are adjacent (side by side).

e. Vowels & consonants are alternate.

3. Arrange all letters from P O L I C E if consonants and vowels are alternate

㤵
III. nPr means −r 㤵
or n(n-1)(n-2)..... (r times)

㤵 l l l l
Examples 㤵 l l
OR 5P3 = 5.4.3 (3 numbers only following the r)

nPr is used to arrange r objects out of n objects available (without repetition).

 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 28

1. There are 6 letters in A B C D E F, how many ways can you arrange 4 letters (no
repetition), if:

a. there is no restriction d. the 1st is A and the 2nd is B

b. letter A is in front e. the first 2 letters are A and B

c. letter E is in the arrangement f. A and B are adjacent

2. From digits : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 how many ways can you form a 4-digit number (no
repetition), if:

a. there is no restriction d. it is smaller than 2500

b. it is bigger than 3000 e. it is greater than 3400

c. it is an even number f. it is even and bigger than 3000

3. There are 6 men and 3 women standing in a queue. How many ways can they be
arranged if:

a. there’s no restrictions c. NOT ALL women are together

b. the women are side by side (together) d. NONE of the women are together
 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 29

㤵 t t ll
IV. nCr = r㤵 tr 㤵
or r rt rt

Examples: 3C2 =

l l
5C3 = l l

nCr is used to CHOOSE or select r objects out of n objects available.

Example

1. There are 6 men and 8 women. How many ways can you choose 5 people to be in a
committee, if:

a. there is no restriction b. There are 3 men and 2 women

c. there are more women than men d. there are only men

e. There must be at least 1 man and 1 woman

f. if Mr & Mrs Lee are a married couple, how can a 5-committee member be chosen, if:

i) they are both in ii) they are both out

iii) NOT 2 of them are together in the committee

iv) one of them is in the committee

 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 30

KINEMATICS – MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

ht
When you differentiate S, you’ll get V. So, h

h
When you differentiate V, you’ll get a. So, h

When you integrate a, you’ll get V. So, h h r r

When you integrate V, you’ll get S. So, t h h r r

The answer for displacement can be + or – but the answer for distance must be only +

The answer for velocity can be + or – but the answer for speed must be only +

The answer for acceleration can be + or – but the answer for deceleration or retardation must be
only + because the word deceleration or retardation already represents the negative sign.

To find initial displacement, t = 0 then solve for S(0)

Initial velocity, t = 0 then solve for V(0) and initial acceleration, t = 0 then solve for a (0)

If the particle is at ( lies on ) the Origin, solve S = 0

If it is on the right of O, solve S > 0 , if it is on the left of O, solve S < 0

ht
Maximum displacement: solve h (the word ‘maximum’ means differentiate =0)

ht
Or since h

When particle is turning or stops or stationary or is at rest, solve V = 0

When it moves to the right, solve V > 0 , When it moves to the left, solve V < 0
h h
At maximum velocity, h
or since h

When particle moves in uniform speed/velocity or constant speed/velocity, solve

When it increases velocity or accelerates, solve 章 ,

When it decreases velocity or decelerates, solve ሔ ,

h
Maximum acceleration, solve h
 Irinna – addmaths – igcse - 31

Watchout the difference among these followings:

 Displacement at nth second, calculate t

 Distance travellet at nth second, calculate t t t t

Example: to find the distance travelled at the 5th second, calculate t t t

 The total distance travelled for the first n seconds: you must first find the turning point
by solving

If the turning point is at t seconds, then The total distance travelled for the first n seconds:

h h r t tt t tt

Arithmetic Progression

It has a common difference, d = t = right term - left term

t
= first term, term or last term or unknown term, n = number of terms, t =sum of the first
n-terms

t h t t h or t

t t
Sum of the terms from term to term we can do: t t t t

t t
Example : Sum of the terms from term to term = t tt

Another formula for n-th term: h ah t aht , this works for any series or progression

example: if t ݅ ݅ t

t tt , t t tt then we can find: h t

Geometric Progression

It has a common ratio, r = = right term left term

t
= first term, term, n = number of terms, t =sum of the first n-terms

t tr
lr t tr
, sum to infinity: t tr
and will converge if t ሔhሔ

Another formula for n-th term: t tt t is still applicable.

Take note for situations such as amount of money or population AFTER n-years, you can use the
following formula: lr