INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR

FUNDAMENTALS OF
NETWORKING

COMPILED BY:

RODOLFO L. DE GUZMAN, MSENGG

TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 1 – Explore the Network

● Globally Connected
● LANs, WANs, and the Internet
● The Network as Platform
● The Changing Network Environment

UNIT 2 – Configure a Network Operating System

● IOS Bootcamp
● Basic Device Configuration
● Address Scheme

UNIT 3 – Network Protocols and Communications

● Rules of Communication
● Network Protocols and Standards
● Data Transfer in the Network

UNIT 4 – Network Access

● Physical Layer Protocols

● Network Media
● Data Link Layer Protocols
● Media Access Control

UNIT 5 – Ethernet

● Ethernet Protocol
● LAN Switches
● Address Resolution Protocol

UNIT 6 – Network Layer

● Network Layer Protocols

● Routing
● Routers
● Configure a Cisco Router

UNIT 7 – Explore the Network

● IPv4 Network Addresses

 ● IPv6 Network Addresses
● Connectivity Verification

UNIT 8 – Subnetting IP Networks

● Subnetting an IPv4 Network

● Addressing Schemes
● Design Considerations for IPv6

UNIT 9 – Transport Layer

● Transport Layer Protocols

● TCP and UDP

UNIT 10 – Application Layer

● Application Layer Protocols

● Well-known Application Layer Protocols and Services

UNIT 11 – Build a Small Network

● Network Design
● Network Security
● Basic Network Performance

COURSE OVERVIEW
This material will help students to understand networking fundamentals and technologies. By the end of the course,
students will be able to build simple LANs, perform basic configuration for routers and switches, and implement IP
addressing schemes.

UNIT 1 – Explore the Network

Overview

This lesson will discuss elements of networking; opportunities and challenges posed by converged networks, and
describe the role of data networking in human network.

Learning Outcomes
The students should:

a. Identify the key components of any data network.

b. Identify the opportunities and challenges posed by converged networks.
c. Describe the role of data networking in the human network.
d. Describe the characteristics of network architectures: fault tolerance, scalability, quality of service and security.
e. Describe how networks impact our daily lives.
f. Explain trends in networking that will affect the use of networks in small to medium-sized businesses.

Course Materials

● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VB-XykRAd0E
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mZBR8lnUzM0
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4oSWuA16fc0
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U-TF11apAMQ

Lesson 1

Globally Connected

Networks in Our Past and Daily Lives

Imagine a world without Internet. No more Google, YouTube, instant messaging, Facebook, Wikipedia, online
gaming, Netflix, iTunes, and easy access to current information. No more price comparison websites, avoiding lines
by shopping online, or quickly looking up phone numbers and map directions to various locations at the click of a
finger. How different would our lives be without all of this? That was the world we lived in just 15 to 20 years ago.
Now consider what will happen within the next 25 years.

The Global Community

Networks support the way we learn. Networks support the way we communicate. Networks support the way we work.
Networks support the way we play.

● Instant messaging
● Social media
 ● Collaboration tools
● Weblogs
● Wikis
● Podcasting
● Peer-to-peer file sharing

Networks of Many Sizes

Small home networks connect a few computers to each other and the Internet.

Small office/home office networks enables computer within a home office or a remote office to connect to a corporate
network or access to centralized shared resources.

Medium to large networks, such as those used by corporations and schools, can have many locations with hundreds
or thousands of interconnected computers.

The Internet is a network of networks that connects hundreds of millions of computer worldwide.

Clients and Servers

All computers connected to a network that participate directly in network communication are classified as hosts or
end devices. In modern networks, end devices can act as a client, a server, or both. The software installed on the
computer determines which role the computer plays. Servers are hosts that have software install that enable them to
provide information, like email or webpages, to other hosts on the network. Clients are computer hosts that have
software installed that enable them to request and display the information obtained from the server. An example of
client software is a web browser, like the Internet Explorer.

