CH.

#1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND

MEASUREMENT

What is science?
The knowledge gained through observation and experimentation is called
science. It is derived from the Latin word scientia.
What is natural philosophy?
Until eighteen centaury, various aspect of material objects were studies under
a single subject called natural philosophy.
Physical science:
It deals with the study of non living things.
Biological science:
It deals with the study of living things.
What is physics?
The branch of science which deals with matter, energy and their mutual
interaction is called physics.
Branches of physics
Mechanics:
It is the study of motion of objects, its causes and effects.
Heat:
It deals with the nature of heat, mode of transfer and effects of heat.
Sound:
It deals with the physical aspects of sound waves, their production, properties
and applications.
Light:
It is the study of physical aspects of light, its properties, working and use of
optical instruments.
Electricity and magnetism:
It is the study of charge at rest and in motion, their effects and their relationship with
magnetism.
Atomic physics:
It is the study of structure and properties of atoms.
Nuclear physics:
It deals with properties and behavior of nuclei and the particles within the nuclei.
Plasma physics:
It is the study of production, properties of the ionic state of matter.
Geophysics:
It is the study of the internal structure of the earth.
Application of physics in daily life:
 A car is made on the principles of physics.
 A refrigerator is based on the principles of physics
 Electricity is not only used to get light and heat but also provide mechanical
energy to derive fans and motors.
 Radio, TV, telephone and computer are the result of application of physics.

Physical quantities:
Those quantities which can be measured are called physical quantities.

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Base quantities:
Those quantities which can be expressed independently are called base
quantities.
For example length, mass and time etc.
Derived quantities:
Those quantities which can be expressed in term of base quantities are called
derived quantities. For example force, pressure and speed etc.
What is unit?
For measuring unknown quantity, it is compared with standard quantity, this
standard is called unit.
Base unit:
The units that describe the base quantities are called base units.
Quantity Unit
Name Symbol Name Symbol
Length l Meter m
Mass m Kilogram kg
Time t Second s
Electric current I Ampere A
Intensity of light L Candela cd
Temperature T Kelvin k
Amount of substance n mole mol

Derived unit:
The units used to measure derived quantities. These are obtained by
multiplying or dividing one or more base units with each other.

Quantity Unit
Name Symbol Name Symbol
Speed v Meter per second ms-1
Acceleration a Meter per second per second Ms-2
Volume V Cube meter M3
Pressure P Pascal Pa or Nm-2
Force F Newton N, kgms-2
Density p Kilogram per cube meter Kgm-3
Charge Q Coulomb C(As-1)

Prefixes:
The words or letters added before the SI unit such as kilo, milli, micro etc are
called prefixes.
prefix Symbol multiplie prefix Symbol multiplie
r r
Exa E 1018 deci d 10-1
Peta p 1015 centi c 10-2
tera T 1012 milli m 10-3
Giga G 109 micro µ 10-6
Mega M 106 nano n 10-9
kilo k 103 pico p 10-12
hecto h 102 femto f 10-15
deca da 101 ato a 10-16
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Scientific notation:
In this method a number is written in the form a×10 n where 1≤a <10 and n is any positive
or negative integer. OR
In scientific notation a number is expressed as some power of ten multiplied
by number between 1 and 10.
Length measuring instruments
Meter rod:
It is used to measure
 The length of object.
 Distance between two points.
 It has centimeter and millimeter marks on it.

Least count:
Its least count is 1mm. It is the minimum length measured by it accurately.
Precaution:
Eye must be kept vertically above the reading point.
The measuring tape:
 It is used to measure length in meter and centimeter.
 It is thin and long strip made of cotton metal or plastic.
 It is used by blacksmith and carpenters.

Vernier caliper:
It is a device used to measure the length of
Object up to 0.1mm accurately.

Construction:
It is consist of two jaws.
 One jaw is fixed attached with main scale. 1mm is the smallest division of
main scale.
 Other jaw is moveable attached with vernier scale. The smallest division of
vernierscale is 0.9mm.

Least count:
The minimum length measured by vernier caliper accurately is called least
count.

Least count= = =
0.1mm =0.01 cm
Zero error:
On closing the jaws, if the zero of vernier scale is not coincide with the zero of main
scale, there is an error. This error is called zero error.
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Positive zero error:
If the zero of vernier scale is on the right side of zero of main scale, this error is
called positive zero error.

Negative zero error:

If the zero of vernier scale is on the left side of zero of main scale, this error is
called negative zero error.
Zero correction:
Knowing the zero error, necessary correction that can be made to find the
correct measurement, such correction is called zero correction.
Procedure:
 Find the least count.
 Check the zero error if any, it may be positive or negative.
 Note the reading of main scale.
 Note the division of vernier scale and multiplying it with least count.
 Add it to main scale reading.
 For correct measurement, apply zero correction.

Screw gauge:
It is a device used to measure the
length of object up to 0.01mm accurately.
Construction:

 It is consist of U-shaped
metal frame with a metal stud at its
one end.
 A hollow cylinder has a
millimeter scale over it along a line
is called index line.
 The hollow cylinder acts as a nut. It is fixed at the other end.
 A thimble has a threaded spindle inside it.

Pitch of screw gauge:

As the thimble completes one rotation, spindle moves 1mm along index line. It
is called pitch of screw gauge.
Least count of screw gauge:

= = =
0.01mm = 0.001cm
Zero error:
If the zero of circular scale is not coincides with index line, there is an error. This
is called zero error.
Positive zero error:
If the zero of circular scale behind the index line, this is called positive zero
error.
Negative zero error:
If the zero of circular scale above the index line, this is called negative zero
error.
To find the +ve zero error:
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 By multiplying least count with the divisions of circular below the index line,
this error can be calculated.
To find the -ve zero error:
By multiplying least count with the divisions of circular above the index line,
this error can be calculated.

Zero correction:
Knowing the zero error, necessary correction that can be made to find the
correct measurement, such correction is called zero correction.
Procedure:
 Find the least count.
 Check the zero error if any, it may be positive or negative.
 Note the reading of main scale.
 Note the divisions of circular scale and multiplying it with least count.
 Add it to main scale reading. It is required measurement.
 For correct measurement, apply zero correction.

Mass measuring instruments:

Beam balance:
It is mass measuring instrument.
 Place the object in one pan.
 Balance the beam by putting the known masses in other pan.

Physical balance:
It is used to measure the mass of
various objects by comparison method.

Construction:
It is consists of a beam resting on a
fulcrum. Two pans are suspended on the either
side of beam.
Procedure:
 Level the plate form with the help
of leveling screw.
 Balance the pans with the help of
balance screw.
 Place the objects in its left pan.
 Place the suitable masses on the right pan.
 Raise the beam, check pointer is at zero correction.
 Remove or add the masses to bring the pointer at zero position if need.
 Total mass is the mass of measure of object.

Lever balance:
 It consists of a system of levers.
 Place the objects in its left pan.
 Place the suitable masses on the right pan.
 When lever is lifted, pointer moves.
 Bring the pointer at zero by varying standard masses.
Electronic balance:

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  It is most accurate mass measuring instrument.
 It is available in various ranges.
 First it is switch on and set at zero.
 Place the object to be weighted.
 Reading on the balance is mass of object.
Time measuring instruments
Stopwatch:

It is used to measure the time interval of an event.

Types of stopwatch:
1- Mechanical stop watch 2-digital stop watch

Least count:
Least count of mechanical stop watch is0.1s and digital stop watch is0.01s.
How to use a stop watch:
 Press the button to start it.
 Again press the button to stop it.
 Reset button restores its original position.
 In digital stop watch, start/ stop button is used for
start and stop and reset button reset the stop watch after
measuring time interval.

Measuring cylinder:
It is used to measure
 Volume of liquid and powered substances.
 Volume of irregular shaped solid objects.

How to use a measuring cylinder:

 Place it on the table.
 Pour some water in to it.
 Note the surface of water is curved.
 It is required volume.

Correct method to note the reading :

 Cylinder should be placed on
horizontal surface.
 Eye should be kept at the same
level as the bottom of the curved
surface.

How to measure the volume of object by displacement method:

 Given solid is lowered in to the cylinder containing water.
 Level of water rises.
 Increased volume is equal to the volume of object.

Calculation:
Initial volume = V1
Final volume = V2
Volume of given solid = V = V 2-V1
Significant figure:
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 In any measurement, the accurately known digits and first doubtful digit is
called significant figure.
Factors upon which accuracy depends:
 The quality of the measuring instrument.
 The skill of observer.
 The number of observation made.

Rules for identifying the significant figure:

 Non zero digits are always significant.
 Zeros between two significant figures are also significant.2705 has four
significant figures.
 Final zero or zeros after decimal are significant. 275.00 has five significant
figures.
 Zero used for spacing the decimal point are not significant.
 In whole numbers that end in one or more zeros without a decimal point.
These zeros may or may not be significant.

EXERCISE

1.6 What rule SI units have played in the development of science?

In scientific research, sometimes accurate measurement of physical quantities
is required which are equally useful in different part of the world. SI unit provides the
standard units to measure these quantities.
1.7 What is meant by vernier constant?
Difference between one main scale division and one vernier scale division is
called vernier constant. It is 0.1 mm.
1.11 Why we need to measure extremely small interval of time?
=> Naturally some events are occurring in a very fast rate. So we need to measure
extremely small interval of time.
=> Correct measurement can ply a vital role in any analysis, so we to measure
extremely small interval of time
1.13 How is precision related to the scientific figures in a measurement quantity?
Precision is directly proportional to the no. of digits in significant figure. Scientific figure
contain more digits will be more precise.
Question: On what pan we place the object and why?
The object is placed on the left pan, because it is easy to handle.

NUMERICALS
1.1 Express the fallowing quantities using prefixes.
(a) 5000g (b) 200000W (c) 52×10-10kg (d) 225×10-8s
Solution:
5000g = 5 ¿ 1000 g = 5kg
2000000W = 2 ¿ 1000000W =2MW
52×10 kg = 52×10-10×103g = 52×10-7 = 5.2×10-6 g = 5.2 µg
-10

225×10-8s = 2.25×10-8+2s = 2.25×10-6s

1.2 How do the prefixes micro, nano and pico are related to each other
1 micro = 10-6
1 nano = 10-9
= 10-310-6 =10-3micro
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1 pico = 10-12 =10-310-9 = 10-3nano
Hence micro >nano>pico
1.3 Your hairs grow at the rate of 1mm per day. Find their growth rate in nms -1
Solution:
Growth rate = 1mm/ day
-3 −3 −1
1× 10 m 1×10 ms
=
= 24×3600 86400
= 0.00001157×10-3 ms-1
= 11.57×10-3-6 = 11.57×10-9 ms-1
= 11.57nms-1
1.4 Rewrite the fallowing in standards form
(a) 1160×10-27 (b) 32×105 (c) 725×10-5kg (d) 0.02×10-8
(a) 1160×10-27= 1.16 ×10-27+3 = 1.16×10-24
(b) 32×105 = 3.2×105+1 = 3.2×106
(c) 725×10-5kg = 725×10-5×103g = 7.25×10-5+3+2g =7.25×100g =7.25g
(d) 0.02×10-8=2.0×10-8-2 = 2.0×10-10
1.5 Write the fallowing quantities in standards form.
(a) 6400km (b) 380000km (c) 3, 00, 000, 00ms-1 (d) seconds in day
(a) 6400 km = 6.4×103 km
(b) 380000km 3.8 ¿ 105 km
(c) 3, 00, 000, 00ms-1 = 3.0 ¿ 108 m/s
(d) seconds in day = 24 ¿ 3600 = 86400 s =8.64×104 s
1.6 On closing the jaws of vernier calipers, zero of the vernier scale is on the right to
its main scale such that 4th division of its vernier scale coincides with one of the main
scale division. Find the zero and zero correction?
Solution:
Main scale reading = 0
Vernier scale reading = 4
Least count = 0.01cm
Zero Error =?
Zero correction=?
Zero Error = 0 + 4 ¿ 0.01 = 0+ 0.04 =+ 0.04 cm
Zero correction= - 0.04 cm

1.7 A screw gauge has 50 divisions on its circular scale. The pitch of the screw gauge
is 0.5mm. What is its least count?
Solution:
Pitch of screw gauge = 0.5 mm
Total division of circular scale = 50
Least count =?
pitch o.5
=
Least count = totaldivision 50 = 0.01mm
1.8 Which of the fallowing quantitieshave three significant figures?
(a) 3.0066m (b)0.00309kg (c) 5.05 ×10-27kg (d) 301.0s
(a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 3 (d) 4
Hence correct answer (b) and (c)
1.9 What are the significant in the fallowing measurement?
(a) 1.009m (b) 0.00450 kg (c) 1.66 ×10-27kg (d) 2001 seconds
(a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 3 (d) 4
1.10 A chocolate wrapper is 6.7cm long and 5.4cm wide. Calculate its area up to
reasonable number of significant figures.
Solution:
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 Length =
Width =
Area = Length ×Width
= 6.7cm×5.4cm
= 36.18 cm2= 36cm2

KINEMATICS
CH. # 2
What is kinematics?
It deals with the study of motion with out discussing the cause of motion.
What is surrounding?
Every things or places that are present around the objects are called
surrounding.
Rest:
A body is said to be at rest if it is not change its position with respect to its
surrounding.
Motion:
A body is said to be in motion if it change its position with respect to its
surrounding.
Motion and rest are relative what’s its mean?
The passengers inside the moving bus are at rest with respect to each other but
they are in motion with respect to other objects out side the bus.
Types of motion:
 Translatory motion:
 Rotatory motion:
 Vibratory motion:
Translatory motion:
A motion in which body moves along a line with out any rotation is called translatory
motion. The line may be straight or curved. For example motion of rider on ferris wheel.
Linear motion:
Straight line motion of a body is called linear motion.
Examples:
 Aero plane flying straight in air.
 Motion of moving car in straight line.
 Motion of objects falling vertically.
Circular motion:
The motion of an object in a circular path is known as circular motion.
Examples:
 Motion of earth around the Sun
 Motion of moon around the earth.
Random motion:
The disorder or irregular motion of an object is called random motion.
Examples:
 motion of molecules
 motion of insects and birds
 motion of butterfly
Rotatory motion:
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 The spinning motion of a body about its axis is called rotatory motion.
 Motion of ceiling fan
 Motion of earth around its axis.
Vibratory motion:
The to and fro motion of a body about its mean position is called vibratory
motion.
Examples:
 motion of swing
 motion of simple pendulum
Axis:
A line or point around which a body rotates is called axis.
Magnitude: A number with a certain unit is called magnitude.
Scalars and vectors:
Scalars:
A scalar quantity is described completely by its magnitude only.
For example: mass, length, time etc.
Vectors:
A vector quantity is described completely by its magnitude and direction.
For example: force, torque, momentum, displacement, etc.

