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Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
� Investigate the representation of numbers and arithmetic operations so that
you can perform the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division and understand the relationship between these operations and the
properties: commutative, associative and distributive in N, Z and Q and in
R\Q, including operating on surds
Natural numbers
Natural numbers are positive whole numbers, often associated with counting.
Thus, they are also known as counting numbers.
They are represented on a number line as shown below:
Bigger
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Note: as the arrow moves to the right the numbers get bigger.
Points to note
The natural numbers,
zz = {1, 2, 3, ...}.
The dots indicate that the numbers go on forever (they are infinite).
zzThey are the set of the positive whole numbers.
zzThe set of natural numbers excludes zero.
zzThe number set for natural numbers is given in the Formulae and Tables
booklet.
zzExamples of natural numbers include: 3, 9, 108.
1. Number 1
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Natural number operations
Key Terminology
Operation Meaning Examples
To find the sum or total of a set 6 + 9 = 15
Addition
of numbers. 24 + 37 + 42 = 103
To find the difference between 20 − 9 = 11
Subtraction
numbers. 59 − 21 = 38
To find the product of a set of 4 × 8 = 32
Multiplication
numbers. 5(9) = 45
To find the quotient of a set of 88 ÷ 8 = 11
Division 140
numbers. ____
7 = 20
Powers indicate how many
42 = 4 × 4 = 16
Powers times the base number is
54 = 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 625
multiplied by itself.
Commutative Property
In our study of sets in the last chapter, we learned that union and intersection of
sets are commutative operations:
A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A
The order of the sets is not relevant when finding the intersection or the union as
the answer will always be the same.
We now look at the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division of numbers.
zzAddition is commutative: e.g. 2 + 3 = 3 + 2
zzMultiplication is commutative: e.g. 3 × 4 = 4 × 3
This means that the order is not relevant when we add or multiply two numbers.
zzSubtraction is not commutative: e.g. 8 – 4 ≠ 4 – 8
zzDivision is not commutative: e.g. 12 ÷ 4 ≠ 4 ÷ 12
Associative Property
Suppose that we want to add three numbers: 3 + 4 + 5.
We can add 3 + 4 first (= 7) and then add on 5 to get 12: (3 + 4) + 5 = 7 + 5 = 12.
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We could also add 4 + 5 first (= 9) and then add 3 to get 12: 3 + (4 + 5) = 3 + 9 = 12.
This means that (3 + 4) + 5 = 3 + (4 + 5).
We can add three numbers in any order.
zzThis is the associative property for addition: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
zzMultiplication is also associative: e.g. (3 × 4) × 2 = 3 × (4 × 2) = 24
We can multiply three numbers in any order.
This is the associative property for multiplication: (a × b) × c = a × (b × c).
zzDivision is not associative: e.g. (12 ÷ 6) ÷ 2 = 2 ÷ 2 = 1
12 ÷ (6 ÷ 2) = 12 ÷ 3 = 4
zzSubtraction is not associative: e.g. (10 – 6) – 2 = 4 – 2 = 2
10 – (6 – 2) = 10 – 4 = 6
Distributive Property
The distributive property means that multiplication of Natural numbers
distributes over addition or subtraction.
For example: 3(7 + 9) = (3 × 7) + (3 × 9) = 21 + 27 = 48
The same answer is found by working inside the brackets first: 3(7 + 9) = 3(16) = 48
Another example: 2(7 – 3) = (2 × 7) – (2 × 3) = 14 – 6 = 8
The same answer is found by working inside
the brackets first: 2(7 – 3) = 2(4) = 8 The distributive law:
a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c)
We will use the distributive law a lot in later
chapters when we study algebra.
Factors
To get the factors of a given number we need to find all the numbers that divide
evenly into that number.
Example
Number 5 18 22
1×5 1 × 18 1 × 22
2×9 2 × 11
3×6
Factors 1, 5 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18 1, 2, 11, 22
1. Number 3
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Prime numbers
A prime number is a natural number that can be divided evenly only by 1
and itself. Prime numbers have two factors only.
The first 37 primes are: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61,
67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 101, 103, 107, 109, 113, 127, 131, 137, 139, 149, 151, 157
Prime factors
The prime factors of a given natural number are the factors of that number
which are prime numbers.
Top Tip
To determine the prime factors of a given number, follow these steps:
1 Divide by the smallest prime number that divides in evenly.
2 Keep dividing by this prime number until it no longer divides in evenly.
3 Divide by the next highest prime number that divides in evenly.
4 Again, keep dividing by this prime number until it no longer divides in evenly.
5 Keep repeating these steps until you get the answer 1.
6 Write out these prime factors and show that when all the factors are
multiplied by each other they give the original number.
Example
What are the prime factors of 1240?
Solution
zzStep 1 to Step 5:
Keep dividing by prime numbers until you get the answer 1:
2 1240
2 620
2 310 Note: the prime numbers 3, 7, 11, 13,
17, 19, 23 and 29 do not divide evenly
5 155
into 1240.
31 31
1
zzStep 6:
Write out the prime factors and show that when all the factors are multiplied by
each other they give the original number.
Therefore 1240 = 23× 5 × 31 (Always check your answers with a calculator.)
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Lowest common multiple (LCM)
The lowest common multiple (LCM) is the smallest positive number that is a
multiple of two or more given numbers.
Top Tip
There are a number of methods to find the LCM. Two of these methods are
described below.
Method 1
To find the LCM, follow these steps:
1 List a set of multiples for each number given.
2 Continue until the same number appears in each list. This is the LCM.
Method 2
To find the LCM, follow these steps:
1 Write each number as a product of its prime factors.
2 For each different prime number in all of the given numbers in the question:
zzCount how many times that prime number appears
zzFor
each prime number, write down the largest of these counts.