Peer-to-Peer

In small businesses and homes, many computers function as the servers and clients on the network. This type of
network is called a peer-to-peer network. Advantages of peer-to-peer networking:

● Easy to set up
● Less complexity
● Lower cost since dedicated servers may not be required
● Can be used for simple tasks such as files and sharing printers

The disadvantages of peer-to-peer networking:

● No centralized administration
● Not as secure
● Not scalable
● All devices may act as both clients and servers

Lesson 2

LANs, WANs, and the Internet

Components of a Network

The path that message takes from source to destination can be as simple as a single cable connecting one computer
to another or as complex as a network that literally spans the globe. The network infrastructure contains three
categories of network components:

● Devices
● Media
● Services

Devices and media are the physical elements, or hardware of the network. Network components are used to provide
services and processes. These are the communication programs, called software that runs on the network devices.

End Devices

The network devices that people are most familiar with are called end devices, or hosts. These devices form the
interface between users and the underlying communication network. Some examples of end devices are:

● Computers
● Network printers
● VoIP phones
● TelePresence endpoint
● Security cameras
● Mobile handheld devices

A host device is either the source or destination of a message transmitted over the network. In order to distinguish
one host from another, each host on a network is identified by an address.

Network Infrastructure Devices

Intermediary devices interconnect end devices. Intermediary devices connect the individual hosts to the network and
can connect multiple individual networks to form internetwork. Examples of intermediary network devices are:

● Network Access (switches and wireless access points)

● Internetworking (routers)
● Security (firewalls)

Processes running on the intermediary network devices perform these functions:

● Regenerate and retransmit data signals

● Maintain information about what pathways exist through the network and internetwork
● Notify other devices of errors and communication failures
● Direct data along alternate pathways when there is a link failure

Components of a Network

Network Media
Communication across a network is carried on a medium. The medium provides the channel over which the message
travels from source to destination. Modern networks primarily use three types of media.

● Metallic wires within cables

● Glass or plastic fibers
● Wireless transmission

On metallic wires, the data is encoded into electrical impulses that match specific patterns. Fiber optic transmissions
rely on pulses of light, within either infrared or visible light ranges. In wireless transmission, patterns of
electromagnetic waves depict the various bit values.

Network Representations

When conveying complex information such as displaying all the devices and medium in a large internetwork, it is
helpful to use visual representations. A diagram provides an easy way to understand the way the devices in a large
network are connected. Such a diagram uses symbols to represent the different devices and connections that make
up on a network. This type of picture of a network is known as a topology diagram.

Topology Diagrams

Topology Diagrams are mandatory for anyone working with a network. It provides a visual map of how the network is
connected. There are two types of topology diagrams including:

● Physical topology diagrams – identify the physical location of intermediary devices, configured ports, and
cable installation.
● Logical topology diagrams- Identify devices, ports, and IP addressing scheme.

Types of Networks

Two most common types of network infrastructures:

Local Area Network (LAN)- a network infrastructure that provides access to users and end devices in a small
geographical area.

Wide Area Network (WAN)- a network infrastructure that provides access to other networks over a wide geographical
area.

Other types of networks include:

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)- a network infrastructure that spans a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller
than a WAN.

Wireless LAN (WLAN) – similar to a LAN but wirelessly interconnect users and end points in a small geographical
area.

Storage Area Network (SAN)- a network infrastructure designed to support file servers and provide data storage,
retrieval, and replication.

Local Area Networks (LAN)

Local Area Networks (LAN) are a network infrastructure that spans a small geographical area. Specific features of
LANs include:

● It interconnects end devices in a limited area such as home, school, office building, or campus.
● It is usually administered by a single organization or individual. The administrative control that governs the
security and access control policies are enforced on the network level.
● LANs provide high speed bandwidth to internal end devices and intermediary devices.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Networks (WAN) are a network infrastructure that spans a wide geographical area. WANs are typically
managed by service providers or Internet Service Providers. Specific features of WANs include:

● WANs interconnect LANs over wide geographical areas such as between cities, states, provinces,
countries, or continents.
● WANs are usually administered by multiple service providers.
● WANs typically provide slower speed links between LANs.

The Internet

Although there are benefits to using a LAN or WAN, most individuals need to communicate with a resource on
another network, outside of the local network. This is done using the Internet. The Internet is not owned by any
individual or group. Ensuring effective communication across this diverse infrastructure requires cooperation of many
network administration agencies. There are organizations that have been developed for the purpose of helping to
maintain structure and standardization of Internet protocols and processes. These organizations include Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF), Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), and the Internet
Architecture Board (IAB), plus many others.