Representation of vector:
Symbolic representation:
In symbolically, a vector is represented by bold letter F, d, a or light letter with
⃗
arrow over it such as A⃗ , d and V⃗
Graphical representation:
Graphically a vector can be presented by a straight line with an arrow head. The
length of line gives the magnitude and arrow indicates the direction.

Position:
The distance and direction from a fixed point gives the location or position of a
point.

Difference and similarities between displacement and distance:

Displacement Distance
1- It is the shortest distance between 1-It the maximum path between two
two points. points.
2- It is the vector quantity. 2- It is the scalar quantity.
⃗ 3- it is denoted by s.
3- It is denoted by d .
4. Its unit is meter. 4. Its unit is meter.
5. It is base quantity. 5. It is base quantity.

Difference and similarities between speed and velocity.

Speed Velocity
1- Distance covered by a body in a 1- The rate of change of displacement
unit time is called speed. is called velocity.
2. Its symbol is v. 2. Its symbol is ⃗v
3. formula v = S/t ⃗
3. formulav = d /t
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 4. It is derived quantity. 4. It is derived quantity.
5. Its unit is meter per second (m s-1). 5. Its unit is meter per second (m s-1).

Uniform speed:
A body has uniform speed if it covers equal distance in equal interval of time
however short interval may be.
Uniform velocity:
A body has uniform velocity if it covers equal displacement in equal interval of
time however short interval may be.
Acceleration:
The rate of change of velocity is called acceleration. It is denoted by ⃗a .
Formula:
Δ⃗v
⃗a =
t
Where Δ v = vf – vi
Unit: meter per second per second (ms-2)
Quantity: it is vector quantity.
Positive acceleration:
Acceleration of a body is positive if its velocity increases with time.

Negative acceleration:
Acceleration of a body is negative if its velocity decreases with time. It is also
called deceleration or retardation.
Uniform acceleration :
A body has uniform acceleration it has equal changes in velocity in equal intervals
of time however short interval may be.
Graphical analysis of motion:
Graph is picture form of numerical data which shows the relation between various
quantities.
Variables:
The quantities between which a graph is plotted are called variables.
Independent variable:
The quantity whose value can be changed is called independent variable.
Dependent variable:
The quantity whose value varies with Independent quantity is called dependent
variable.
Distance time graph:
A graph plotted between distance and time is called distance time graph. In
distance – time graph distance is taking along y-axis and time is taking along x-axis.
Case I: when object is at rest
Its graph will be a horizontal line parallel to time axis.
Case II: when object is moving with constant speed.
 Its graph will be straight line.
 Slope of graph gives the speed of object.
Case III: when object is moving with variable speed
 Distance time graph is not a straight line.
 The slope of curve at any point can be found
from the slope of tangent at that point.

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Speed time graph:
A graph plotted between speed and time is
called speed time graph.
Case I: when object is moving with constant speed.
 Its graph will be horizontal line parallel to
time axis.
Case II: when object is moving with changing speed (uniform acceleration)
 Its graph will be straight line rises same height
in equal interval of time.
 The slope of line gives the value of acceleration.

The speed of object depends upon the slope. Greater slope,

greater will be speed. Slope of parallel line is zero so speed is also zero.
Equations of motion:
The relation between initial velocity, final velocity, acceleration, time and distance
are represented by some equations. These equations are called equations of motion.
Consider a body is moving with initial velocity v i in a straight line with uniform
acceleration ‘a’. Its velocity becomes vf after time t. the motion of body is describes by
speed time graph.
First equation of motion:
The slope of line AB gives the value of
acceleration.
BC BD−CD
=
Slope of line AB = a = AC OD
v f −v i
a= t
at = vf – vi
vi + at = vf
vf = vi + at
2nd equation of motion:
In speed time graph, total distance covered by a body is equal to area of OABD
under the graph.
Total distance = (area of rectangle OACD) +( area of triangle ABC)
1
×base×height
S = (width ¿ length) + 2
1
= vi ¿ t+ 2 ¿ t ¿ (vf-vi)

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 1
= vi ¿ t+ 2 ¿ t ¿ at
1
S = vi t + 2 at2
3rd equation of motion:
In speed time graph, total distance covered by a body is equal to area of
OABD under the graph.
Total distance = area of trapezium OABD
sumofparallelside
×hieght
S = 2
OA +BD
= ×OD
S 2
2S = (OA + BD) ¿ OD
BC
Multiplying both sides by OD
BC BC
2S ¿ OD = (OA + BD) ¿ OD ¿ OD
2S ¿ a = (OA + BD) ¿ BC
2aS = (vi + vf)(vf - vi)
2aS = (vf + vi)(vf - vi)
2aS = vf2- vi2
Gravitational acceleration:
The acceleration of a body due to the gravity is called gravitational
acceleration. It is denoted by g. Its value is 10 m/s 2.
Note:
 When body is moving upwards, value of ‘g’ taken as negative.
 When body is moving downwards, value of ‘g’ taken aspositive.
 When body is moving upwards, its final velocity is zero.
 When body is moving downwards. Its initial velocity is zero.
Equation of motion for bodies moving under gravity:
 vf =vi + gt
 S = vi t + ½ gt2
 2gS = vf2 – vi2
2.5 Can a body moving at constant speed have acceleration?
i) If a body is moving in a straight line with constant speed then its acceleration is
zero.
ii) If a body is moving in a circular path with constant speed then it has some
acceleration
2.6 how do rider in a ferris wheel possestranslatory motion but not rotatory.
The motion of rider in a ferris wheel is not about an axis so its motion is
translatory not rotatory.
2.11Why vector quantities can not be added or subtracted like scalar quantities.
Vector quantities also have direction so it can not be added or subtracted like
scalar quantities.
2.12 how are vector quantities important to us in our daily life?
In our daily life some quantities can not be understood with out direction. Such
as change in position (displacement). So vector quantities are important to us in our
daily life.

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 =>To convert kmh-1 in to ms-1
10
Then 1 kmh-1 = 36 ms-1

=> To convert ms-1 in to kmh-1

36
Then 1 ms-1 = 10 kmh-1

Terminal velocity:
A paratrooper attains uniform speed while coming downwards. This velocity is
called terminal velocity:

What is LIDAR?
A LIDAR is light detection and ranging speed gun.
By Note the time taken by laser pulse and distance of car, it is used to measure
the speed of car.
Brownian motion: Random motion of gas molecules is called brownian motion

NUMERICALS
2.1 A train moves with a uniform velocity of 36kmh-1 for 10 s. find the distance traveled by
it.
Solution:
10
¿
v = 36 km/h = 36 36 = 10 m/s
t = 10s
S =?
S = vt
= 10 ¿10 = 100 m
2.2 A train starts from rest. It moves through 1km in 100s with uniform acceleration. What
will its speed at the end of 100s?
Solution:
Vi = 0
S = 1km = 1000 m
t = 100 s
vf =?
S = vit + ½ at2
1000 = 0 ¿ 100 + ½ ¿ a ¿ (100)2
1000 = 0 +½ ¿ a ¿ 10000
1000 = a ¿ 5000
1000
=a
5000
.2 m/s2 = a
Vf = vi+ at
= 0 + .2 ¿ 100
= 20 m/s
2.3 A car has a velocity of 100 ms-1. It accelerates at 0.2ms-2 for half minute. Find the
distance traveled during this time and final velocity of the car.
Solution:
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 Vi = 10m/s
t = ½ min = ½ ¿ 60 s= 30 s
a = 0.2 m/s
S =?
Vf =?
Vf = vi + at
= 10 + .2 ¿ 30
= 10+ 6= 16 m/s
vi+vf 10+ 16 26
= =
Vav = 2 2 2 = 13m/s
S = vav ¿ t
S = 13 ¿ 30 =390m
2.4 A tennis ball is hit vertically upwards with a velocity 30ms-1. it take 3s to reach to
highest point . Calculate the maximum height by the ball. How long it will take to return
ground.
Solution:
vi = 30m/s
g= - 10 ms-2
vf= 0
Up going time = t1 = 3 s
Maximum height= h = s =?
Return time = t2 =?
According 3rd equation of motion
2gs = vf2 –vi2
2 ¿ -10 ¿ h = 02 -302
-20 ¿ h = 0 -900
−900
h = −20 = 45 m
In vertical motion, return time is equal to up going time
Return time = Up going time
=3s
2.5 A car moves with uniform velocity of 40 ms-1 for 5 s. it come to rest in the next 10s
with uniform deceleration distance traveled by the car. Find (i) deceleration (ii) total
distance traveled by the car.
Solution:
v = 40 m/s
t =5s
S1=?
S1 = v ¿ t
= 40 ¿ 5 =200m
Vi= 40m/s
Vf =0
t= 10s
S2=?
vi+vf 40+0 40
= =
Vav = 2 2 2 = 20m/s
S2 = vav ¿ t
S2 = 20 ¿ 10 =200m
(i) Total distance = S = S1+S2
=200+200 =400m

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 (ii) Deceleration?
vf −vi 0−40
=
a= t 10 = -40/10 = -4ms-2

2.6 A train starts from rest with an acceleration of 0.5 ms-2. Find its speed in kmh-1. When
through 100m.
Solution:
Solution:
Vi = 0
a = 0.5 ms-2
S =100m
Vf ( km/h) = ?
According 3rd equation of motion
2as = vf2 –vi2
2 ¿ 0.5 ¿ 100 = vf2– 02
100 = vf2
√ 100 = √ vf 2
10=vf
36
10 ¿ 10 = vf
36 km/h = vf
2.8 A cricket is hit vertically upwards and return to grounds 6s later. Calculate (i)
maximum height reached by the ball (ii) initial velocity of ball.
Solution:
Vf = 0
g = -10ms-2
Total time = 6 s
s =h =?
Vi =?
1
×6=3
One side time= t= 2 s
Vf = vi +gt
0 = vi-10 ¿ 3
0 = vi -30
30 = vi
Vi = 30 m/s

According 3rd equation of motion

2gs = vf2 –vi2
2 ¿ -10 ¿ h = 02 -302
-20 ¿ h = 0 -900
−900
h = −20 = 45 m

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 CH. #3 DYNAMICS
Kinematics:
The branch of mechanics which deals with study of motion without its causes
is called kinematics.
Dynamics:
The branch of mechanics which deals with study of motion with its causes is
called dynamics.
Force:
A force moves or tends to move, stop or tends to stop the motion of a body. The
force can also change the direction of a body.
Inertia:
It is the property of a body due to which it resists any change in its states of rest
or motion. It depends upon the mass of the body.
Unit: Newton
One Newton is that force that produces the acceleration of 1 m/s 2 in a body
of mass of 1 kg.
1N = 1kgms-2
Momentum:
The product of mass and velocity is called momentum. It is a vector quantity.
Mathematical form:
P = mv
Unit: kg m/s or Ns
Newton’s laws:
First law of motion:
A body continues its states of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line
provided that no net force acts on it.
Examples:
 A book lying on the table.
 A car is moving with uniform velocity because there is no external force act on it.

Why Newton’s first law of motion is called law of inertia?

Newton’s first law of motion deals with the inertial property of a body so it is also
called law of inertia.

2nd law of motion:

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 When a net force acts on the body, it produces the acceleration in the
direction of force. The magnitude of acceleration is directly proportional to the force
and inversely proportional to the mass.
Explanation:
If force ‘F’ is produce the acceleration’ a’ in the body of mass ‘m’ then
mathematically
a α F ………..( i
a α 1/m …………..(ii
Combining (i) and (ii)
F
a α m
F
a =k m
Where ‘k’ is proportionality constant. In SI unit its value is 1.
F
a= m
F = ma
Mass and Weight:

Mass weight
1-It is the measure of quantity of It is gravitational pull of earth act on a
matter. body.
2-It is scalar quantity. 2-It is vector quantity.
3-It is a base quantity. 3-It is a derived quantity.
4-Its unit is kg. 4-Its unit is Newton.
5-It is measured with ordinary balance. 5- it is measured with spring balance
6- Its value remain same everywhere. 6- Its value change place to place.

Newton’s 3rd law of motion:

Action and reaction are equal but in opposite direction.
Examples:
 A book is lying on the table. Is this case weight of book ‘w’ is the action and ‘R ‘is
the reaction of table. These are equal but in opposite direction.
 Motion of rocket
 Flying of birds.
Tension and acceleration in a string;
Forces act along the string is called tension.
Vertical motion of two bodies attached to the ends of spring.
Consider the two bodies of mass m 1 and m2 are attached with two ends of
string. The string is passing over a frictionless pulley.
If m1> m2 then m1 moves downward and m2 moves upward.