3 The LCM is the product of all the prime numbers written down.
Example
A light show has red lights that flash every 20 seconds, blue lights that flash every
35 seconds and orange lights that flash every 42 seconds. If they all start flashing at
the same time, how long will it be before they flash together again?
Solution (using Method 2)
1 Write each number as a product of its prime factors.
20 = 2 × 2 × 5
35 = 5 × 7
42 = 2 × 3 × 7
1. Number 5
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2
Write down each prime factor to its highest power, for each composite number
given in the question.
20 = 2 × 2 × 5 = 22 × 5
35 = 5 × 7
42 = 2 × 3 × 7
The common prime factors to their highest powers are: 22, 3, 5 and 7.
3 To get the LCM, multiply all these prime factors.
LCM is 22 × 3 × 5 × 7 = 420.
This means that it will take 420 seconds (7 minutes) until the three lights flash at
the same time again.
Highest common factor (HCF)
The highest common factor (HCF) is the largest number that divides evenly
into two or more given numbers.
Top Tip
There are a number of methods to find the HCF. Two of these methods are
outlined below.
Method 1
To find the HCF, follow these steps:
1 List all the factors for each of the numbers given.
(Use a calculator to do this.)
2 Choose the highest factor that appears in every list.
Method 2
To find the HCF, follow these steps:
1 Find the prime factors of each number.
2 Write each number as a product of its prime factors.
3 Choose the common prime factors with the lowest power.
4 To get the HCF, multiply the common prime factors with the
lowest power.
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Example
A shop has 390 pens, 585 markers and 715 pencils. Each product is sold in a pack
which contains the same number of each item. What is the largest number of packs
that the shop can make?
Solution (using Method 2)
1 Find the prime factors of each number.
2 390 3 585 5 715
3 195 3 195 11 143
5 65 5 65 13 13
13 13 13 13 1
1 1
2 Write each numbers as a product of its prime factors.
390 = 2 × 3 × 5 × 13
585 = 32 × 5 × 13
715 = 5 × 11 × 13
3 Choose the common prime factors with the lowest power.
390 = 2 × 3 × 5 × 13
585 = 32 × 5 × 13
715 = 5 × 11 × 13
The common prime factors with the lowest powers are 5 and 13.
4 To get the HCF, multiply the common prime factors with the lowest power.
HCF = 5 × 13 = 65 ⇒ the largest number of packs that can be made is 65.
Integers
The set of integers contains zero and all whole positive and negative numbers.
They are represented on the number line as shown below:
Negative integers Positive integers
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
As shown on the number line:
zzIntegers to the right of zero get bigger the further you move away from zero.
zzIntegers to the left of zero get smaller the further you move away from zero.
1. Number 7
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Points to note
The integers, ℤ
zzℤ = {... , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, ...}
zzIntegers are the set of all the positive and negative whole numbers
including 0.
zzThe number set for integers is given in the Formulae and Tables booklet.
zzThe set of natural numbers is a subset of the integers. So, ℕ ⊂ ℤ.
Integers Z
Natural
numbers N
Integer operations
Addition and subtraction
If the signs are the same, add If the signs are different, subtract and
and use the common sign. use the sign of the bigger number.
6 + 7 = 13 6 − 7 = −1
−6 − 7 = −13 7−6=1
Multiplication and division
Like signs give plus. Unlike signs give minus.
42
___ −42
6 × 7 = 42 6 = 7 6(−7) = −42 ____
6 = −7
(−6) × (−7) = 42 −42
____ (−6) × 7 = −42 ___42
−6 = 7 −6 = −7
Quick rule
Multiplication Division
(+)×(+)=(+) (+)÷(+)=(+)
(−)×(−)=(+) (−)÷(−)=(+)
(−)×(+)=(−) (−)÷(+)=(−)
(+)×(−)=(−) (+)÷(−)=(−)
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Example
Evaluate each of the following:
(a) (−4) + 3 + (−7) + 5 (b) 2 + 9 + (−8) + (−9) + 6 (c) −2 × 2 × (−1) × (−3)
Solution
(a) (−4) + 3 + (−7) + 5 Work from left to right, adding the first two
terms: (−4) + 3.
= −1 + (−7) + 5 Continue working from left to right, adding two
terms at a time.
= −8 + 5
= −3
(b) 2 + 9 + (−8) + (−9) + 6 Work from left to right, adding two terms at a time.
= 11 + (−8) + (−9) + 6
= 3 + (−9) + 6
= −6 + 6
=0
(c) −2 × 2 × (−1) × (−3)
Work from left to right, multiplying two terms
= −4 × (−1) × (−3) at a time.
= 4 × (−3)
= −12
Rational numbers
A rational number is any number that can be written as a ratio, which means it
can be written as a fraction.
2 1 __ 4 13
Examples of rational numbers include: __
1 , __
3 , − and ___
7 .
5
Two of the common shapes generally used to represent fractions are circles
and rectangles.
Fraction Circle Rectangle
__
1
2
1. Number 9
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__1
4
__4
6
__2
8
Every whole number is a rational number, because any whole number can be
written as a fraction.
10 82
For example: 10 can be written as ___
1 , 82 can be written as ___
1 , and 3867 can be
3867
_____
written as 1 .
Points to note
Rational numbers, ℚ
p
zzQ = the set of numbers which can be written in the form __
q , where p and
q ∈ ℤ, and q ≠ 0.
zzThe number set for rational numbers is given in the Formulae and Tables
booklet.
zzThe decimal form of a rational number is either a terminating or repeating
decimal.
zzA terminating decimal is a decimal that contains a finite number of digits:
for example, 36·8, 0·125 and 4·5.
zzRepeating decimals are decimals that contain an infinite number of digits:
for example, 0·333…. and 7·689 689…
zzThe natural numbers and integers are subsets
of the set of rational numbers.