Intranet and Extranet

There are two other terms which are similar to the term Internet:

● Intranet
● Extranet

Intranet is a term often used to refer to a private connection of LANs and WANs that belongs to an organization, and
is designed to be accessible only by the organization members, employees, or others with authorization. Intranets
are basically an internet which is usually only accessible from within the organization. An organization may use
extranet to provide secure and safe access to individuals who work for different organizations, but require company
data. Examples of extranets include:

● A company providing access to outside suppliers/contractors.

Connecting Remote Users to the Internet

Common connection options for small office and home office users include:

Cable – typically offered by cable television’s service providers, the Internet data signal is carried on the same
coaxial cable that delivers cable television.
DSL- provides a high bandwidth, always on, connection to the Internet. It requires a special high-speed modem that’s
separates the DSL signal from the telephone signal and provides an Ethernet connection to a host computer or LAN.
DSL runs over a telephone line, with the line split into three channels. One channel is used for voice telephone calls.
A second channel is a faster download channel. The third channel is used for sending or uploading information.

Cellular- cellular internet access uses a cell phone network to connect. Wherever you can get a cellular signal, you
can get cellular Internet access. Performance will be limited by the capabilities of the phone and the cell tower to
which it is connected.

Satellite- satellite service is a good option for homes or offices that do not have access to DSL or cable. Satellite
dishes require a clear line of sight to the satellite and so might be difficult in heavily wooded areas or places with
other overhead obstructions.

Dial-up Telephone- an inexpensive option that uses any phone line and a modem. To connect to the ISP, a user calls
the ISP access phone number.

Connecting Businesses to the Internet

Corporate connection options differ from home user options. Businesses may require higher bandwidth, dedicated
bandwidth, and managed services.

Dedicated Leased Line- this is a dedicated connection from the service provider to the customer premise. Leased
lines are actually reserved circuits that connect geographically separated offices for private voice and/or data
networking. The circuits are typically rented at a monthly or yearly rate which tends to make it expensive. In North
America, common leased line circuits include T1 (1.54 Mb/s) and T3 (44.7 Mb/s) while in other parts of the world they
are available in E1 (2 Mb/s) and E3 (34 Mb/s).

Metro Ethernet- it is typically available from a provider to the customer premise over a dedicated copper or fiber
connection providing bandwidth speeds of 10 Mb/s to 10 Gb/s.

Business DSL- is available in various formats. A popular choice is Symmetric Digital Subscriber Lines |(SDSL) which
is similar to Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), but provides the same upload and download speeds. ADSL
transmissions work at distances up to 18, 000 feet over a single copper twisted pair.

Satellite- satellite service can provide a connection when wired solution is not available.

Lesson 3

The Network as a Platform

The Converging Network

Consider a school built forty years ago. Back then, classrooms were cabled for the data network, telephone network,
and video network for televisions. These separate networks they could not communicate with each other. Advances
in technology are enabling us to consolidate these different kinds of networks onto one platform referred to as the
converged network. Unlike, dedicated networks, converged networks are capable of delivering voice, video streams,
text, and graphics between many different types of devices over the same communication channel and network
structure.

Supporting Network Architecture

As networks evolve, we are discovering that there are four basic characteristics that the underlying architectures
need to address in order to meet user expectations:

● Fault tolerance- redundant connections allow for alternative paths if a device or link fails. The user
experience is unaffected.
● Scalability- additional users and whole network can be connected to the Internet without degrading
performance for existing users.
● Quality of Service- ensures that priorities are matched with the type of communication and its importance to
the organization.
● Security- protect network with software and hardware security.

Packet-switched Networks

A fault tolerant network is one that limits the impact of failure, so that the fewest number of devices are affected by it.
It is also built in a way that allows quick recovery when such failure occurs. Having multiple paths to a destination is
known as redundancy.

Circuit-switched Connection-oriented Networks

To understand the need for redundancy, we can look at how early telephone systems worked. When a person made
a call a temporary path, or circuit, was created for the duration of the telephone call. If any link or device in the circuit
failed, the call was dropped. To reconnect, a new call had to be made, with a new circuit. This connection process
referred to as a circuit-switched process.

Fault Tolerance in Circuit switch Network

In the search for a network that was more fault tolerant, the early Internet designers researched packet switched
networks. The premise for this type of network is that a single message can be broken into multiple message blocks,
with each message block containing addressing information to indicate the origination point and final destination.
Using this embedded information, these message blocks, called packets, can be sent through the network along
various paths, and can be reassembled into original message when reaching their destination.