Forces act on body A.

i- Weight m1g downwards
ii- Tension T upwards
Net force
F = m1g –T
According to Newton 2nd law of motion
m1a = m1g –T ……….. (i)
Forces act on body B
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 => Weight m2g downward
=> Tension T upward
Net force
F = T- m2g
According to Newton 2nd law of motion
m2a = T – m2g ……….. (ii)
Adding (i) and (ii)
m1a + m2a = m1g –T + T – m2g
a (m1 + m2)= (m1 - m2)g
(m1−m2 )g
a= m1 +m2
Dividing (i) and (ii)
m1 a m1 g−T
=
m2 a T −m2 g
m1 (T-m2g) = m2 (m1g-T)
m1T - m1m2g = m1m2g-m2T
m1T + m2T = m1m2g+ m1m2g
T (m1 + m2) = 2 m1m2g
2 m 1 m2 g
T= m 1 +m 2
At wood machine:
It is an arrangement of two bodies of unequal masses. That is attached
with the two ends of string. This arrangement is used to find the acceleration
due to the gravity.
Motion of two bodies when one is vertical and 2nd is on smooth horizontal surface.
Consider the two bodies of mass m 1 and m2 are attached with two
ends of string. The string is passing over a frictionless pulley. Body A is moving
downward with acceleration ‘a’ and body B is moves on the horizontal surface with same
acceleration ‘a’ and tension ‘T’.
Acceleration:
Forces act on body A.
i Weight m1g downwards
ii Tension T upwards
Net force
F = m1g –T
According to Newton 2nd law of motion
m1a = m1g –T ………. (i)
Forces act on body B
=> Weight m2g downward
=> Tension T towards the pulley
=> Reaction R upward
Weight and reaction are equal and opposite and cancel other. So the net force
F=T
According to 2nd law of motion
m2a = T ……………….. (ii)
Adding (i) and (ii)
m1a + m2a = m1g –T + T
a (m1 + m2) = m1g

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 m1 g
a=
m1 + m2
Tension:
Putting the value of ‘a’ in (ii)
m1 g
m2 ( m1 + m2 ) = T
m1 m2 g
=T
m1 +m2
Momentum and force:
Consider a body of mass m is moving with velocity v i. A force acts on the body
for time‘t’ then its velocity change and becomes v f.
Initial momentum = mvi
Final momentum = mvf
Change in momentum = mvf– mvi
mv f −mv i
Rate of change in momentum = t
m( vf −vi)
Rate of change in momentum = t
v f −v i
As a = t
Rate of change in momentum = ma ……….(i)
F= ma ………..(ii)
Comparing (i) and (ii)
Rate of change in momentum = F
Conclusion:
When a force acts on a body it produces acceleration and is equal rate of
change in momentum.
Law of conservation of momentum:
Isolated system:
A system of two or more interacting bodies on which no external force is
acting.
Statement:
In an isolated system, total linear momentum of a system remains constant.
Explanation:
Let two balls of masses m 1 and m2 are moving in straight line with velocities u 1
and u2. If u1 > u2 then first collides with the 2nd ball. After collision, m1 move with velocity v1
and 2nd ball with velocity v2.

Total initial momentum before collision = m1u1 + m2u2

Total final momentum after collision = m1v1 + m2v2
According to law of conservation of momentum
Total initial momentum before collision = Total final momentum after collision
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
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 This called law of conservation of momentum and is valid not only for bigger
bodies but also for micro particles such as atoms and molecules.
Example:
Motion of rocket is according to law of conservation of momentum. Burning
gases eject from the engine with large momentum and rocket moves forwards with same
momentum.
A system of bullet and gun:
Let a bullet of mass ‘m’ and gun of mass M. Before firing both are in rest so
total initial momentum is zero. After firing bullet move with velocity v and gun with
velocity V. so total final momentum is mv + MV
According to law of conservation of momentum
Total initial momentum before firing = Total initial momentum after firing
0 = mv + MV
-mv = MV
mv
- M =V
Velocity of gun is very small due its greater mass.
Friction:
The force that opposes the motion of moving particles is called friction.

Why friction opposes the motion?

No surface is perfectly smooth. There are many pits and bump under micro
scope. A magnified view of two smooth surfaces shows gaps and contact points between
two surface forms, a sort of clod weld. These cold welds resist the motion during the
sliding.
Limiting friction:
The maximum value of friction is called limiting friction. It depends upon the normal
reaction between two surfaces.

Coefficient of friction:
The ratio between the force of limiting friction and normal reaction is constant.
This constant is known as coefficient of friction.
Fs
μ=
R
Fs = μ R
Where R = w= mg
Fs = μ mg
Rolling friction:
When a body moves with the help of wheel, then its friction is called rolling friction.
Why rolling friction is less than sliding friction.
When a body moves with the help of wheel, it contact with the surface only on
one point. So due to less contact area with surface rolling friction is less than the sliding
friction.
Why is it dangerous to drive on wet road?
When road is wet, friction between road and tyres is very small. This increase
the chance of slipping the tyre from road.
How many components of velocity of moving vehicle?
The wheels of a moving vehicle have two components of velocity.
(i) Motion of wheel along the road.
(ii) Rotation of wheels about their axis.
What is skidding?
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When breaks of car are applied too strongly, the wheels of car moves without rolling due
its large momentum, it is called skidding. it will lose its directional control that may result
in an accident.

Advantages and disadvantages of friction.

Advantage:
 We could not write on paper if there would be no friction between paper and
pencil.
 It enables us to walk on the ground.
 We can not run on the slippery ground.
 Birds could not fly if there is no air friction.
Disadvantages:
 Due to friction, energy is lost as heat and sound.
 It limited the speed of moving objects.
 Friction causes wear and tear of moving parts of machines.
Method of reducing friction:
 Making the sliding surface smooth.
 Making the fast moving objects a stream line shape such as racing car and aero
planes.
 Lubricating the sliding surface.
 Using the ball bearing or roller bearing because rolling friction is less than sliding
friction.
Circular motion:
The motion of a body in a circular path is called circular motion.
Centripetal force:
A force which keep the body to move in a circular path is called is centripetal force.

Formula:
Centripetal force is directly proportional to the mass and square velocity of a
body and inversely proportional to the radius r
2
mv
α
Fc r
2
mv
Fc = k r
In SI unit its value is 1
2
mv
Fc = r
Centripetal acceleration:
The acceleration produce by centripetal force is called centripetal acceleration.

Centrifugal force:
The reaction force of centripetal force is called centrifugal force. It is equal in
magnitude but in opposite direction of centripetal force.
Banking of the road:
The banking of the roads means that the outer edge of a road is raised. It
provides the necessary centripetal force to prevent skidding and thus makes the driving
safe.
Washing machine dryer:

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 The dryer consist of long cylinder with perforated wall. After putting the clothes in it,
it spins at a high speed about its axis. Water moves out through the holes due the lack of
centripetal force.
Cream separator:
It is a device used to separate cream from milk. When bowl is rotated the light
particles (butterfat) gather near the axis and skimmed milk goes away where it is collect
through the pipe.
How seatbelts are useful?
They are useful in two ways
 Provide external force to a person wearing seatbelts.
 To reduce the effect of collision by increasing the time of change of momentum.
Action and reaction:
When a ball A exerts a force on ball B. This is call action. Ball B also exerts force
on ball with same magnitude but in opposite direction this is called reaction.

SHORT QUESTIONS
Q. 3.5 Why it is dangerous to travel on the roof of a bus.
When bus stops, due the inertia passengers continue their motion in a straight
line and move forwards.
Q. 3.6 Why does a passengers moves outwards when a bus take a turn.
When bus take a turn, due the inertia passengers continue their motion in a
straight line and move out wards.
Q.3.9 Action and reaction are always equal and opposite direction how body does move?
Action and reaction always act on two different bodies so they can not cancel
each other and body moves forwards.
Q. 3.10. A horse pushes the cart. If action and reaction are always equal and opposite
direction how cart move?
Action and reaction always act on two different bodies so they can not cancel
each other and cart moves forwards.
Q.3.12 why the law of conservation of momentum is important?
Law of conservation of momentum is very important in most cases such as
 Motion of gun and bullet.
 Motion of rocket
 Collision of gas molecules
Q.3.13 when a gun is fired it recoil why?
To conserve the momentum, after firing bullet moves forward and gun recoil
with equal momentum.
Q.3.13 describes two situations in which force of friction is needed.
(i) On wet places (ii) while taking a turn
Q. 3.15 how does the oiling the moving part of a machine lowers the friction.
The molecules of oil can slip on each other so it makes the motion easy and
reduces the friction
NUMERICALS
3.1 A force of 20 N moves a body with an acceleration of 2 ms-2. What is its mass?
Solution:
F = 20 N
a= 2 ms-2
m =?
F = ma
20 = m ¿ 2

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 20
2 =m
10 kg = m
3.2 The weight of a body is 147N. What is its mass?
Solution:
W = 147N
m =?
g = 10ms-2
w = mg
147 = m ¿ 10
147/10 = m
14.7 kg = m
3.3 How much force is needed to prevent a body of mass 10 kg from falling?
Solution:
m = 10 kg
g = 10ms-2
Required force is equal to weight of a body.
w = mg
= 10 ¿ 10 = 100N
3.4 find the acceleration produced by a force of 100 N in the mass of 50kg.
Solution:
F = 100N
m = 50 kg
a =?
F = ma
100 = 50 ¿ a
100/50 =
2 ms-2 = a
3.5 A body has weight 20 N. how much force is required to move it vertically upwards with
an acceleration of 2ms-2
Solution:
w = 20N
a = 2ms-2
F =?
w = mg
20 = m ¿ 10
20/10=
2 kg = m
F = ma
= 2 ¿ 2= 4 N
Required force = w + F
= 20 + 4 = 24 N

3.6 Two masses 52kg and 48 kg are attached to the end of a string that passes over
friction less pulley. Find the tension and acceleration when both masses are moving
vertical upwards.
Solution:
m1 = 52 kg
m2 = 48 kg
T =? And a =?
2 m1 m2
g
T= m 1 +m 2
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 2×52×48 49920
= 52+48 ¿10 = 100 = 499.2N
m1 −m2 52−48 40
g ×10 =0. 4
a= m1 +m 2 = 52+48 = 100 ms-2
3.7 Two masses 26 kg and 24 kg are attached to the end of a string that passes over
friction less pulley. 26 kg is lying over a smooth horizontal table. 24kg mass is moving
vertically downwards. Find the tension and acceleration.
m1 = 24kg
m2 =26kg
T =? And a =?
m1 m2
g
T= m 1 + m 2
24×26 6240
×10
= 24+26 = 50 = 124.8N
m1 g 24×10 240
a= = =
m1 + m2 24+26 50 = 4.8 ms-2

3.8 How much time is required to change 22Ns momentum by a force 20N?
Solution:
Δ p = 22Ns F = 20N
t =?
Δp
F= t
22
20 = t
22
t = 20 = 1.1 s
3.9. How much the force of friction between a wooden block of mass of 5kg and the
horizontal marble floor? The coefficient of friction between wood and marble is 0.6.
Solution:
m = 5kg µ = 0.6
F =?
F=µR
= µ mg = 0.6 ¿ 5×10 = 30 N
3.10 How much centripetal force is needed to make a body of mass 0.5 kg to move in a
circle of radius 50cm with a speed of 3ms-1.
Solution:
m = 0.5 kg
r = 50 cm = .5m
v = 3ms-1.
2 2
mv .5×3
Fc = r = .5 = 9N

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 CH. # 4 TURNING EFFECT OF FORCE
Parallel forces:
Such forces which are parallel to each other are called parallel forces.
Example:
A rigid body composed of large no. of small particles. The gravitational forces
acts on each particle are parallel.
Like parallel forces:
The parallel forces which are in same direction are called like parallel forces.
Unlike parallel forces: F1 F2
The parallel forces which are in opposite
directions are called unlike parallel forces. In figure
F1 and F2 are like parallel and F1, F3 and F2, F3
are unlike parallel force. F3
Resultant force:
A single force which is obtained by adding two or more forces is called resultant
force.
Head to tail rule:
Two and more vectors can be added by a method is called head to tail rule of
vector addition.
 Draw the representative lines of given vectors according to
suitable scale.
 Redraw these vectors in such way that the head of first
vector coincide with the tail of 2nd vector and so on.
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  Resultant vector can be obtained by joining the tail of first vector to head of last
vector.
 The length of resultant vector is measured by ruler and angle with protector.
Trigonometric ratio:
The ratios between any two sides of right angle triangle are called trigonometric
ratios. Their names are sin, cosine and tangent etc.

Resolution of force (vector):

The process of splitting the force into its components is called resolution of force.
Component:
The part of a vector which is effective in a specified direction is called
component.
Rectangular components:
The components of a vector which is at right angle to each other is called
rectangular components.
To find the rectangular components of a force:
Let a force ‘F’ acts making an angle ‘ θ ’ with X- axis. The representative line
of force is OA.
Draw a projection from head of vector ‘A’ on X- axis. In this way we get two
components Fx and Fy. Fx is called horizontal component andF y is called vertical
component. The angle between them is 90 o so they are called rectangular components.
By head to tail rule,
OA = OB + BA
F = Fx + Fy
Value of Fx:
From triangle OAB
base F X
= =
Cos θ hyp F
F Cos θ = Fx
Value of Fy:
perp F y
=
Sin θ = hyp F
F Sin θ = Fy
Determine of a force from its perpendicular components:

Let F x and Fy are the perpendicular components. OP and PR are their

representative line. By head to tail rule
OR = OP + PR
F = Fx + Fy
Magnitude of resultant vector:
By Pythagoras theorem
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 Hyp2 = base2 + perp2
F2 = F2x + F2y

F= √ Fx 2 +Fy 2
Direction :
Fy
Tan θ = Fx

Fy
θ = Tan-1( F x )
Rigid body:
A body which does not deformed under the action of force is called rigid body.

Axis of rotation:
A rigid body is rotated about a line. The particles of rigid body are rotated in a circle
in such a way that their centre lies on this line. This line is called axis of rotation.
Torque or moment of force:
The turning effect of force about an axis is called torque. It is denoted by tau
(τ ) .
Formula:

Torque = moment arm ¿ force

τ =L ¿ F
Where ‘L’ is moment arm. It is perpendicular distance between axis of rotation and
line of action of force.
Direction of torque:
Torque is a vector quantity and its direction can be determined by right hand rule.
Dependence of torque:
Torque depends upon the magnitude of force and moment arm. Great will be the
force and moment arm, greater will be torque.
Line of action of force:
The line along which force acts is called line of action of force.
Examples:
1- To open or tight of nut with spanner, we apply torque.
2- To open or close the door, we need torque.
Principle of moments:
If the sum of the clockwise torques and sum of anticlockwise torques are equal then
body is in equilibrium. This is called Principle of moments.
Center of mass:
Such a point where an applied force causes the system to move with out
rotation is called centre of mass.
If system consists of two bodies of different masses, then centre of mass near to
the massive body.
Centre of gravity:
Centre of gravity is that point in a body where the whole weight of the body
appears to be acting. If the body is suspended at that point it stands still without rotation.
Experiment:
 Drill the three holes near the edge of irregular shaped body.
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  Hang it through the hole A on a nail in the wall.
 Also hang the plumb line on the nail.
 Draw the line AD along the string of plumb line.
 Repeat the same process at point B and C and draw the line
BE and CF respectively.
 Line AD, BE and CF intersect at a point G. this point is
called centre of gravity of irregular shaped.
Couple:
Two equal and opposite forces but not in same line
form a couple.
Couple produced by spanner:
Let two equal forces are acting at the opposite end of a spanner. These forces
produce the torque in same direction. The perpendicular distance between these
forces is r’.
Total torque = F (OA) +F(OB)
= F (OA+ OB)
=Fr
Where ‘r’ is a couple arm and it is perpendicular distance
between two forces

Plumb line:
A system of metallic bob and string suspended vertically
downward.
Equilibrium:
If there is no net force acts on a body, body said to be in equilibrium.
If a body is at rest or moving with uniform velocity then body said to be in
equilibrium.