So, ℕ ⊂ ℤ ⊂ ℚ. Integers Z
Rational
numbers Q
Natural
numbers N
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Types of fractions
Proper fractions Improper fractions Mixed fractions
The numerator is smaller The numerator is bigger Always contain
than the denominator so than the denominator an integer and a
the fraction is always less so the fraction is always proper fraction.
than 1. greater than 1.
Examples Examples Examples
1 __ 6 23 6 __ 8 ___38 __1 __ 3 __
2
__ ___
4 , − 7 and 25 __
5 , − 3 and 31 2 , −4 and 10
5 8 9
Equivalent fractions
zz Equivalent fractions are fractions that have the same value but look different.
zz To find equivalent fractions of a given fraction, we can multiply or divide the
numerator and denominator by the same number.
For example, the following fractions are equivalent fractions as they all
represent the same value.
1– 2– 3– 4–
= = =
2 4 6 8
Example
Find the missing numbers in the equivalent fractions given:
5 ___ 45 72 ___
(a) __
7 = (b) ___
96 = 12
Solution
5 ___ 45 72 ___
(a) __
7 = What number multiplied (b) ___
96 = 12 What number divides
by 5 gives 45? Answer: 9. into 96 to give 12?
5 × 9 ___ 45 Answer: 8.
_____7 × 9 = Multiply numerator and 72 ÷ 8 ___
denominator by 9. ______
96 ÷ 8
= Divide
numerator and
12
5 × 9 ___ 45 denominator by 8.
_____
7 × 9 = 63 72 ÷ 8 ___ 9
______
96 ÷ 8
= 12
1. Number 11
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Example
4 ___ 12 28
Investigate whether the fractions __
7 , and ___
49 are equivalent.
21
Explain your answer.
Solution
Check:
__4 ___ 12 __4 ___ 28
Is = ? Is = ?
7 21 7 49
____
4 × 3 ___ 12 ____
4 × 7 ___ 28
Yes, as = Yes, as =
3 × 3 21 7 × 7 49
4 ___ 12 28
Therefore, the fractions __
7 , and ___
49 are equivalent.
21
The reciprocal
The reciprocal of a number is found by dividing 1 by the given number.
The general rule is shown in this table.
General number Reciprocal
1 __ 1
a 1 ÷ a = 1 × __
a = a
__a a b b
1 ÷ __ = 1 × __
= __
b b a a
Quick rule: Simply turn the fraction upside down.
3 7 16 1 __
Number __
5 − __
4 16 = ___
1 ___
15 √ 2
6
−6 = − __
1
__ 5 4 1 15 1__ 1
Reciprocal 3 − __
7 ___
16
___
1 = 15 ___ − __
6
√ 2
Rational number operations
Addition and subtraction
When adding or subtracting fractions without the aid of a calculator, follow
these steps:
1 Find the lowest common multiple of the denominators (LCM).
2 Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent fraction with this denominator.
3 Add or subtract the numerators of the fractions to get your answer.
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Example of addition Example of subtraction
2 __ 2 5 __ 1
__
5 + 3 (LCM = 15) __
7 − 4 (LCM = 28)
3(2) ____ 5(2) 4(5) 7(1)
= ____ = ____ 28 − ____ 28
15 + 15
___
20 7
= ___
6 ___ 10 = − ___
15 + 15 28 28
_____
6 + 10 _____
20 − 7
= =
15 28
16 ___ 1
= ___
13
= ___ 15 = 1 28
15
Multiplication Division
Multiply the first numerator Multiply the first fraction by
by the second numerator, and the reciprocal of the second
multiply the first denominator fraction.
by the second denominator.
Example Example
2 __ 3 ____ 2 × 3 ___ 6 5 __ 2 __ 5 __ 7 ___ 35
__
5 × 7 = 5 × 7 = 35 __
9 ÷ 7 = 9 × 2 = 18
Example
A teacher gives her class the following sum to do without using a calculator.
1 __ 5
__
6 + 9 = ?
1 __ 5 ___ 6,
Some of the students give the answer __
6 + 9 = 15 which is incorrect.
(a) Explain what the students did wrong.
(b) Find the correct answer.
Solution
(a) The students just added the numerators and the denominators, which is
incorrect. They should have found a common denominator first.
__1 5
(b) + __
(LCM = 36)
6 9
6(1) 4(5)
= ____
36 + ____ 36
6 ___ 20
= ___ 36 + 36
_____
6 + 20 ___ 26 13
= = 36 = ___
18
36
1. Number 13
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Example
Jack got some money for his birthday. He decides
2 1
to spend __
5 of his money on computer games, save __ 3
1
and spend __ 2 of the remainder on new clothes. What
fraction of his money has Jack spent on new clothes?
Solution
(If a sum has more than one calculation, do them one at a time.)
2 2 3
He spends __ 5 on computer games. This means the remainder is: 1 − __ 5 = __
5
1 3 __ 9 ___
1 ___ 5 ___ 4
He saves __ __
3 so the amount remaining now is: 5 − 3 = 15 − 15 = 15
1 1 ___ 4 ___ 4 ___ 2
He then spends __ __
2 of the remainder on new clothes: 2 × 15 = 30 = 15
2
This means he has spent ___ 15 of his money on new clothes.
Irrational numbers
An irrational number is any number that cannot be written as a fraction. However,
irrational numbers can be written as decimals that neither terminate nor repeat.
__ __ __ __
2 , √
Examples of irrational numbers include: √ 3 , √
5, √
7 , p.
Points to note
The set of irrational numbers, R\Q
p
zzR\Q = the set of numbers which cannot be written in the form __
q , where
p and q ∈ Z, and q ≠ 0. (This is not the set of the rational numbers given
in the Formulae and Tables booklet. You do not need to learn this, you just
need to know where to find the information).
zzThe roots of all prime numbers are irrational numbers.
zzThe sets of rational numbers, integers and natural numbers are not subsets
of the irrational numbers. So ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊄ R\Q.