Scalable Networks

ISP Tiers

ISPs are designated by a hierarchy based on their level 0f connectivity to the Internet backbone. Each lower tier
obtain connectivity to the backbone via a connection to a higher tier ISP.

Tier 1

ISPs are large national or international ISPs that are directly connected to the Internet backbone.

Tier 2
Tier 2 ISPs generally focus on business customers.

Tier 3

Tier 3 ISPs often bundle Internet connectivity as a part of network and computer service contracts for their
customers.

Providing QoS

Examples of priority decisions for an organization might include:

Time-sensitive communication- increase priority for services like telephony or video distribution.

High importance to organization- increase priority for production control or business transaction data.

Non time-sensitive communication- decrease priority for web page retrieval or email.

Undesirable communication- decrease priority or block unwanted activity, like peer-to-peer file sharing or live
entertainment.

Providing Network Security

The network infrastructure, services, and the data contained on network attached devices are crucial personal and
business assets. Compromising the integrity of these assets could have serious consequences, such as:

● Network outages that prevent communications and transactions

● Intellectual property that is stolen and used by a competitor
● Personal or private information that is compromised or made public.
● Misdirection and loss of personal or business funds.
● Loss of important data that takes a significant labor to replace, or is irreplaceable.

Technological convergence

The term technological convergence is often defined in a very generalized and simplified terms as a process by
which telecommunications, information technology and the media, sectors that originally operated largely
independent of one another, are growing together. Technological convergence has both a technical and a functional
side. The technical side refers to the ability of any infrastructure to transport any type of data, while functional side
means the consumers may be able to integrate in a seamless way the functions of computation, entertainment, and
voice in a unique device able to execute a multiplicity of tasks.

Opportunities of Convergence

Technological convergence if appropriately managed can play an important role in national economic and social
development of every nation. Governments can capitalize on the opportunity to stimulate market development and
meet previous unmet society communication needs.

1 Increased Market Competition. Convergence has lowered barriers of entry to the market for new
operators and service providers. The emergence of new market players intensifies competition, giving consumers an
extensive pool of providers and services to choose from and lower communication costs. Additionally in a
technological convergent environment industry boundaries become blurred, allowing service providers to offer
services in multiple markets. For example, besides access to television, cable operators can also offer voice
telephony and internet services. Content providers can now easily access consumers with no need to own the
distribution network. For example, a company may produce TV content and distributed it through cable networks
without having to own it.

2 Emergence of New Services and Applications. Established companies will find in convergence an
opportunity to operate more efficiently, increase returns on technology investments and realize other business
benefits through development of new services and rapid market expansion. Convergence opens up new sales
markets for companies, a case observed in mobile operators. As the market saturates, they look to non-voice
services, such as video streaming, portals, messaging, information services, and gaming, to drive future revenue
growth. New applications have given rise to new ways of entertainment (i.e. online gaming) and socialization (i.e.
chat rooms). The convergence of voice, video and data gives consumers new ways of communication as we can all
talk, send text and video over one single network, using one single application at much lower costs than before.

3 Convenience and Simplicity. At device level, consumers find in convergence an opportunity to enjoy the
convenience of having many devices all in one, saving on both size and ownership costs. For example, a single
mobile phone device can receive television programs and play videos, thus enabling simplicity and convenience in
device ownership as one device can be used to access multiple services.

Challenges in Convergent World

Technological convergence has raised a number of issues of adjustment to the new environment by telecom
operators, service providers, policymakers, regulators, and users.

1 New Regulatory Framework. The combination of services over the same platform is challenging
common perceptions about the best means to license and regulate providers. Traditionally, regulatory frameworks
were designed for an era when clear functional differences existed between services and infrastructure, but these
regulations are increasingly inadequate for dealing with today’s world. At first glance, interoperability, interconnection,
consumer protection and universal access appear as the most relevant challenges. Existing interconnection
mechanisms focus basically on interconnection of telecom networks based on circuit switching technologies, while for
instance broadcasting networks are either unregulated or subject to different types of regulation. Additionally, in a
convergent environment, which relies grExpalieatly on packet switched networks, circuits are neither connected nor
provided. In this way distance and time become less determinants as cost factors, requiring adoption of new units of
measurement.