Conditions of equilibrium:
First condition of equilibrium:
If the vector sum of all the forces act on a body is zero, body satisfies the
first condition of equilibrium.
Mathematical form:

If the forces F 1 F2 F3 ………………Fn are acting on the body then according to

first condition
F1 + F2+ F3 ………………+ Fn = 0
Σ F=0
Where Σ is Greek letter called sigma used for summation?
First condition in term of rectangular components:
F1x + F2x + F3x + ………….+ Fnx = 0
Σ Fx = 0
And F1y+ F2y + F3y + ………….+ Fny = 0
Σ Fy = 0
Second conditions of equilibrium:
If the vector sum of all the torques act on a body is zero, the body satisfies the
nd
2 condition of equilibrium.
Mathematical form:
∑τ = 0
States of equilibrium:
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  Stable equilibrium
 Unstable equilibrium
 Neutral equilibrium
Stable equilibrium:
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if after a slight tilt it return to its original
position. In this state its centre is at the lowest position.
Explanation:
Consider a rectangular block of wood is placed as shown in figure.
In this position weight W and reaction are in same line. If the block is tilted from its corner
then line of action of weight is not in the line
of reaction but remains within the base. So
it will rotate and comes back his original
position.
Unstable equilibrium:
A body is said to be in unstable
equilibrium if after a slight tilt it does not
return to its original position.
Explanation:
Take a pencil and try to keep it in vertical
Position on its tip. When ever you leave it, the pencil
topples for some moment and falls down. In this state
its centre of gravity at the highest position.
Neutral equilibrium:
A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium if its centre of gravity neither rises nor
becomes lower after being disturbed.
Example:
Take a ball and place it on a horizontal surface. Push it slightly, after some it
gains new position but its centre of gravity remains unchanged. This is called neutral
equilibrium.

Q. Why the handle of a door is fixed near the outer edge of the
door?
To increase the moment arm, in this way the magnitude of
torque is increased and door is opened easily.
Q. what is the relation of stability with centre of mass.
Centre of mass play an important role to keep the body in stable. So to make the
object in stable, centre of mass must kept as low as possible.
For example:
Tail of perched parrot made heavy that keeps itself upright when tilted.

SHORT QUESTIONS
Q. 4.5 how can a force be resolved in to its rectangular components?
To resolve the force in its rectangular components, draw a projection from head of
vector ‘A’ on X- axis. In this way we get two components F x and Fy.
Q. 4.6 when a body is said to be in equilibrium
When a net force acts on a body is zero, then body said to be in equilibrium.
Q 4.8 why there is need of 2nd condition if body satisfies first condition for equilibrium?
In some cases, body satisfies the first condition of equilibrium but still has the
tendency to rotate. For complete equilibrium both conditions will be satisfied.
ΣF=0
Στ=0
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4.10 Give an example of moving body which is in equilibrium?
=> Motion of a car with uniform velocity.
=> Motion of paratrooper
4.12 Why a body can not be in equilibrium due to single force acts on it?
A body can be equilibrium if two equal forces but in opposite force act on it. So
there must be another force which cancels the effect of first.
4.13 Why the height of vehicles is kept as low as possible.
A lower center of gravity keeps it in stable. More the base of body is made wide so that
vertical line passing through the centre of gravity remains with in the base during the
turn.
4.11. Think a body which is at rest but not in equilibrium.
If two equal opposite forces act on a body not in same line, then body is in rest
but not in equilibrium.
NUMERICALS
4.1Find the resultant force of the following forces
(i) 10N along x-axis (ii) 6N along y-axis (iii) 4N along negative x-axis
Solution:
Fx = 10N – 4N = 6N
Fy = 6N
F=?
F=√ Fx 2 +fy 2
¿ √ 62 +6 2
F=√ 36+36=√72=8 .5 N
Fy
θ=tan−1 ( )
Fx
6
¿ tan−1 ( )=tan−1 (1 )
6
o
θ=45
4.2 Find the perpendicular component of a force of 50N making an angle of 30o with x-axis.
Solution:
F= 50N
θ= 30o
Fx=? , Fy =?
Fx = Fcosθ
= 50 cos30o= 50 ¿ .866 = 43.3N
Fy = F sinθ
= 50 sin30o= 50 ¿ .5 = 25 N
4.3 Find the magnitude and direction of a force if their x- component is 12N and y-
component is 5N.
Solution:
Fx= 12N
Fy = 5N
F=?
θ=?

Magnitude: F = √ Fx 2 +fy 2
= √ 122+52 = √ 144+25
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 = √ 169 = 13N
Fy
Direction: θ = Tan-1( F x )
= Tan-1(5/12)
= Tan-1(.416) = 22.6o
4.4 A force 100N is applied perpendicularly on a spanner at a distance 10 cm form a nut.
Find the torque produce.
Solution:
F = 100N
r = 10cm = 0.1m
τ =?
τ =r ¿ F
= 0.1 ¿ 100 = 10Nm
4.5 A force is acting on a body making an angle 30o with the horizontal. The horizontal
component of force is 20 N. Find the force.
Fx = 20N
θ = 30o
F=?
Fx = F cos θ
20 = Fcos30o
20 = F ¿ .866
20
=
. 866 F
23.1 N= F
4.6 The steering of a car has a radius 16 cm. find the torque produce by a couple 50N.
Solution:
r = 16 cm
l=2×r = 2 ¿ 16= 32 cm
= .32 m
F= 50N
τ =l ¿ F
= .32 ¿ 50 = 16 Nm
4.7 A picture frame is hanging by two vertical strings the tension in the string 3.8N and
4.4N. Find the weight of the picture frame.
Solution:
T1 = 3.8N
T2 = 4.4N
W=?
According to first condition of equilibrium
W = T1+T2
= 3.8N +4.4N =8.2N
4.8 Two blocks of mass 5 kg and 3 kg are suspended by two strings as shown. Find the
tension in each string.
SOLUTION:
m1 = 5kg m2 = 3kg
T1=? T2=?
T1 = m1g + m2g = 5 ¿ 10+3×10 = 50+30 =80N
T2= m2g = 3 ¿ 10 =30 N
4.9 A nut has been tightening by a force 200N using 10 cm long spanner. What length of
spanner is required to loosen the same nut with 150 N forces?
Solution:
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 F1 = 200 N
F2 = 150N
L1 = 10 cm
L2 =?
nd
According to 2 condition of equilibrium
Clockwise torque = Anticlock wise torque
F1 ¿ L1= F2 ¿ L2
200 ¿ 10 = 150 ¿ L2
200×10
150 =L2
13.33 cm = L2
4.10. A block of mass 10 kg is suspended at distance of 20cm from the centre of uniform
bar 1m long. What force is required to balance it at its centre of gravity by applying the
force at the other end of bar?
Solution:
m1 = 10kg
w1 = m1g= 10 ¿ 10 = 100 N
w2 =?
L1 = 20 cm
L2 =50 cm
According to 2nd condition of equilibrium
Clockwise torque = anticlock wise torque
w1 ¿ L1= w2 ¿ L2
100 ¿ 20 =w2 ¿ 50
100×20
50 = w2
40N =

Ch. # 5 GRAVITATION
Gravitation:
In universe, everybody attracts every other body with a force. This force is called
gravity.
=>The idea of gravity was first given by Isaac Newton.
=> The idea of gravity came in his mind when he was trying to solve the mystery
why the planet revolving around the sun sitting under the tree, suddenly an apple fell
down.

Law of gravitation:
Everybody in the universe attracts every other body with a force which is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of distance between their centers.
Explanation:
Let two bodies of masses m1 and m2. Distance between their center is‘d’.
According to Newton’s law of gravitation

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 F α m1 m2 ……….. (1)
F α 1/d2 …………. (2)
Combing (1) and (2)
m m
α 12 2
F d
m1 m2
2
F=G d
Where ‘G’ is proportionality constant and is called universal constant of
gravitation. In SI unit its value is 6.673 ¿ 10-11 N-m2kg-2.
Gravitational Field:
The space or region around the earth where it can attract other body is called
gravitational field.
Field force:
Gravitational force acts everybody whether it is in contact with earth or not, so this
force is called field force.
Gravitational field strength:
Gravitational force per unit mass is called gravitational field strength.
Its value is 10 N kg-1.
Mass of earth:
` Let a body of mass ‘m’ is placed on the surface of earth.
Me is the mass of earth and ‘R’ is the radius of earth.
According to Newton’s law of gravitation
Me m
2
F= G R …………..(i)
This force is equal to the weight of body.
F = W = mg ………… (ii)
Comparing (i) and (ii)
Mem
2
=mg
G R
2
gR
M e=
G …………. ( iii )
By putting the values
g = 10 m/s2, R = 6.4 ¿ 106 m and G = 6.673 ¿ 10-11 N-m2kg-2 in (iii)
24
10×(6 . 4×106 )2 10×40 .96×1012 40 . 96×10
M e=
6 .673×10−11 = 6 .673×10
−11
= 6 . 673
24
=6 ¿ 10 kg
Hence mass of earth 6 ¿ 1024 kg

Variation of ‘g’ with altitude:

The value of ‘g’ depends upon the radius of earth. If a body is placed at height ‘h’
on the surface then
GMe
=
gh = ( R+h)2
if h = R
GMe GMe GMe
= 2 2
gh = ( R+R ) = (2 R ) = 4 R 2

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 1 GMe
( )
= 4 R
From above equation it is clear that at a height equal to the radius of earth the
value of ‘g’ becomes one fourth of its value on the earth.
Satellite:
An object that revolves around the earth is called satellite.
ARTIFICIAL SATELLITE:
Man made satellite revolves around the earth is called artificial satellite.
Natural satellite
Moon revolves around the earth so it I called natural satellite.
Uses:
 For communication.
 For carrying instruments and passengers
to perform experiments in space.
 For navigation.
 Weather observation.
Geostationary satellite:
A satellite whose relative velocity with respect to
earth is zero iscalled geostationary satellite. The height of geostationary satellite is
42300km. It takes 24 hours to complete his one rotation, the orbit of such satellite is
called geostationary orbit.
What is GPS?
Global positioning system is satellite navigation system. It helps us to find
the exact position of an object anywhere on the land, sea and in air.
Motion of satellite:
Orbital velocity:
The required velocity for a satellite to revolve in his orbit is called orbital
velocity.
Equation for orbital velocity:
Let a satellite of mass m is revolving at a height h from the surface
of earth in an orbit of radius r o with velocity vo. The necessary centripetal force for a
satellite is
mv 2
o

Fc = ro
This force is provided by gravitational force of earth.
Fg = w= mgh

Fc =Fg
mv
o2
=mg h
ro
v o 2 = g h ro
vo = √ g h ro
As ro = R + h
v o = √ gh ( R+h )

If a satellite is close to earth then, R+h≃R and

gh =g
v o = √ gR
Hence speed of such satellite is 8 km/s or 29000 km/h.
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 SHORT QUESTIONS
Q. 5.3 do you attract the earth or the earth attracts you? Which one is attracting with a
large force? You or the earth?
Both are attracting to each other. But due to the large mass of earth, earth attracts
with a large force.
Q. 5.5 why earlier scientists could not guess about the gravitational force?
Gravitational force is the weakest force among the other natural force. Newton
notices the first time when an apple fell down from the tree under which he was sitting.
Q.5.5 why the law of gravitation is important.
The law of gravitation is very important due to
 We can find the gravitational force between two masses.
 We can calculate the mass of planets
 We can check the variation in the value of ‘g’ with altitude.
 We can discuss the motion of satellite.
 We can find the velocity of satellite.
Q.5.11 can you find the mass of moon. if yes , what you need to know?
Yes we can find the mass of moon. For this we need to know the value of g at
moon and its radius.
Q. 5.12 why does the value of g vary form place to place?
The shape of earth is not spherical, it is elliptical. So the distance from centre of
earth to surface is not same. That is why the value of g varies place to place.
Q.5.16 on what factors the orbital speed of a satellite depends?
The formula of orbital velocity
v o = √ gh ( R+h )
So orbital speed depends upon the height from the surface of earth and value
of g.
5.17 Why geo stationary satellite are stationed at geo stationary orbit.
Because in this orbit the velocity of satellite is zero relative to the earth so
dish antennas is sending and receiving the signals from fixed direction depending
upon the location of earth

NUMERICALS
5.1 Find the gravitation force of attraction between two spheres each of mass 1000kg. The
distance between the centres of sphere is 0.5m.
Solution:
m1=m2=1000 kg
d= 0.5 m
F=?
G =6.673 ¿ 10-11 N-m2kg-2
m1 m2
F=G d2
1000×1000
¿
=6.673 ¿ 10-11 (.5 )2