Natural numbers Integers Irrational
Rational
N Z numbers
numbers
Q R\Q
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Surds
A surd is just another name for a root of a number that is an irrational number.
__
For example,
__ √ 9 = 3 is not a surd as it can be written as a rational number,
but √ 2 = 1·414 213 562 37… is a surd as it is an irrational number.
Surds have a decimal which goes on forever without repeating.
Number Decimal Surd?
__
√ 2 1·414 213 562 37… Yes
__
√ 4 2 No
__
√ 7 2·645 751 311 06… Yes
___
√ ___ 161
__
__ 1
4 = 0·25 No
√ __ 53
0·774 596 6692... Yes
Simplifying expressions involving surds
Points to note
Surd rules Meaning Example
___ __ __ ___ ____
√ ab = √
a × √
b Factorise the number that has √ 45 = √
9 × 5
__ __
been rooted and multiply the = 9 × 5
√ __ √
root of each factor.
= 3√ 5
__ __ __ __
√ a × √ a = a The root of a number √ 2 × √
2 = 2
multiplied by itself is equal to
the number.
__ __ __
__ __ __
3√ a + 2√ a = 5√ a We can only add like surds. 5 + 3√ 5 = 10√ 5
7√
__ __ __ __ __ __
3√ a − 2√ a = √
a We can only subtract like 9√ 2 − 5√ 2 = 4√ 2
surds.
__ __ _____ __ __ ____
√ __ a + √ __ b ≠ √ _____
a + b
and Note: We cannot add or √ __ 2 + √ __ 8 ≠ √ ___
2 + 8
√ a − √ b ≠ √ a − b
subtract unlike surds in this √ 2 + √ 8 ≠ √ 10
way. This is a very common __ __ _____
mistake! √ 8 − √ 2 ≠ √ 8 − 2
__ __ __
√ 8 − √ 2 ≠ √ 6
1. Number 15
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Example
___
Simplify___each of the following surds: ___ ___ ___
72
15 + √
________
90
(a) √ (b) √ 27 + √
75 − √
48 (c)
3
Solution
___
90
(a) √ Find factors such that one of the factors
_____ is a square__number.
= √ 9 × 10
__
___ 9 .
Simplify √
= √ 9___ 10
× √
=___ 3√ 10 ___ ___
(b) √ 27 + √ 75 − √ 48
Find factors such that one of the factors
____ _____ _____ is a square__number.__ ___
= √ 9__× 3 + √ __ 25 × 3 __ √
−
16 × 3
Simplify
√ √
9
,
2
5 and √ 16 .
= 3√ 3 + 5√ 3 − 4√ 3
__
= 4√ 3 ___
15 + √ 72
________
(c)
Find factors such that one of the factors
3 _____
is a square___
number.
36 × 2
15 + √
___________
=
36 .
Simplify √
3 __
15 + 6√ 2
________
= Divide numerator and denominator by 3.
3 __
= 5 + 2√ 2
Use of a calculator when dealing with surds
Points to note
On the calculator there are a number of buttons for surds:
__
1 Square root √
__
2 Cube root √3
__ __
3 Higher than cube roots √ x
or √
Calculate each of the following on your calculator.
Evaluate Method Answer
___ __ ___
√81 Press √ 8 1 = = 9
√81
3
___ __ 3
___
3
√
64 6 4 =
Press √ √
64 = 4
__
_____ Press √ 5
_____
5
√
7776 5
_____ √
7776
=6
Use the arrow button to input √ 7776
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Simplifying surds and solving problems using surds
Points to note
__
, where a ∈ℚ and b ∈ℕ.
A surd is an irrational number written in the form a√b
Surd rules
Rule Example, using a = 2 and b = 5
__ __ _ 1 _ 1 _ 1 + _1 __ __
√ a √ a = a × a = a = a = a √ 2 √ 2 = 2
2 2 2 2 1
__ __ _ 1 _ 1 _ 1 ___ __ __ ____ ___
√ a √ b = a 2 × b 2 = (ab)2 = √ ab √ 2 √ 5 = √ (2)(5) = √ 10
__ __
__ __
( )
_12 _ 1
( ) √ √
√
_ 1
√__ = __
a a _ 1 2
a 2 = __ a 2_1 = __ 2
___ ___ 2
2
_1 = __ __ = ___ 2 = __
√ b b2
b b
√ 52
5
5 5
__ __ __ __
Like terms can be added. b√ a + c√ a and __ b√ a − c√ a can be simplified
by taking out √ a as a common factor.
__ __ __ __
Unlike terms cannot be added. √ a + √ b and √ a − √ b cannot be simplified.
Link
Chapters 1, 2, 12 and RW Book 2, Chapter 13: Applied Measure
Example
__ ___
Simplify ( 2√
3 )× ( 3√
10 ).
Solution
__ ___
( 2√
3 )× ( 3√ 10 ) Use the associative law for multiplication.
__ ___ __ __ ___
___
( )(
= (2)(3) × √ 3 )
√ 10 a √ b = √
Simplify using the rule √ ab .
= 6√ 30
Top Tip
To check the solution, put the entire sum directly into your
calculator. Please be careful to include all brackets and square roots.
1. Number 17
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Example
__ __
7 and 5 + √
The rectangle shown has sides of length 5 − √ 7 .
5 + √7
5 – √7
(a) Show that the area of the rectangle is a natural number.
(b) Show that the perimeter of the rectangle is also a natural number.
Solution
(a) Area = length × __width __
⇒ Area = ( 5 + √
7 __ ) ( 5 − __√
7 )
__
Expand brackets.
= 5( 5 − √ )+ √
7
__
7 __ ( 5 −__√
7 __ ) __ __
= 25 − 5√ 7 + 5√ 7 − √
7 √ 7
Use the rule √ a √ a = a to simplify.