2 Bandwidth Shortage and Infrastructure Upgrade. Convergence gives rise to new services and
applications which are bandwidth intensive, requiring an existence of broadband infrastructure. Only with broadband
access is the use of complex services (e.g. multimedia services) attractive or possible in the first place. While
developed economies may not face a bandwidth shortage dilemma, the same may not be said about most of the
developing economies where telecommunication infrastructures are still relying on narrowband technologies. These
countries face the 3 challenge of having to upgrade their infrastructure or miss on the benefits of the technological
convergence. In meeting this challenge, as it was in the past, financial constraints will continue to be a problem.
 3 Strategic Alignment by Operators and Service Providers. As barriers to market access are
significantly reduced, allowing an increased number of new players to enter the market and provide a wide variety of
different service packages, established operators and services providers are required to reassess their business
models and strategies not only to face these new providers, but also to upgrade their networks to integrate it into their
own offering. Another challenge lies in convincing consumers of the value added by the new services for which they
must pay

4 Privacy, Security and Reliability. As society becomes increasingly interconnected and dependent of
ICT networks, cybercriminals continue to invent increasingly cunning ways to exploit human and computer
vulnerabilities to their malicious benefits. This, challenges operators, service providers and users to take measures to
minimize risks of network intrusions, attacks and viruses. In a similar way, as technologies and systems become
complex, the higher is the risk of their instability. Product designers, manufacturers and operators are challenged to
guarantee the reliability of these new technologies

Lesson 4

The Changing Network Environment

New trends

Some of the top trends include:

● Bring your own device (BYOD)

● Online collaboration
● Video
● Cloud computing

BYOD

BYOD means any device, with any ownership, used anywhere. For example, in the past, a student who needed to
access the campus network or the Internet had to use one of the school computers. These devices were typically
limited and seen as tools only for work done in the classroom or in the library. Extended connectivity through mobile
and remote access to the campus network gives students tremendous flexibility and more learning opportunities for
the student.

Online Collaboration

Collaboration is defined as the act of working with another or others on a joint project.”

● Improve customer satisfaction

● Increase communication choices
● Optimize team performance
● Enable mobile
● Improve organizational communications
● Transform training and event
● Improve facility management

Video Communication
Another trend in networking that is critical in the communication and collaboration effort is video. Video is being used
for communications, collaboration, and entertainment. Video calls are becoming more popular, facilitating
communications as part of the human network. Video calls can be made to and from anywhere with an internet
connection, including from home or work.

Cloud Computing

Cloud computing offers the following potential benefits:

● Organizational flexibility
● Agility and rapid deployment
● Reduced cost of infrastructure
● Refocus of IT resources
● Creation of new business models

Data Centers

A data center is a facility used to house computer systems and associated components including:

● Redundant data communications connections

● High-speed virtual servers
● Redundant storage systems
● Redundant or backup power supplies
● Environmental controls
● Security devices

Technology Trends in the Home

Networking trends are not only affecting the way we communicate at work and at school, they are also changing just
about every aspect of the home. The newest home trends include smart home technology. Smart home technology is
technology that is integrated into every day appliances allowing them to interconnect with other devices, making them
more “smart” or automate.

Powerline Networking

Powerline networking is an emerging trend for home networking that uses existing electrical wiring to connect device.
The concept of “no new wires” means the ability to connect a device to the network wherever there is an electrical
outlet. This saves the cost of installing data cables and without any additional cost to the electrical bill. Using the
same wiring that delivers electricity, powerline networking sends information by sending data on certain frequencies
similar to the same technology used for DSL.

Wireless Broadband

Wireless Internet Service Provider (WISP). It is an ISP provider that connects subscribers to a designated access
point or hot spot using similar wireless technologies found in home wireless local area networks. WISPs are more
commonly found in rural environments where DSL or cable services are not available.

Security Threats
 ● Viruses, worms, and Trojan horses
● Spyware and adware
● Zero-day attacks, also called zero-hour attacks
● Hacker attacks
● Denial of service attacks
● Data interception and theft
● Identity theft

Security Solutions

● Antivirus and antispyware

● Firewall filtering
● Dedicated firewall systems
● Access control lists
● Intrusion prevention systems
● Virtual private networks