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 6.673 −11+6
×10
= .25
F= 26.692 ¿ 10-5N
= 2.669 ¿ 10-4N
5.2 The gravitational force between two identical leads sphere kept at 1 m apart is
0.006673N. Find their masses.
Solution:
F = 0.006673N = 6.673 ¿ 10-3N
m1=m2= m?
d = 1m
G =6.673 ¿ 10-11 N-m2kg-2
m1 m2
F=G d2
m×m
¿
6.673 ¿ 10-3 =6.673 ¿ 10-11 (1 )2
−3
6 .673×10
=m2
6 . 673×10−11
10 -3+11= m2
108 =m2
√ 108=m
4
10 kg =m
5.3 Find the acceleration due to the gravity on the surface of Mars. The mass of mars is
6.42 ¿ 1023 kg and radius is 3370km.
Solution:
Mass of Mars =6.42 ¿ 1023 kg
R =3370km = 3370 ¿ 103 = 3.37 ¿ 106 m
G =6.673 ¿ 10-11 N-m2kg-2

GM
=
g ( R )2
−11 23
6 . 673×10 ×6 . 42×10 42 . 84066×10−11+23
g= (3 .37×106 ) 2 = 11.3569×10
12

= 3.77 ¿ 1012-12=3.77 ¿ 100

= 3.77 ms-2
5.4 The acceleration due to the gravity on the surface of Moon is 1.62ms-2. The radius of
moon is 1740 km. find the mass of the moon.
Solution:
gm= 1.62ms-2
Rm = 1740km = 1740 ¿ 103= 1.74 ¿ 106 m
G =6.673 ¿ 10-11 N-m2kg-2

Mm=?
gm R 1 . 62×(1 .74×10 6 )2
m2
M m=
G = 6 . 673×10−11
12+11
1 . 62×3 . 0274×10 12 4 . 9047×10
= 6 . 673×10−11 = 6 .673
23
Mm = 0.7350 ¿10 = 7.35 ¿ 1022 kg
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 5.5 Calculate the value of g at a height of 3600km above the surface of earth.
Solution:
h = 3600km
R = 6400 km
R+h = 6400+3600 =10000km =1 ¿ 107m
M= 6 ¿ 1024 kg
G =6.673 ¿ 10-11 N-m2kg-2
gh =?
−11 24
GMe 6 . 673×10 ×6×10
=
gh ( R+h)2 = (107 )2
−11+24 13
40 . 038×10 40 . 038×10
14 14
= 10 = 10
40 . 038 40 . 038
=
= 10 14−13 10 = 4.0 ms-2

5.6 find the value of g due the earth at geostationary satellite. The radius of geostationary
orbit is 48700km.
Solution:
R+h = 48700km
= 48700 ¿ 103 m = 4.87 ¿ 107m
−11 24
GMe 6 . 673×10 ×6×10
=
gh ( R+h)2 = (4 .87×107 )2
−11+24
40 . 038×10 1 .688 1. 688
14
=
14−13 10
= 23 .7169×10 = 10
= 0.168ms-2 = 0.17ms-2
5.7 The value of g is 4.0 ms-2 at a distance of 10000km from the centre of earth. Find the
mass of the earth.
Solution:
R+h = 10000km
= 10000 ¿ 103 m = 107m
gh= 4ms-2
GMe
=
gh ( R+h)2
−11
6 . 673×10 ×M
4= (107 )2
4 ¿ 1014 = 6.673 ¿ 10-11 ¿ M
13+11
4×1014 40×10
=
M 6. 673×10−11 = 6.673 = 5.99 ¿ 1024kg

5.8 At what the altitude the value of g would become one fourth than on the surface of the
earth.
g
gh = 4
GM
2
g= R

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 GMe
=
gh ( R+h)2

g GMe
=
4 ( R+h)2
1 GM GMe
=
4 ( R2 ) ( R+h)2
(R+h)2 = 4R2

√( R+h )2
= 4R √ 2

R+h= 2R
h= 2R-R
h=R
Hence at height equal to radius of earth, the value of g becomes one fourth
than on the surface of the earth.
5.9 A polar satellite is launched at 850 km above the earth. Find its orbital speed?
Solution:
h= 850 km
R= 6400km
R+h =6400km+850 km = 7250km
= 7250 ¿ 103m
= 7.25 ¿ 106m
v o = √ gh ( R+h )
GM GM
= √ (R+ h)2
×( R+h )
=
6 . 673×10−11×6×1024
√ (R+h)

= √ 7 .25×106
40 . 038×10−11+24
= √√ 7 . 25×106 =
55. 2248×10 6 = 7.431
√ 5. 52248×10 13−6

= 103 ms-1
¿
3
= 7431 ¿ 10 m/s = 7431km/s

5.10 A communication satellite is launched at 42000km above the earth. Find its orbital
speed?
Solution:
h= 42000 km
R= 6400km
R+h =6400km+42000 km = 48400km
= 48400 ¿ 103m
= 4.84 ¿ 107m
v o = √ gh ( R+h )
GM GM
vo= √ (R+h)2
×( R+h )
= √ (R+h)

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 6 . 673×10−11×6×1024
= √ 4 . 84×107
40 . 038×10−11+24

√ 8 .2723×106
= √ 4 . 84×107 = √ 8.2723×1013−7
vo = = 2.876 ¿ 103 = 2876 m/s

CH. # 6 WORK AND ENERGY

Work:
When a force acts on a body and body covers some distance in the direction of
force, work has to be done.
Mathematically
W=FS
If force and displacement are not in same direction then we take the component
of force that is in the direction of displacement.
W = Fx(S) = Fcosθ S
= FScosθ
nd
2 definition:
The product of displacement and
component of force in the direction of
displacement is called work.
Unit:
Its unit is joule. Work is a scalar quantity.
Joule:
The amount of work is one joule when a force of one Newton acts on a body through
a distance of one meter.
1J = 1N ×1m
1kilo Joule = 103 Joule
1 mega joule = 106 Joule
Maximum work:
Work is maximum when F and S are parallel i-e θ = 0 o
W = FS cos θ =FScos0o
= FS (1) = FS
Minimum work:
Work is minimum when F and S are perpendicular i-e θ = 90 o
W = FS cos θ =FScos90o
= FS (0) = 0
Conditions of work:
1- magnitude of force 2- distance in the direction of force
Dependence of work:
1- force 2- displacement 3- angle b/w force and displacement
Energy:
The ability of a body to do work is called energy. It is a scalar quantity and its unit is
joul.

Different form of energy:

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 Mechanical energy, heat energy, light energy, sound energy, electrical energy,
chemical energy and nuclear energy etc.

Kinetic energy:
The energy of a body due to its motion is called kinetic energy.

Equation of kinetic energy:

Let body of mass ‘m’ is moving with velocity ‘v’. If an opposing force is acts on a
body, body comes to at rest after covering a distance‘s’. K.E of body is equal to work by
body due to its motion.
K.E of the body = work done by it due to its motion
vi = v
vf = 0
according to 2nd law of motion
F = - ma => a = - F/m
According to 3rd equation of motion
2aS = vf2 – vi2
2 (-F/m ) S = 02 – v2
-2FS = -m v2
FS = ½ mv2
W = ½ mv2 ………..(ii)
Since W = K.E so
K.E = 1/2mv2
Potential energy:
The energy of a body due to its position is called potential energy.
Gravitational potential energy:
The energy of a body due to its height is called gravitational potential energy.
Equation of gravitational potential energy:
Let a body of mass ‘m is lifted at a certain height form the ground. Work done
on a body is stored in it as its potential energy.
P.E = work done on the body
=FS
F = w= mg
And S = h
P.E = mg × h =mgh

Elastic potential energy:

The energy of compressed or stretched spring is called elastics potential
energy.
FORMS OF ENERGY:
Mechanical energy:
The energy of a body due to its motion and position is called mechanical energy.
For examples: energy of moving car and lifted hammer.
Heat energy:
It is the form of energy released from hot body. It is obtained from burning fuel.
It is also produced by frictional force. The main source of heat is sun.

Electrical energy:
It is widely used form of energy in daily life. It is transmitted through wires to
desired place. It is obtained from cells or batteries and electric generators.
Sound energy:
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 Sound is the form of energy that is produced by vibrating bodies. Such as
vibrating diaphragm of drum and vibrating string s of sitar.
Light energy:
It is important form of energy. Plants produce foods with the help of light. We
need light to see things. We get light from burning fuels, bulbs and tubes. Sun is the
main source of light.
Chemical energy:
It is present in foods fuels and in other substances. Different forms of energy
are the result of chemical reactions. Burning of wood and fuels give the energy in the
form of heat and light. Chemical reactions in cells and batteries give the electrical
energy.
Nuclear energy:
It is obtained during reaction in nucleus in the form of nuclear radiations.
Nuclear energy is converted in to electrical energy in nuclear reactors. The solar energy
is the result of nuclear reaction in sun.
Major sources of energy.
Fossil fuels:
Fossil fuels such as coal oil and gas to heat our houses and run our industry and
transport. They are hydrocarbons, when they burn, they combine with oxygen in air and
produce carbon dioxides water and heat
Carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide + heat energy
Hydrocarbon + Oxygen carbon dioxides + water + heat energy
The fossil fuels took millions of years for their formation. So they knew as non
renewable resources.
Disadvantage of fossil fuel:
Fossil fuels release harmful waste products specially carbon mono oxides which
pollute the environment. This causes the serious health problems such as headache,
tension, nausea, allergic reactions irritation of eyes, nose and throat. Long exposure of
these harmful gases may causes asthma, lungs cancer, heart diseases and even
damage to brain nerve and other organs of body.
Nuclear fuels:
In nuclear power plants, we get energy form the nuclear reactions. In fission
reaction heavy atoms such as uranium is broken to two parts and large amount of heat is
produced. This heat is used to run the turbine of electric generator and remaining waste
in to the environment.
Renewable source of energy:
Energy from water:
Energy from water power is very cheap. Dames are constructed at suitable
place. The gravitational potential energy of water is used to run the turbine of electric
generator. It also helps to control the flood.
Energy from the sun:
Sun is the major and ultimate source of energy.
It does not pollute the environment. We depend
upon on the sun for all our foods and fuels.
Solar heating system:
Solar heating systems are very useful in
winter. A heating system has following parts

 A collector
 A storage
 A distribution system

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 A solar collector made of glass panels over blank metal plates. The plates
absorb the sun light which heat the water flowing through the pipes at the back of the
collector. Hot water can be used for cooking, washing and heating the building.
Solar energy is used in solar cooker, solar filter plants and solar power plants.
Solar cells:
A solar cell converts the light energy in to electrical energy. Solar cell also
called photo cell is made of silicon wafer. It is used in watches, calculators and toys.
Large numbers of solar cells are joined in series to form solar panels. Solar panels
provide energy to light houses, telephone booths and satellite.
Wind energy:
Wind energy has been used as a source of energy for centuries .it has powered
sailing ship across the ocean. It has been used by windmills to grind grain and pump
water. Many wind machines are grouped on wind farm. They can run the turbine to
generate electricity. In USA, 1300Mw and in Europe 100 MW electricity generate per a
day.
Geothermal energy:
In deep earth there is a hot molten part is called magma. Water reaching near to
the magma, change in to steam due to high temperature of magma. This is called
geothermal energy.
Where magma is not deep, by drilling the holes water is pushed down. Hot rocks
change water in to steam. This heat is used to heat the buildings and office. It can also
be used generate the electricity.
Energy from Biomass:
Biomass is the plants or animals wastes that can be burnt as fuels. Other forms of
biomass are garbage, wastes, sugarcane and other plants. These wastes are used to
run power plants.
When animals dung, dead plants and animals decompose. They change in to
methane and carbon dioxide. Electricity can be produce by burning methane.
Mass – energy equation:
According to Einstein mass and energy are interconvert able by the relation
E = mc2
Where c is the speed of light and its value is 3 × 10 8 m/s. this relation is
known as energy –mass equation.
Thermal pollution:
A temperature rise in the environment that disturbs life is called thermal pollution.
Thermal pollution upsets the balance of life and endangers the survival of many species.

Catalytic converter:
The devices that convert the some polluting gasses in to harmless gases are
called catalytic converter.
Efficiency:
The ratio of output to input is called efficiency.
output
Efficiency = input
output
% efficiency = input ¿ 100
Input:
The work done on the machine is called input.
Output:
A work which is done by the machine is called output.
Power:
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 The power is defined as the rate of doing work. It is a scalar quantity.
P = work/ time = W/t
Unit: SI unit of power is watt.
Watt:
The power of a body is one watt if it does work 1joul in one second.
1hp = 746 watt
Fusion reaction: A process in which two light nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus.