= 25 − 7
= 18 units2
(b) Perimeter = 2(length +__width) __
⇒ Perimeter = 2( 5 + √ 7 )
7 + 5 − √
= 2(10)
= 20 units
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Real numbers
Points to note
The set of real numbers, R
zzR = the set of rational and irrational numbers.
zzThe sets of irrational numbers, rational numbers, integers and natural
numbers are all subsets of the set of real numbers: ℕ ⊂ ℤ ⊂ ℚ ⊂ R,
and R/Q ⊂ R
Real numbers R
Natural numbers Integers Rational Irrational
N Z numbers numbers
Q R\Q
Example
Insert each of the following numbers in the correct place on the Venn diagram:
__
3
__ 5 , 9, 3p and −4
4 , 5, 6·2, √
R
Q
Z R\Q
N
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Solution
R
Q
Z 3– R\Q
4
N 9
–4
3p
5 6·2 √5
Example
Identify which sets each number belongs to Solution
by ticking (ü) the appropriate box(es).
Number/ (ℕ) (ℤ) (ℚ) (ℝ\ℚ) (ℝ) Number/ (ℕ) (ℤ) (ℚ) (ℝ\ℚ) (ℝ)
Set Set
−7 −7 ü ü ü
1 1
__
4 __
4 ü ü
p__ p ü ü
__
√ 2 √ 2 ü ü
10 10 ü ü ü ü
Note: A number can never be both
rational (ℚ) and irrational (ℝ\ℚ).
Example
__
9 3
Place the following numbers in order, starting with the smallest: __ 3 , 1 __
5 , √ 4 , 1·7.
Solution
The easiest method is to convert all the numbers into decimal form and reorder
them accordingly.
__
__ 9 3
5 = 1·8,√ 3 = 1·73..., 1 __
4 = 1·75 and 1·7
__
3 __ 9
The numbers, in order, are: 1·7, √ 3 , 1 __
4 , 5
20 Revise Wise • Mathematics
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Order of operations
Points to note
Order of operations applied to all the different number systems:
The order of operations is very important when we come across a sum that
has multiple operations.
We must follow these steps:
1 Brackets
2 Indices (powers)
3 and 4 Multiplication and division (they hold equal importance)
5 and 6 Addition and subtraction (they hold equal importance).
There are many different acronyms for remembering the sequence.
Here are two which are commonly used.
1st 2nd 3rd and 4th 5th and 6th
B I M D A S
Brackets Indices (powers) Multiplication Division Addition Subtraction
1st 2nd 3rd 4th and 5th 6th and 7th
B I R D M A S
Brackets Indices Roots Division Multiplication Addition Subtraction
Example
Insert brackets into each of the following statements to make them true.
You may need more than one pair of brackets in some of the statements.
(a) 10 + 6 ÷ 2 + 2 = 10 (b) 10 + 6 ÷ 2 + 2 = 4 (c) 10 + 6 ÷ 2 + 2 = 15
Solution
Using the acronym BIMDAS:
(a) (10 + 6) ÷ 2 + 2 = 10 (b) (10 + 6) ÷ (2 + 2) = 4 (c) 10 + (6 ÷ 2) + 2 = 15
Example
Evaluate 7 × 5 + (10 − 2)2 − 9, without using a calculator.
Solution
7 × 5 + (10 − 2)2 − 9 Step 1: Brackets.
= 7 × 5 + (8)2− 9 Step 2: Indices (powers).
= 7 × 5 + 64 − 9 Steps 3 and 4: Multiplication and division.
= 35 + 64 − 9 Steps 5 and 6: Addition and subtraction.
= 99 − 9
= 90
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Example
3 5 __
Find the value of __
2 × __
2 1 2
6 − 3 − __ ( )
2 without using a calculator.
Solution
__ 3 5 __
2 × __ ( 2 1 2
6 − 3 − __ ) 2 Step 1: Brackets first. The LCM is 6.
= __
3 __
( )
5 __ 4 __
2 × 6 − 6 − 6
3 2
= __
3 __
2 6 6
× ( )
5 __
−
1 2
Step 2: Indices (powers).
( )
= __
3 5 ___
2 × __
1
6 − 36 Steps 3 and 4: Multiplication and division.
( )
= _____
3×5
2 × 6 − ___
1
36
15 ___ 1
= ___ 12 − 36 Steps 5 and 6: Addition and subtraction. The LCM is 36.
45 1
= ___ 36 − ___ 36
44 ___ 11 __ 2
= ___ 36 = 9 = 1 9
Exercise
Q1 Insert brackets into each of the following statements to make them true.
(a) 2 + 4 ÷ 2 − 1 = 6 (b) 2 + 4 ÷ 2 − 1 = 2 (c) 2 + 4 ÷ 2 − 1 = 3
Q2 (a) Write each of the following numbers as a product of its prime factors:
(i) 340
(ii) 1950 (iii) 2100
(b) Find the HCF of each of the following:
(i) 34, 48 and 52
(ii) 70, 105 and 126 (iii) 248, 320 and 364
Q3 Classify each of the following numbers by placing a tick (ü) in the
appropriate columns:
Number Natural Integer Rational Irrational Real
1
__
6
p
__6
6
−6 __
√ 6
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Q4 Thomas has a sheet of metal which is 234 cm
by 156 cm. He wants to cut it up into squares
as large as possible. What is the length of each
side of the largest possible square that can be
cut out, given that Thomas wants no waste?
Q5 (a) Find the LCM for each of the following:
(i) 4, 6 and 8
(ii) 12, 18 and 24 (iii) 8, 7 and 21
(b) Ciara is organising a party and wants to
buy plastic plates, cups and cutlery. She
can buy the plates in packs of 12, the cups
in packs of 8 and the cutlery in packs of
7. What is the lowest number of plates
needed, such that she has the same
number of each item with none left over?
Q6 Evaluate the following without the aid of a calculator.