SHORT QUESTIONS
Q. Why do we need energy?
We need energy to perform daily activities.
Q. Which form of energy is most preferred and why?
The energy form water power is most preferred because it is cheap and do not
pollute the environment. Sun is also big source of energy and do not pollute the
environment.
NUMERICALS
6.1A man has pulled a cart through 35m applying a force 300N. Find the work done by the
man.
Solution:
F= 300
S = 35
W =?
W= F ¿ S
= 300 ¿ 35= 10500 j

6.2 A block weighing 20N is lifted 6m vertically upwards. Calculate the potential energy
stored in it.
Solution:
w= 20N
h= 6m
P.E =?
P.E = w ¿ h
= 20 ¿ 6 = 120 j
6.3 A car weighing 12kN has speed 20 m/s. Find its kinetic energy.
Solution:
w = 12 kN = 12 ¿ 1000 = 12000 N
w = mg
12000 = m ¿ 10
12000
10 =m
1200 kg = m
v = 20 ms-1
K.E =?
1 2 1
mv ×1200׿ ¿
K.E = 2 = 2 (20)2
1
×1200×400
= 2 = 600 ¿ 400= 240000
= 240 ¿ 1000 j = 240kJ
6.4 A 500g stone is thrown up with a velocity of 15 ms-1. Find its
(i) P.E at its maximum height
(ii) K.E when its hits the grounds.
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Solution:
v = 15 ms-1
m = 500 g
= 500/1000 = 0.5 kg
1 2
mv
K.E = 2
1
×0. 5×152
= 2
0. 5×225 112.5
=
= 2 2 = 56.25j
According to law of conservation of energy
P.E at height = K.E at bottom
= 56.25 j

6.5 On reaching the top of a slope 6m high from its bottom, a cyclist has a speed of 1.5
ms-1. Find the kinetic energy and potential energy of the cyclist. The mass of cyclist and
his bicycle of 40 kg.
Solution:
V = 1.5 ms-1
h= 6m
m = 40 kg
P.E =? K.E=?
P.E = mgh
= 40 ¿ 10 ¿ 6 = 2400 j
1 2
mv
K.E = 2
1
×40×(1. 5)2
= 2
= 20 ¿ 2.25 =45 j

6.6 A motor boat moves at a steady speed of 4 ms -1. Water resistance acting on it 4000N.
Calculate the power of its engine.
Solution:
v = 4 ms-1
F = 4000 N
P=?
P = Fv
= 4000 ¿ 4 = 16000 W
= 16 ¿ 1000 W = 16kW
6.7 A man pull a block with a force of 300N through 50 m in 60s. Find the power.
F = 300N
S = 50 m
t= 60s
p =?
w F×S 300×50
= =
P= t t 60
=5 ¿ 50 = 250W
6.8. A 50kg man moves 25 steps up in 20 s. Find his power if each step is 16cm high.
m = 50kg
No. of steps = 25
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 Height of each step= 16cm
Total height = 25 ¿ 16= 400 cm = 400/100 = 4m
t= 20 s
p =?
w mgh 50×10×4
= =
P= t t 20 = 100 W

6.9 calculate the power of a pump which can lift 200kg of water through height of 6m in 10
seconds.
Solution:
m =200 kg
g = 10 ms-2
h= 6m
t = 10 s
p=?
w mgh 200×10×6
= =
P= t t 10 = 1200 W

6.10. An electric motor of 1hp is used to run water pump. The water pump takes 10
minutes to fill an overhead tank. This tank has a capacity of 800 litters and height of 15m.
find the actual work done by the electric motor to fill the tank. Also find the efficiency of
the system.
Solution:
P = 1ph= 746w
t= 10 min = 10 ¿ 60= 600 s
Actual work=?
w
P= t

P ¿ t=w
746 ¿ 600 = w
447600 j = w
Work done = mgh = 800 ¿ 10 ¿ 15 = 120000 1litter = 1 kg
%Efficiency=?
workdone
×100
% Efficiency = actualwork
120000
×100
= 447600
= 26.8%

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 Ch. 7 PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Kinetic molecular model of matter:
 Matter is made up of particles called molecules.
 The molecules remain in continuous motion.
 Molecules attract each other.
Solids:
 Solids have fixed shapes and volume.
 There are strong attractive forces among their molecules.
 They vibrate about their mean position.
Liquids:
 Distance between their molecules is more than solids.
 Due to the weaker attractive forces, molecules can slides over one another.
 Liquids have no fixed shape but have fixed volume.
 It attains the shape of a container to which it is put.
Gases:
 Gases have no fixed shape and volume.
 Their molecules are in random motion.
 Distance between their molecules is much large than solids and liquids.
 Gases are much lighter than solids and liquids.
 Gases exert pressure on the walls of container.
Plasma:
 At higher temperature, atoms change in to positive and negative ions. This ionic
state of matter is called plasma.
 Plasma is also formed in gas discharge tubes when electric current passes
through these tubes.
 In sun and stars, gases exist in their ionic states.
 Plasma is a highly conducting state.
 It is also called fourth states of matters.
Density:
Density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume.
Formula:
m
ρ=
V

Unit: kgm-3
Pressure:
The force acting normally per unit area is called pressure.
Formula:
force F
Pressure = area = A
Unit: N-m-2

Atmospheric pressure:
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 The earth is surrounded by a cover of air is called atmosphere. The pressure of air
over the surface of earth is called atmospheric pressure.
The atmospheric pressure acts in all directions.
Experiment:
 Take an empty can with lid.
 Open the cap and put some water.
 Place it over flame. Wait till the water boil and steam expel the air.
 Close it with lid and put under cold water.
 Steam change in to water and leave the space.
 In side pressure decrease as compared to external pressure.
 Can will collapse from all direction.
Conclusion: Atmosphere exerts in all direction.
1 atm = 101300 Pa or 101300 Nm-2
Measuring of atmospheric pressure:
Barometer:
The instrument that measure atmospheric pressure is called
barometer.
Construction:
It is consist of a 1meter long glass tube close at one end. After filling
mercury, it is inverted in to mercury trough. The height of mercury
descends and stops at certain height. At sea level height of mercury
column is found about 76cm. it is equal to 1 atmospheric pressure.
Why water is not suitable to be used in barometer?
Mercury is 13.6 times denser than water. So height of water in glass
tube is 13.6 m times than mercury. Thus at sea level this height will be .76
×13.6 =10.34m. So for water, 11m glass tube is required. That is not suitable.
Why does the atmospheric pressure vary with height?
The density of air is not uniform it decreases continuously as we go up. So
atmospheric pressure varies with height.
Why atmospheric pressure decreases in hot days and increases in cold night.
In hot day, air becomes hot and expands. So atmospheric pressure fall down.
In cold night, air above the surface of earth cools down atmospheric pressure is
increased.
 Minor but rapid fall in atmospheric pressure indicates a windy and showery
condition in the nearby region.
 A sudden fall in atmospheric pressure causes a storm, rain and typhoon occurs in
few hours time.
 A gradual large increase in the atmospheric pressure indicates a large spell of
pleasant weather.
 A rapid increase in the atmospheric pressure indicates that there will be decrease
in atmospheric pressure indicating poor weather condition.
Pascal’s law:
This law is stated as
Pressure applied at any point of liquid, is transmitted equally in all direction.
Example:
 Take a glass vessel having holes on all the sides.
 Fill it with water.
 Push the piston, this piston exerts the pressure on water.
 This pressure is transmitted equally in all direction.
 So water rushes out through the holes with equal pressure.
Application of Pascal’s law:
Hydraulic press:
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 It is consists of two cylinders of different cross sectional areas. They are fitted
with cross sectional area ‘a’ and ‘A’. Force F 1 is applied in cross sectional ‘a’ and
object which to be pressed is placed on cross sectional area A.
Pressure on the piston of cross section a is given by
F1
P= a
By Pascal’s law, pressure on the large piston is same as on small piston
F2
P= A
Comparing the above equation
F 2 F1
=
A a
F
F2 = A× 1
a
A
F1 ×
F2 = a
A
Since ratioa >1 so force F2 is large than F1. Hydraulic system working in this way
is known as force multiplier.
Braking system in vehicles:
Braking systems of car,
buses etc. also work on Pascal’s law.
When brake pedal is pushed, it
exerted a force on master cylinder,
which increased the liquid pressure in
it. Liquid pressured is transmitted
equally throughout the liquid in metal
pipes. Due to this liquid pressure,
piston move outward pressing the brake pads with brakes drum. Friction between the
brake pads and brake drum stop the wheels.
Archimedes principle:
When an object is immersed in a liquid, an up thrust force acts on it which is
equal weight of liquid displaced by it.
Explanation:
Consider an object of cross sectional area A and height h immersed in a liquid.
Let h1 and h2 be the depth on the top and bottom faces.
Pressure on the upper face = p1 = ρgh1
Pressure on the bottom face = p2 = ρgh2
Pressure difference = p2 – p1 = ρgh2- ρgh1
= ρg(h2 –h1)
= ρgh
Up thrust force = area × pressure difference
F = A × ρgh
= Aρh g ………….. (i)
Volume of liquid displaced = volume of object
V = hA
m = ρ v = ρhA
Put in the equation (i)
F = mg = w
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 Hence up thrust is equal weight of liquid displaced by object.
Density of object:
Archimedes principle is also helpful to determine the density of an object.
Density of object = D
Density of liquid = ρ
Weight of object = w1
Weight of equal volume of liquid = w = w 1 – w2
D w1
=
ρ w
w1
×ρ
D= w

Principle of flotation;
The up thrust is always equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
This is called principal of flotation.

Application of Archimedes principle:

Flotation of wood block:
A wooden block floats on water because up thrust force acts on it are greater
than the weight of the fluid displaced by it.

Travelling of submarine:
A submarine can travel on the principle of flotation. It has a system of tank which
can be filled or emptied from sea water. When these tank are filled with sea water its
weight becomes greater than thrust then it dives in to the water and remains in water. To
come up on the surface tank are emptied from sea water.
Deforming force:
The applied force that changes shape, length or volume of a substance is called
deforming force.

Elasticity:
The property of a body to restore its original size and shape after removing the
external force is called elasticity and body is called elastic body.
Stress:
The force acting on unit area at the surface of a body is called stress.
Formula:
force F
Stress = area = A

Unit: Nm-2
Strain:
Under the stress, the change in original length, volume or shape is called
strain.
Tensile strain:
If the stress produces a change in the length of object, then strain is called
tensile
Strain:

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 originallenght¿
changeinlenght¿ ¿
ΔL
= ¿
Tensile strain= Lo
Hook’s law:
Within elastic limit, strain is directly proportional to the stress.
Stress α strain
Stress = constant × strain
Elastic limit:
It is limit with in which a body retains its original position after removing the
external force.
Young’s modulus:
The ratio of stress to tensile strain is called young’s modulus.

Explanation:
Let a long bar of length L o and cross sectional area A. If an external force ‘F’ is
applied on it, its length becomes L.
Change in length = ∆L = L – Lo
stress
Young’s modulus = tensilestrain
F Lo FLo
× =
= A ΔL AΔL
Unit: Nm-2

Pressure in liquid:
Consider a surface of area A in a liquid at a depth h.
F
P= A ……….. (i)
Force act on this surface is equal to the weight of the liquid.
F = w= mg
m
ρ=
As we know V => m = ρ V
m= ρ Ah ………..(ii)
eq(ii) becomes
F = w = ρ Ahg
Put in (i)
ρ Ahg
=ρ gh
P= A
Hence pressure of liquid depends upon the height, for large height pressure
will be greater.

SHORT QUESTIONS
Q.No. 7.5 can we use a hydrometer to measure the density of milk.
Yes, we can use a hydrometer to measure the density of milk.
Q. No. 7.21why does a piece a stone sink in water but a ship with huge weight floats?

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 The up thrust force acts on a stone is less than its weight so it sink but this force
greater than weight of ship so its floats.
Q,No. 7.11 what makes a sucker pressed on a smooth wall sticks on it?
The atmospheric pressure is greater outside than inside it. This make a sucker
pressed on a smooth wall.

NUMERICALS
7.1 A wooden block measuring 40cm ¿ 10cm ¿ 5cm has a mass 850g. Find the density
of wood?
Solution:
V = 40cm ¿ 10cm ¿ 5cm
= 2000cm3 = .002m3
m= 850 g = 850/1000 = 0.85 kg
Density=?
mass 0.85
density= =
volume = .002 425kgm-3

7.2 how much would be the volume of ice formed by freezing 1 litter of water?
Solution:
Density of ice = ρ1 = 920 kgm-3
Density of water = ρ2 = 1000kgm-3
Volume of water = V2 = 1 litter
Volume of ice = V1 =?
V 1 ρ2
=
V 2 ρ1
ρ2
×V 2
V1 = ρ 1
1000
×1
= 920 = 1.09 litter
7.3 calculate the volume of the fallowing objects
i) An iron sphere of mass 5kg, the density of iron is 8200kgm -3ii) 200 g of lead shot having
density 11300kgm-3iii) A gold bat of mass 0.2 kg the density of gold is 19300kgm-3
Solution:
m = 5kg
ρ = 8200kgm-3
V =?
mass
density=
volume
Volume = mass / density = 5 / 8200 =0.000609
= 6.09 ¿ 10-4 m3
(ii) m = 200g = 200/1000 = 0.2 kg
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 ρ =11300 kgm-3
V =?
Volume = mass / density
= 0.2/11300 = 0.0000177
= 1.77 ¿ 10-5m3
(iii) Mass = 0.2kg
Density = 19300kgm-3
Volume = mass / density
= 0.2/ 19300 = 0.00001036
= 1.03 ¿ 10-5 m3
7.4 The density of air 1.3 kg-3. Find the mass of air in a room measuring 8m ¿ 5m ¿ 4m.
Solution:
V= 8m ¿ 5m ¿ 4m = 160 m3
Density = 1.3 kgm-3
Mass =?
Mass = density ¿ volume
Mass = 1.3 ¿ 160 = 208 kg
7.5 A student presses her palm by her thumb with a force of 75N. How much would be the
pressure under her thumb having contact area 1.5cm2
Solution:
F = 75N
A =1.5 cm2 = 1.5 ¿ 10-4m2
P =?
F 75
P= A = 1 . 5×10−4 = 50 ¿ 104 =5 ¿ 105 Pa
7.6 The head of a pin is a square of side 10mm. find the pressure on it due to a force of
20N?
Solution:
Side = 10mm = 10 ¿ 10-3m
A = side ¿ side = 10 ¿ 10-3m ¿ 10 ¿ 10-3m = 100 ¿ 10-6 m2
F 20
P= A = 100×10−6 = 2.0 ¿ 105 pa
7.7 A uniform rectangular block of wood 20cm ¿ 7.5cm ¿ 7.5cm and mass 1000g stands
on a horizontal surface with its longest edge vertical. Find
i) The pressure exerted by the block on the surface
ii) Density of the wood
Solution:
Area of rectangular block = A = 7.5cm ¿ 7.5 cm = 56.25 cm2= 56.25 ¿ 10-4 m2
m = 1000 g
m = 1000/1000 = 1kg
F = w= mg
= 1 ¿ 10 = 10N
F 10 100000
= =
p = A 56 .25×10 56 .25 = 1777.7
−4

=1778 pa
V =20cm ¿ 7.5cm ¿ 7.5cm
= 1125 ¿ 10-6
mass 1
density=
volume = 1125×10−6
= 0.0008889 ¿ 106
= 888.9 kgm-3
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7.8 A cube of glass 5cm side and mass 306g has a cavity in side it. If the density of glass
is 2.55gcm-3. Find the volume of the cavity?
Solution:
Side = 5cm
Volume of cube =V = 5cm ¿ 5cm ¿ 5cm
V = 125cm3
Mass of glass = 306 g
Density = 2.55gcm-3
Volume = mass / density
Volume of glass = 306/ 2.55 = 120cm3
Volume of cavity = 125-120 = 5cm3
7.9 An object has a weight 18N in air. Its weight is found to be 11.4N when immersed in
water. Calculate its density. Can you guess the materials of the object?
Solution:
Weight of object in air = w1 = 18N
Weight of object in water = w2= 11.4N
Loss in weight = w = w1- w2 = 18 – 11.4= 6.6 N
Density of water= ρ = 1000kgm3
Density of object =D=?
w1
×ρ
D= w
18
×1000
= 6 .6 = 2727 kg-3
Object is Aluminum
7.10 A solid block of wood of density 0.6gcm -3 weights 3.06N in air. Determine (a) volume
of the block (b) the volume of the block immersed when placed freely in a liquid of density
0.9 gcm-3
Solution:
Density of block = 0.6 gcm-3
Weight = w = 3.06 N
w =mg
3.06 = m ¿ 10
3.06/10 = m
0.306 kg = m
306 g = m
Volume of block=?
Volume of block = mass/ density
= 306/0.6 = 510 cm3
Volume of block in liquid=?
Volume of block in liquid = mass / density
= 306/0.9= 340 cm3
7.11 The diameter of a piston of a hydraulic press is 30cm. how much force is required to
lift a car weighing 20,000 N on its piston if the diameter of the piston of the pump is 3cm.
Solution:
D = 30 cm
R = D/2 =30/2 = 15cm
d = 3cm
r = d/2 = 3/2 =1.5 cm
F2 = 20,000 N
F1 =?