(a) 3 + 2 × 4 ÷ 2(5 − 3)2+ (4 + 2 × 3)
3(1 + 4)2 − 5
(b) ___________
9 − 4
(c) __ (
3 2 2 __
2 ÷ __ ) 3 5 __
3 − 4 × __
1
2 + 8
Q7 (a) Copy the Venn diagram twice.
R
Q
Z R\Q
N
Insert each of the following numbers in the correct place on each diagram:
___ __
__
4 p 7 __ 6 2
10 , __
(i) − , 9, √ 2
, 0, −20 and 11 (ii) −8·2, −10, __
1 7
,
,
p
,
√
5 2 and 9−1
7
(b) Simplify
____ each of the following
____ surds:___ ___ __ __
(i) √ 150 (ii) √ 112 − √
63 + √
28 √ 2 (4 + 2√ 2 )
(iii)
Q8 (a) Place each set of numbers in order, starting with the smallest:
__ __
___
17 ___
20
(i) 3·5, 5 , 2√ 3 (ii) 2p, 3√ 5 , 3
(b) Simplify each of the following:
9 __ 5 9 __ 5 ___
9 __ 5 ___
9 __ 5
(i) ___
10 + 6 (ii) ___
10 − 6 (iii) 10 × 6 (iv) 10 ÷ 6
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Q9 Simplify:
___ __ ___ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
( 3√ 11 − √ 2 ) ( 3√ 11 + √ 2 )
(a) √ 3 ( √ 2 + √ 3 )+ √ 2 ( √ 2 − √ 3 )
(b)
Q10 The rectangle and square below have the same area. The dimensions of
both are in cm. The diagrams are not drawn to scale.
6 – √11
6 + √11
(a) Find the area of the rectangle.
(b) Find the length of one side of the square.
(SEC 2012)
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Sets 2
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
î Revision of set notation
î Venn diagrams
î How to solve (word) problems using two-set Venn diagrams
î Venn diagrams with three sets
î Set operations
î How to solve (word) problems using three-set Venn diagrams.
Revision of set notation
What is the definition of a set?
A set is a collection of well-defined things, objects or symbols. Each object in the
set is called a member or element. Sets are named by capital letters: A, B, C, etc.
Key Terminology
Symbol Description Examples
∈ ‘is an element of’ 5 ∈ {5, 10, 15}
3 ∈ {x | x < 6, x ∈N}
∉ ‘is not an element of’ a ∉ {h, o, u, s, e}
7.5 ∉ {x | x > 1, x ∈Z}
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Cardinal number (#)
The cardinal number of a given set is the number of elements in the set.
Key Terminology
Symbol Description Examples
# ‘the number of If A = {h, a, t}, then #A = 3.
elements of a set’ If B = {x | x < 12, x ∈N}, then #B = 11.
Null set
The null set or empty set is the set that contains no elements.
Key Terminology
Symbol Description Examples
Ø or { } ‘the null set or empty Set A is the set of months of the
set’ year that begin with the letter P,
therefore A = { }.
Set B is the set of all multiples of 8
that are odd numbers.
Subsets
A is a subset of B if every element of set A is also in set B.
Key Terminology
Symbol Description Examples
⊂ ‘is a subset of the set’ {a, t} ⊂ {h, a, t}
The Ø or { } set is a subset {5, 7, 9} ⊂ {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11}
of every set.
⊄ ‘is not a subset of the set’ {c} ⊄ {h, a, t}
{5, 7, 9} ⊄ {1, 3, 5, 7}
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Example
(a) List all the subsets of the set A = {2, 4, 6}.
(b) How many subsets are there in total for set A?
Solution
(a) 3-element subset: {2, 4, 6}
2-element subsets: {2, 4}, {2, 6}, {4, 6}
1-element subsets: {2}, {4}, {6}
0-element subset: {}
(b) The number of subsets of A is 8. This is found by either listing out all the subsets
as in part (a) or from finding the value of 2(number of elements in the set). As there are 3
elements in set A then the number of subsets of A is 2 3 = 8.
Remember
The number of subsets of a set = 2(number of elements in the set)
Describing a set
Points to note
There are three different ways to describe a set:
1 The written method
P is the set of natural numbers less than 6.
2 The list method
P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Note: In the list method, we separate the elements by commas, enclose
the set in chain (curly) brackets { } and list each element once only.
3 The set builder notation or rule method
P = {x | x < 6, x ∈N}
How to read the rule method
P is the set of all values of x, such that x is a natural number less than 6.
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Venn diagrams
Key Terminology
Symbol / description Example
U The set of all elements for a given context.
Universal set
A∩B U
A intersection B A B
(Elements common k
c
to both sets) a t
h
r i
e
n
A = {c, h, a, i, r} and B = {k, i, t, c, h, e, n}.
A ∩ B = {c, h, i}
A∪B U
A union B A B
(Elements which are k
c
in both A and B) a t
h
r i
e
n
A = {c, h, a, i, r} and B = {k, i, t, c, h, e, n}.
A ∪ B = {a, r, c, h, i, k, t, e, n}
Note: The elements c, h, and i which are common
to both sets are listed only once.
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Set difference
Key Terminology
Symbol / description Example
A \ B U
A less B A B
(Elements which are k
c
in A but not in B) a t
h
r i
e
n
A = {c, h, a, i, r} and B = {k, i, t, c, h, e, n}.
A \ B = {a, r}
B \ A U
B less A A B
(Elements which are k
c
in B but not in A) a t
h
r i
e
n
A = {c, h, a, i, r} and B = {k, i, t, c, h, e, n}.
B \ A = {k, t, e, n}
Note: A \ B ≠ B \ A (not commutative)
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Complement of a set
Key Terminology
Symbol / description Example
A′ U
A complement A B
(Elements which are k
c
not in A) a t
h
r i
e
n
A = {c, h, a, i, r} and B = {k, i, t, c, h, e, n}.
A′ = {k, t, e, n}
Remember
1 E lements are never repeated when listed or represented on a
Venn diagram.
2 The order in which the elements of a set are listed is not important.
Example
List the elements in each of the following sets:
(a) U U
(b) C
C D
(c) D
1 2 8
(d) C ∪ D
(e) C ∩ D 3 4
6 10
(f) C ′
(g) D \ C 5
9
7
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Solution
From inspection of the given Venn diagram we can see that:
(a) U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} Elements in the universal set.
(b) C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} Elements in set C.
(c) D = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} Elements in set D.
(d) C ∪ D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10} Elements in both set C and/or set D.
(e) C ∩ D = {2, 4, 6} Elements common to both set C and set D.
(f) C ′ = {7, 8, 9, 10} Elements not in set C.
(g) D \ C = {8, 10} Elements in set D but not set C.
Top Tip
When representing information on a Venn diagram, follow these steps:
1 Find the elements in A ∩ B.
2 Find the remainder of elements in the sets ‘A only’ and ‘B only’.
3 Find the remainder of elements in the universal set U \ (A ∪ B).
4 Represent all information on a Venn diagram as shown below.
U
A B
(A\ B) (A ∩ B) (B\ A)
U \(A ∪ B)
Note: U \ (A ∪ B) can also be written as (A ∪ B)′ which is
‘the complement of the union of sets A and B ’.
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Example
U = {1, 2, 3, … , 13}
A = {x | x is an even number between 1 and 13}
B = {x | x is a multiple of 4}.
(a) Draw a Venn diagram to represent sets U, A and B.
(b) Find the value of each of the following:
(i) #A (iii) #(A \ B) (v) #(A ∪ B)′
(ii) #B (iv) #(A ∩ B)′
Solution
(a) U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13}
A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}
B = {4, 8, 12}.
Represent the information on a Venn diagram.
1 Find the elements in A ∩ B = {4, 8, 12}.
2 Find the remainder of elements in set ‘A only’ = {2, 6, 10}
and set ‘B only’ = { }.
3 Find the remainder of elements in the set: U \ (A ∪ B) = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}.
4 Fill all information into a Venn diagram as shown below:
U
A B
2 13
4
6
8 11
10 12
1 9
3 5 7
(b) From inspection of the Venn diagram we can see that:
(i) #A = 6 Number of elements in A.
(ii) #B = 3 Number of elements in B.
(iii) #(A \ B) = 3 Number of elements in A less B.
(iv) #(A ∩ B)′= 10 Number of elements in A intersection B complement
(elements not common to A and B).
(v) #(A ∪ B)′= 7 Number of elements in A union B complement
(elements not in A and / or B).
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Solving word problems using two-set Venn diagrams
Top Tip
When solving word problems using two-set Venn diagrams, follow these steps:
1 Label all information given in the question.
2 Find the cardinal number for the members that are common to both
sets: # (A ∩ B) = x
3
Find the cardinal numbers for the members that remain in each set:
# (A \ B) = # A − x and # (B \ A) = # B − x
4 Find the cardinal number for any of the remaining members listed in
the universal set that have not been used:
# (A ∪ B)′ or # U \ (A ∪ B)
5 Fill all information into a Venn diagram as shown below:
U
A [#A] B [#B]
#(A\B) #(A∩B) #(B\A)
#U\(A∪B)
Example
In a group of 95 first year students, 47 students play a musical instrument, 52 students
play a sport, and 25 students play neither a sport nor a musical instrument.
(a) Draw a Venn diagram to represent this information.
(b) How many students play both a musical instrument and a sport?
Solution
(a) 1 Label all information given:
#U = 95, the number of first year students
#M = 47, the number of students who play a musical instrument
#S = 52, the number of students who play a sport
#(M ∪ S )′ = 25, the number of students who play neither a sport
nor a musical instrument.
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Let #(M ∩ S ) = x, the number of students who play both a sport and a
musical instrument.
Now complete the Venn diagram as follows:
2 Find the cardinal number for the members that are common to both sets:
#(M ∩ S ) = x
3 Find the cardinal numbers for the members that remain in each set.
#(M \ S) = 47 − x
#(S \ M) = 52 − x
4 Find the cardinal number for any of the remaining members listed in
the universal set not already used.
#(M ∪ S)′ = 25
5 Fill in all information into a Venn diagram.
U
M[47] S[52]
[47 – x] [x] [52 – x]
[25]
Solve for x:
Alternative method:
#U = [47 − x] + [x] + [52 − x] + [25] = 95 #M + #S = 47 + 52 = 99
124 − x = 95 99 + 25(neither sport) = 124
∴ x = 29 Extra: 124 − 95 = 29 students
⇒ 29 students play both.
(b) Filling our answer from part (a) U
into the Venn diagram we can
see that there are 29 students in M[47] S[52]
the school who play both a
musical instrument and sport.
[18] [29] [23]
[25]
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Points to note
When dealing with minimum and maximum problems involving two sets,
draw a Venn diagram and let # ( A ∩ B )= x.
Then follow these points:
To get a minimum value for # ( A ∪ B ), we must maximise the value of
1
# ( A ∩ B ).
To get a maximum value for # ( A ∪ B ), we must minimise the value of
2
# ( A ∩ B ).
Example
In a survey of shoppers leaving a shopping centre, 736 people said they bought food in the
shopping centre, 431 said they bought clothes in the shopping centre, and 121 said
they bought neither food nor clothes.
(a) What is the smallest number of shoppers that could have taken part in the survey?
(b) What is the largest number of shoppers that could have taken part in the survey?
Solution
Draw a Venn diagram.
1 Find the cardinal number for the members that are common to both sets.
#(food ∩ clothes) = x
2 Find the cardinal numbers for the members that remain in each set.
#(food \ clothes) = 736 − x
#(clothes \ food) = 431 − x
3 Find the cardinal number for any of the remaining members listed in
the universal set that have not been used.