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 F 1 F2
=
a A
F2 F2
×a ×π
F1 = A = πR2 r2 =
F2
2
×r 2
R
20000
×1. 52
20000
2
×2. 25
= 15 = 225 = 200N
7.12 A steel wire of cross sectional area 2 ¿ 10-5m2 is stretched through 2mm by a force
of 4000N. Find the Young’s modulus of the wire. Te length of the wire is 2m.
Solution:
A = 2 ¿ 10-5m2
Δl= 2mm = 2 ¿ 10-3 m
L= 2m
F = 4000N
Young modulus=Y =?
F×L 4000×2
Y= Δl× A = 2×10−3 ×2×10−5
= 2 ¿ 103+3+5
Y = 2 ¿ 1011Nm-2

CH. #8 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF

MATTER
Temperature:
Temperature of body is the degree of hotness and coldness of the body.
Thermal equilibrium:
When two bodies at different temperature are brought in thermal contact, heat
transfer from hot body to cold body and continue till both the bodies have the same
temperature. This is thermal equilibrium.
Heat:
Heat is the form of energy that is transferred form hot body to cold body.
Internal energy:
The sum of kinetic energy and potential associated with the atoms, molecules and
particles of a body is called internal energy.
Factors depend upon the internal energy:
 kinetic energy
 potential energy
 mass of the body
Thermometer:
A device that is used to measure the temperature of a body is called
thermometer.
Characteristics of thermometric substance:
 It should be visible.
 It should have uniform thermal expansion.
 It should have a low freezing point.
 It should have high boiling point.
 It should not wet glass.
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  It should be a good conductor of heat.
 It should have a small specific heat capacity.
Liquid –in – glass thermometer:
This thermometer consists of a long glass tube with a bulb at its one end.
A suitable liquid is filled in it. When the bulb contacts a hot object liquid in it expands and
rise in the tube.
Range: It measures the
temperature in the range of
-10oC to 150oC.
The range of clinical
thermometer is 35oC to 42oC.
Why mercury is suitable as a thermometric material.
Mercury freezes at -39C o and boils at 357 Co. and it has all the thermometric
properties.
Lower and upper fixed points:
A point on the thermometer to show the position of liquid when it is placed in ice is
called lower fixed point.
A point on the thermometer to show the position of liquid when it is placed in
steam at standard pressure is called upper fixed point.
Scales of thermometer:
Scales show the reading of temperature. Three scales of temperature are in
common use.
 Celsius scale or centigrade scale
 Fahrenheit scale
 Kelvin scale
On Celsius scale, lower fixed point is marked 0 oC and upper fixed point is
marked as 100 oC, the interval between these points is divided in to 100 equal parts.
On Fahrenheit scale, lower fixed point is marked as 32 oF and upper fixed point is
marked as 212 oF. The interval between these points is divided in to 180 equal parts.
On Kelvin scale, lower fixed point is marked as 273 k and upper fixed point is
marked as 373k .The interval between these points is divided in to 100 equal parts.
What is absolute zero?
Ok is called absolute zero and is equal to -273 oC

Conversion from Celsius to Kelvin scale:

T (k) = 273 + Tc
Conversion from Celsius to Fahrenheit scale:
TF = 1.8 Tc + 32
Specific heat capacity:
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg mass through
1k. Its unit is jkg-1k-1.
Equation of Specific heat capacity:
It is experimentally observed that amount of heat Δ Q is directly proportional to
mass and temperature.
Mathematically it can be written as
Δ Qαm Δ T

Δ Q=cm Δ T
ΔQ
c = mΔT
Where c is proportionality constant and is called specific heat capacity.
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Importance of large specific heat capacity:
Specific heat capacity of water is 4200 jkg -1k-1 and of dry sand is 810jkg-1k-1. Due
to his large capacity, water is very useful for storing and carrying thermal energy.
In an automobile radiator:
In automobile engine, large heat is produce by its engine
and increases its temperature. Efficiency of engine decreases if it
is not cooled down. Water is circulating around the engine to
maintain its temperature. Water absorbed unwanted thermal
energy and rejected it through the radiator.
In central heating system:
Hot water is also used to carry the thermal energy
through pipes from boiler to radiator. These radiators are fixed in
sides the house at suitable place.
Heat capacity:
It is the amount of heat absorbed by the body for 1k increases its temperature.
Its unit is Jk-1.
Formula:
ΔQ
Heat capacity = ΔT
cm ΔT
= ΔT = cm
Melting point: it is the temperature at which solid starts melting.
Freezing point: it is the temperature at which liquid start freezing.

Latent heat of fusion:

Heat energy required to change the unit mass of substance from solid to liquid
states with out change its temperature is called its latent heat of fusion. It is denoted by
Hf.
ΔQf
Hf = m
Latent heat of fusion of ice is 3.36 ¿ 105.
Latent heat of vaporization:
The quantity of heat that change the unit mass of liquid in to gas at its boiling
point with out change its temperature. It is denoted by H v.
Formula:
ΔQv
Hv = m
6
Latent heart of vaporization of water is 2.26 ¿10 jkg-1.

Evaporation:
Evaporation is the process in which liquid change in to vapours from surface of
liquid with out heating it.
The molecules of liquids have different kinetic energy. The molecules which have
greater kinetic energy escape out from the surface of liquid and goes in to atmosphere.
This is called evaporation.
Evaporation causes cooling. Why?

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 During the evaporation, fast moving molecules escape out from the surface of
liquid and molecules with lower k.E left behinds. So the temperature of liquid decreases.
Evaporation depends upon the fallowing factors:
Temperature:
With increase in temperature, molecules of liquids move with high velocities thus
evaporation is faster at high temperature than at lower temperature.

Surface area:
Larger is the surface area of liquids, greater number of molecules has the chance
to escape from its surface.
Wind:
Wind blowing over the surface of liquid carries away the liquids molecules that
have just escaped out. This increases the chance for more liquid molecules to escape
out.
Nature of liquid:
Evaporation also depends upon the intermolecular forces of liquids. Liquids with
weak intermolecular easily evaporate. That is why spirit evaporates fast than water.
Thermal expansion:
Most substances expand on heating. This is called thermal expansion.
On heating, amplitude of molecules increases. They push one another. As a result,
length Width and thickness of objects increased.

Coefficient of Linear thermal expansion and its equation:

Let a metal rod of length L o at temperature To. On heating to a temperature T, its
length becomes L.
Increase in length = ∆L = L – Lo
Increase in temperature = ∆T = T – To
Experimentally it is observed that change in length is directly proportional to
the original length and change in temperature.
Mathematically
L – Lo α Lo ∆T
L – Lo = constant Lo ∆T
L – Lo = α Lo ∆T …………… (i)
L = Lo + α Lo ∆T
L = Lo (1 + α ∆T)
From eq(i)
L−Lo
α=
Lo ΔT
Where α is called coefficient of linear expansion and is defined as fractional change
in length per Kelvin. Its unit is k-1.
Coefficient of volume thermal expansion and its equation:
Let a solid of volume Vo at temperature To. On heating to a temperature T, its
volume becomes V.
Increase in volume = ∆V= V – Vo
Increase in temperature = ∆T = T – To
Experimentally it is observed that change in volume is directly proportional to
the original volume and change in temperature.
Mathematically
V – Vo α Vo∆T
V – Vo= constant Vo ∆T
V – Vo = βVo ∆T …………… (i)

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 V = Vo + β Vo ∆T
V = Vo (1 + β ∆T)
From eq(i)
V −Vo
β=
Vo ΔT
Where β is called coefficient of volume expansion and is defined as fractional
change in volume per Kelvin. Its unit is k-1.
Relation b/w volume and linear expansion.
Volume expansion is 3 times than linear expansion.
β = 3α
Consequence of thermal expansion:
 Railways tracks buckled on a hot summer day due to expansion if gaps are not left
between sections.
 Bridge made of steel girder will bend if their ends are fixed. So to allow expansion,
one end is fixed while other end rests on roller in the gap left for expansion.
 In electric transmission lines, there are also kept some gap so that they can
contract in winter with out snapping.
Application of thermal expansion:
 In thermometer, thermal expansion is used for measuring temperature.
 To open the cap of bottle immersed it in hot water. Metal cap expands and
becomes loosed, now can easily be opened.
 Iron rims are fixed on the wooden wheels of cart is
the result of thermal expansion.
 To join the steel plates, rivets are used. Red hot
rivets is hammered and cooled. Rivets then contract
and bring the plates tightly gripped.

Bimetal strip:
It is the combination of two strips of different
metals. Due to unequal expansion it is bended.
Uses:
 It is used to measure in furnace and ovens.
 In thermostats, it is used to control the temperature in electric iron.
Thermal expansion of liquid of liquids:
Liquid also expands on heating. Their expansion is more than solids due to weak
forces between their molecules. There are two types of thermal expansion of volume.
 apparent volume of expansion
 real volume expansion
Real rate of volume expansion:
The actual change in the unit volume of a liquid for 1k rise in temperature is called
real rate of volume expansion. Real rate of volume expansion is always greater than the
apparent rate of volume expansion.
βr = βa + βg
QNo. 8.5How does heating affects motion of gas molecule of a gas?
On heating, the K.E of gas molecules increased.
Difference between evaporation and vaporization:
Evaporation:
It takes place at all temperature and only on the surface of liquid.
Vaporization:
It takes place at its boiling points and also with in the liquid.
What is anomalous expansion of water?

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 On heating at 0oC, water contracts and on cooling at 4oC, it expands. This
unusual behavior of water is known as anomalous expansion of water.
NUMERICALS
8.1 temperature of water in a beaker is 50oC. What is its value in Fahrenheit?
Solution:
Tc= 50oC
TF =?
TF = 9/5 Tc + 32
9
= 5 (50) + 32 = 90+ 32 =122 0F
8.2 Normal human body temperatures 98.6oF. Convert it in to Celsius and Kelvin scale.
Solution:
TF =98.6oF
TF = 9/5 Tc + 32

98.6 = 1.8Tc + 32
98.6 -32 = 1.8Tc
66.6 = 1.8Tc
66 .6
1.8 = Tc
37 = Tc
Tk = Tc + 273
= 37+273
= 310 k

8.3 Calculate the increase in length of an aluminum bar 2m long when heated from 0 oC to
20oC if the coefficient of linear thermal of aluminum is 2.5 ¿ 10-5k-1
Solution:
Lo = 2m
To = 0oC =0+ 273 =273 k
T = 20oC = 20+273 = 293 k
ΔT = T – To = 293-273 = 20k
α = 2.5 ¿ 10-5k-1
ΔL =?
ΔL = α LoΔT
= 2.5 ¿ 10 ¿ 2 ¿ 20 = 100 ¿ 10-5m
-5

= 1 ¿ 10-3m = 1 ¿ 10-1m = 0.1m

8.4 A balloon contain1.2 m3 air at 15oC. Find its volume at 40oC. Thermal coefficient of
volume expansion of air 3.67 ¿ 10-3k-1
Solution:
Vo= 1.2 m3
To = 0oC =15+ 273 =288 k
T = 20oC = 40+273 = 313 k
ΔT = T – To = 313-288 = 25k
β =3.67 ¿ 10-3k-1
V=?
V = VO (1+ β ΔT)
= 1.2 (1+ 3.67 ¿ 10-3 ¿ 25)
= 1.2 (1+0.9175)
= 1.2 (1.9175)
= 1.3 m3
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8.5 How much heat is required to increase to temperature of 0.5 kg of water from 10 oC to
65oC?
Solution:
m = 0.5kg
o
To = 10 C =10+ 273 =283 k
T = 65oC =65+273 = 338 k
ΔT = T – To = 338 - 283 = 55k
ΔQ=?
c = 4200Jkg-1k-1
ΔQ= c m ΔT
= 4200 ¿ 0.5 ¿ 55 = 115500J
8.6 An electric heater supplies heat at the rate 1000 joule per second how much time is
required to raise the temperature of 200g of water20oC to 90oC?
Solution:
m = 200g = 200/1000 = .2kg
ΔQ
=
t 1000J
To = 20oC =20+ 273 =293 k
T = 90oC =90+273 = 363 k
ΔT = T – To = 363 - 293 = 70k
c = 4200Jkg-1k-1
t =?

ΔQ/t = c m ΔT/t
4200×0 .2×70
1000 = t
4200×0 .2×70
t = 1000 = 58.8 s
8.7how much ice will melt by 50000 J of heat? Latent heat of fusion of ice = 336000 Jkg-1
Solution:
ΔQ= 50000J
Hf = 336000Jk-1g-1
m =?
ΔQ
Hf= m
ΔQ 50000
m=
H f = 336000 = 0.149kg
= .149 ¿ 1000 = 149 g =150 g

8.8 Find the quantity of heat needed to 100 g ice at -10 oC in to water at 10oC. (Specific
heat of ice is 2100 Jkg-1k-1 , latent heat of fusion of ice = 336000Jkg-1k-1.)
Solution:
m = 100g = 100/1000 = 0.1 kg
To = -10oC
T = 0oC
ΔT = T – To = 0oC – (-10oC) = 10oC
Specific heat of ice = c = 2100 Jkg-1k-1
ΔQ1 =cm ΔT
= 2100 ¿ 0.1 ¿ 10 = 2100 J
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 Hf = 336000Jk-1g-1
ΔQ 2 = mH
f
= 0.1 ¿ 336000= 33600 J
To = 0oC
o
T = 10 C
ΔT = T – To = 10oC – 0oC) = 10oC
Specific heat of water = 4200 Jkg-1k-1
ΔQ3 = cmΔT
= 4200 ¿ .1 ¿ 10 = 4200
ΔQ = ΔQ1+ΔQ2 + ΔQ3
= 2100+ 33600+ 2400 = 39900 J
8.9 How much heat is required to change 100g of water at 100 oC in to steam.( latent heat of
veporizayion of water is 2.26 ¿ 106 Jkg-1k-1)
Solution:
m = 100 g = 100/1000= 0.1 kg
Hv = 2.26 ¿ 106Jkg-1k-1
ΔQ =?
ΔQ = mHv
= 0.1 ¿ 2.26 ¿ 106=2.26 ¿ 105 J
8.10 Find the temperature of water after passing 5g of steam at 100 oC through 500g of
water at 10oC.
(Specific heat of water is 4200 Jkg -1k-1, latent heat of vaporization of water is 2.26 ¿ 106
Jkg-1k-1)
Solution:
Mass of steam= m1= 5g = 5/1000 = 0.005kg
Mass of water = m2= 500g = 500/1000= 0.5kg
Temperature of steam = T = 100oC
Temperature of water =T1= 10oC
Final temperature of water =T2 =?
Specific heat of water= c = 4200Jkg-1k-1
Latent heat of vaporization of water = Hv = 2.26 ¿ 106Jkg-1k-1
ΔQ1 = mHv = 0.005 ¿ 2.26 ¿ 106 = 11300J
Heat rejected by steam = ΔQ2 = cmΔT
= 4200 ¿ 0.005 ¿ (100 – T2)
= 21 ¿ (100 – T2)
Heat absorbed by water = ΔQ3 = cmΔT
= 4200 ¿ 0.5 ¿ (T2-10)
= 2100 ¿ (T2-10)
According to law of heat exchange
Heat lost = heat gained
ΔQ1+ΔQ2 = ΔQ3
11300+ 21 ¿ (100 – T2)= 2100 ¿ (T2-10)
11300+ 2100 – 21T2 = 2100T2 – 21000
11300+ 2100+21000 = 2100T2+21T2
34400 = 2121T2
34400
=T 2
2121
16.2oC =

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 Ch. # 9 TRANSFER OF HEAT

What is the transfer of heat?

Thermal energy flows from hot body to cold in the form of heat. This is called as
transfer of heat.
Ways of transfer of heat:
1- Conduction 2- convection 3- radiation
1- Conduction:
The mode of transfer of heat by vibrating atoms and free electrons in solids from
hot to cold body parts is called conduction of heat.
Explanation:
In solids, atoms are very close to each other. They continue to vibrate about
their mean position. When they are heated, they vibrate rapidly and also collide with
neighbour atoms and transfer some heat. In this way thermal energy is transferred from
hot part to cold part.
Why heat is transferred rapidly from hot to cold parts in metal than non metal?
Metals have free electrons. These free electrons move with very high velocities in
a very fast rate. So thermal energy reaches the cold part from its hot parts more rapidly
in metal than non metal.
Thermal conductivity:
Consider a solid block of cross sectional area ‘A’ and length ‘L’. T 1 is the temperature
at one face and T2 at other face such that T 1>T2. Let Q is the heat transfer form one side
to their side in t second.
The amount of heat that flow in one seconds is called the rate of flow of heat.
Q
Rate of flow of heat = t
Dependence:
 cross sectional of the solid
 length of solid
 temperature difference
It is observed that the rate of flow of heat is
directly proportional to the cross sectional area and
temperature difference and inversely proportional to the length of conductor.
Mathematically
Q
t α A ………..(i)
Q
t α T1-T2…………(ii)
Q 1
t α L ………….(iii)
Combining the above factors
Q A (T 1 −T 2 )
t α L
Q A (T 1 −T 2 )
t =k L
Here k is proportionality constant and is called thermal conductivity of solid.

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 When a meter cube of a substance is maintained at a temperature difference of
1k then amount of heat that is transferred from one end to other end in one second is
called thermal conductivity of that substance.

Non – conductor:
The substance through which heat does not conduct easily is called non conductor
or insulator. Wood, cork, glass and rubber etc.
Uses:
 Insulators are used in home utensils such as handles of sauce-pans and spoons.
 Woolen cloth is used to make warm winter clothes.
 Double glazed window keep the houses warm in winter and cool in summer.
 Wall cavities are filled air, plastic foam and wool.
Conductor:
The substance through which heat conducts easily is called conductor.
Uses:
 Metal box are used for making ice, ice cream etc.
 For quick transfer of heat, cookers, boilers radiator and condenser of refrigerator
are made of metals.
What measures may be taking to save energy:
 Hot water tank are insulated by plastic or foam lagging.
 Wall cavities are filled air, plastic foam and wool.
 Ceiling of rooms is covered by insulating materials.
 Double glazed window keep the houses warm in winter and cool in summer.
Convection:
The transfer of heat by actual movement of molecules form hot place to cold place is
known as convection.
Experiment:
 Take a beaker and filled it two-third with water.
 Heat it with burner.
 Drop some crystal of potassium permangate in the water. It will be seen that
colored lines of water by the crystal move upwards and then move downed wards
from side ways.
 These colored lines show the path of currents in the liquid.
Convection currents in air:
Gases also expand on heating thus convention currents are easily set up due the
difference in the densities of air at various parts in the atmosphere.
Uses:
 In heater it helps to warm our homes and offices.
 Central heating systems in building work on the principle of convection.
 Lands breezes and sea breeze are the examples of convection currents.
Land and sea breezes:
Sea breezes:
In day, temperature of land increase quickly than sea, so air gets hot and rises up.
To cover this place cold air begins to move towards the land. It is called sea breeze.

Lands breeze:
At nigh, air above the sea is warmer, rises up and cold air from the land begins to
move towards the sea. It is called land breeze.
What is glider and how it remains in air:
Glider is a small aero plane with out engine. The glider rides over current of hot
air. The up ward movement of air currents in thermal helps them to stay in air for a long
period.
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How do thermals help birds to fly for hours with out flapping their
wings?
Birds stretch out their wings and circle in thermals. The
upwards movement of air helps birds to climb with it. After getting a free
lift, birds are able to fly for hours with out flapping their wings. Eagle,
hawks and vultures are expert thermal climber.
Radiation:
Radiations the mode of transfer of heat from one place to other
place in the form of waves called electromagnetic waves.
Factors depend upon the emitted radiation:
 color and texture of the surface
 surface temperature
 surface area
What is Leslie cube and write the name of its faces?
A Leslie cube is a metal box having faces of different nature. It has four faces.
=> A shining silvered surface
=> A dull black surface
=> A white surface
=> A colored surface

Surface Emitter Absorber reflector

Dull black surface best best worst
Colored surface good Good Bad
White surface bad bad good
Shining silvered Worst Worst best
surface

Green house effect:

Green house is a sheet of glass and transparent polythene sheets. Light from
sun contains infrared (long wavelength) and ultra violet (short wavelength). Green house
allow radiation of short wavelength to pass through easily but not long wavelength. Thus
a green house becomes a heat trap and warms the objects in green house. This
maintains the insides temperature of the green
house.
Global warming:
Earth’s atmosphere contains carbon and
water vapors. It causes the green house effect and
thus maintains the temperature of the earth. During
the recent year, the percentage of carbon dioxides
has been increased and thus causes the increase
in average temperature of earth. This phenomenon
is known as global warming.

SHORT QUESTIONS
Q.No. Why conduction of heat does not take place in gases?
Conduction is the process of heat transfer by collision of vibrating atoms and free
electrons. In gases atoms and molecules are far apart due to week intermolecular force
and do not contain free electrons. So they can not transfer heat

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by conduction.
Q. why metals are good conductors of heat.
Metals contain a plenty of free electrons. Due to heat, their velocities are
increase so rate of transfer of heat also increases.
Q. why transfer of heat in fluids takes place by convection?’
In liquid, due to weak intermolecular forces molecules are free to move from
one place to other place. So in fluids, transfer of heat takes place by convection.
What is meant by convection currents?
The currents are set up in the air due the difference in densities of air at various
place in atmosphere is called convection currents.

NUMERICALS
9.1 The concrete roof of a house of thickness 20cm has an area 200m2. The temperature
inside the house is 15oC and outside is 35oC. Find the rate at which thermal energy will be
conduct through the roof. The value of k for concrete is 0.65 Wm-1k-1.
Solution:
L = 20cm = 20/100 = 0.2m
A = 200m2
o
T1 = 15 C = 15+273= 288k
T2 = 35oC= 35+273 = 308k
ΔT = 308 -288 = 20 k
K = 0.65 Wm-1k-1
ΔQ/t=?
kA ΔT 0 . 65×200×20
=
ΔQ/ t = L 0 .2 = 13000 J/s
9.2 how much heat is lost in an hour through glass window measuring 2mby 2.5m when inside
temperature is 25oC and outsides is 5oC, the thickness of glass is 0.8cm and the value of k for 0.8
Wm-1k-1.
Solution:
A = 2m ¿ 2.5 m =5m2
L = 0.8cm = 0.008m
T1 = 5oC = 5+273= 278k
T2 = 25oC= 25+273 = 298k
ΔT = 298 -278 = 20 k
t = 1 h = 3600 s
ΔQ=?
kA ΔT
ΔQ/ t = L
kA ΔT ×t 0 . 8×5×20×3600
=
ΔQ = L 0. 008 = 3.6 ¿ 107 J

IMPORTANT EXAMPLES

2.2 A spinster its 100 meter race in 12 s. Find its average speed. (8.33 ms -1)
2.3 A cyclist completes half round of a circular track of radius 318 m in 1.5 mints. Find its
speed and velocity.(11.1 ms-1, 7.07ms-1)
2.4 A car from rest. Its velocity becomes 20 ms-1 in 8 s. fined its acceleration.(2.5 ms-2)

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2.5 Find the retardation produce when a car moving at a velocity of 30 ms -1 slow down
uniformly to 15 ms-1 in 5 s. (-3 ms-2)
2.10 A car traveling at 10 ms-1 accelerates uniformly at 2 ms -2. Calculate its velocity after
5s. (20 ms-1)
2.11 A train slows down from 80 km/h with a uniform retardation of 2 ms -2. . How long will
it take to attain a speed of 20 kmh-1? (8.3s)
2.12 A bicycle accelerate at 1 ms-2 form its initial velocity of 4ms-1 for 10 s. Find the
distance moved by it during this time interval.(90m )
3.1 Find the acceleration that is produce by a 20N force in a mass of 8 kg. (2.5 ms -2)
3.2 A force acting on a body of mass 5kg produces an acceleration of 10ms -2. What
acceleration the same force will produce in a body of mass 8 kg. ( 6.25 ms -2)
3.3 A cyclist of mass 40 kg exerts a force of 200N to move his bicycle with an
acceleration of 3ms-2. How much the force of friction between the road and tyres? (80N)
3.6 A body of mass 5kg is moving with a velocity 10ms -1. Find the force required to stop it
in 2 s. (25N)
3.7 A bullet of mass 20 g is fired from a gun with a muzzle velocity 100ms -1. Find the
recoil of gun if its mass is 5kg. (-0.4ms-1)
3.8 A stone of mass 100g is attached to a string 1m long. The stone is rotating in a circle
with a speed 5ms-1. Find the tension in string. ( 2.5N)
4.2 A man pulling a trolley on a horizontal road with a force of 200N making an angle 30 o
with the road. Find the horizontal and vertical component of its force. (173.2N, 100N)
4.3 A mechanic tightens the net of a bicycle using a 15cm long spanner by exerting a
force 200N. Find the torque that has tightened it. (30Nm)
5.1 Two leads spheres each of mass 1000kg are kept with their centre 1 m apart. Find
the gravitational force with which they attract each other.( 6.673 ¿ 10-5N)
5.2 calculate the value of g, at an altitude 1000km. M e = 6 ¿ 1024 kg and R=
6400km(7.3ms-2)
6.1 A girl carry a 10 kg bag, upstairs to a height 18 steps, each 20 cm high. Calculate the
work she has done to carry the bag. ( 360J)
6.2 A stone has mass 500 g strikes the grounds with a velocity of 20 ms-1. Find the K.E
when its strikes the ground.(100J)
6.3 A body of mass 50 kg is raised to a height of 3m. What is P.E? (1500J)
6.4 A force of 200N acts on a body of mass 20 kg. The force accelerates the body until it
attains the velocity of 50 ms-1. Through what distance the force acts? (125m)
6.5 A cyclist does 12 joules of useful work while peddling his bike from every 100 joules
which he takes. What is his efficiency?( 12%)
6.7 Calculate the power of a pump which can lift 70 kg of water through a vertical height
of 16 meter in 10s. Also find power in horsepower. (1120W, 1.5hp)
7.1 The mass of 200cm3 of stone is 500 g. find its density? (2.5 g cm-3)
7.2 In a hydraulic press, a force of 100 N is applied on a piston of a pumps of cross
sectional area 0.01m2. Find the force that compress a cotton bales placed on a large
piston of cross sectional area 1m2. (10000N)
7.3 A wooden cube of side 10cm each has been dipped completely in water. Calculate
the up thrust of water acting on it. (10N)
7.4 The weight of a metal spoon in air is o.48N its weight in water is 0.42N find its
density. (8000 kgm-3

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P
9

WRITTEN BY:
(Khalid
mehmood )

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NAME: __________________
ROLL #:
__________________
CLASs:___________________
SCHOOl: G.M.H.S
YAZMAN

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