#U \ (food ∪ clothes) = #(food ∪ clothes)′ = 121
4 Fill all information into a Venn diagram.
U
Food [736] Clothes [431]
[736 – x] [x] [431 – x]
[121]
2. Sets 35
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(a) To get a minimum value for #(food ∪ clothes), we must maximise
the value of #(food ∩ clothes).
∴#(food ∩ clothes) = x = 431. This is the largest possible value for x.
The total number of shoppers in the survey is given by:
#U = [736 − x] + [x] + [431 − x] + [121]
#U = 1288 − x
Given that #(food ∩ clothes) = x = 431
#U = 1288 − 431 = 857
The smallest number of shoppers that could have taken part in the survey is 857.
(b) To get a maximum value for #(food ∪ clothes), we must minimise
the value of #(food ∩ clothes).
∴#(food ∩ clothes) = x = 0 which is the smallest possible value for x.
The total number of shoppers in the survey is given by:
#U = (736 − x) + (x) + (431 − x) + (121)
#U = 1288 − x
Given that #(food ∩ clothes) = x = 0
#U = 1288 − 0 = 1288
The largest number of shoppers that could have taken part in the survey is 1288.
Example
U is the universal set, and sets A and B are two subsets of U.
#U = u
#A = a
#B = b
#(A ∩ B) = x
#(A ∪ B)′ = y.
(a) Represent this information on a Venn diagram and hence express u
in terms of a, b, x and y.
(b) Show that if a > b, then the minimum possible value of u is y + a.
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Solution
(a) To represent information on a Venn diagram:
1 Find the cardinal number for the members that are common to both sets.
#(A ∩ B) = x
2 Find the cardinal numbers for the members that remain in each set.
#(A \ B) = a − x
#(B \ A) = b − x
3 Find the cardinal number for any of the remaining members listed in the
universal set that has not been used.
#(A ∪ B)′ = y
4 Fill all information into a Venn diagram.
A (a) B (b)
a–x x b–x
Solve for u in terms of a, b, x and y.
u=a−x+x+b−x+y
= a + b − x + y
(b) If a > b, then the minimum value for x = b, is given by:
u=a−x+x+b−x+y
=a−x+x+x−x+y
=a+y
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Venn diagrams with three sets
We solve Venn diagrams with three sets in the same way as we solve Venn
diagrams involving two sets. However, there are more regions to deal with.
Top Tip
When asked to represent three sets on a Venn diagram, follow these steps:
1 Find the elements that are common to all three sets.
A∩B∩C
2 Find the elements that remain common to two sets.
(A ∩ B) \ C
(A ∩ C ) \ B
(B ∩ C ) \ A
3 Find the elements that are unique to each set.
A \ (B ∪ C )
B \ (A ∪ C )
C \ (A ∪ B )
4 Find any remaining elements in the universal set that have not been used.
U \ (A ∪ B ∪ C ) or (A ∪ B ∪ C )′
5 Fill all information into a Venn diagram as shown:
U
A B
A \ (B ∪ C) (A ∩ B) \ C B \ (A ∪ C)
A∩B∩C
(A ∩ C) \ B (B ∩ C) \ A
(A ∪ B ∪ C)′ C \ (A ∪ B)
or
U \ (A ∪ B ∪ C)
C
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Example
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14} is the universal set.
X = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13},
Y = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11} and
Z = {1, 3, 4, 7, 11} are three subsets of U.
(a) Represent the above information on a Venn diagram.
(b) Use your Venn diagram to list the elements of:
(i) X ′ (ii) (X ∪ Y ) ∩ Z (iii) (X \ Y ) \ Z (iv) (Z \ Y ) ∩ X
(c) Write down a null set, in terms of X, Y and Z.
Solution
(a) Draw a Venn diagram.
1 Find the elements that are common to all three sets.
X ∩ Y ∩ Z = {7, 11}
2 Find the elements that remain common to two sets.
(X ∩ Y ) \ Z = {5}
(Y ∩ Z ) \ X = { }
(X ∩ Z ) \ Y = {1, 3}
3 Find the elements that are unique to each set.
Z \ (X ∪ Y ) = {4}
X \ (Y ∪ Z ) = {2, 13}
Y \ (X ∪ Z ) = {6, 8, 9, 10}
4 Find any remaining elements in the universal set that have not been used.
U \ (X ∪ Y ∪ Z ) = {12, 14}
5 Represent all the information U
on a Venn diagram.
X Y
(b) From inspection of the Venn
2 6
diagram we can see that: 5
13 8
X ′= {4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14}
(i) 10
(ii) (X ∪ Y ) ∩ Z = {1, 3, 7, 11}
11 9
7
(iii) (X \ Y ) \ Z = {2, 13} 1 3
(iv) (Z \ Y ) ∩ X = {1, 3}
4
(c) Write down a null set, in terms 12
of X, Y, and Z. (Y ∩ Z ) \ X = { } Z
14
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Set operations
The commutative property of two sets
Symbols Descriptions
zzA ∪B=B∪A Union is a commutative operation.
zzA ∩B=B∩A Intersection is a commutative operation.
zzA \ B ≠ B \ A Set difference is not a commutative operation.
The associative property of three sets
Symbols Descriptions
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C ) Union is an associative operation.
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) Intersection is an associative operation.
(A \ B) \ C ≠ A \ (B \ C ) Set difference is not an associative operation.
The distributive property of three sets
Symbols Descriptions
Union of sets is distributive over
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C )
intersection.
Intersection of sets is distributive
A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C )
over union.
Set difference over union is not
A \ (B ∪ C ) ≠ (A \ B) ∪ (A \ C )
distributive.
Set difference over intersection is not
A \ (B ∩ C ) ≠ (A \ B) ∩ (A \ C )
distributive.
Remember
When proving that a mathematical statement is true, we must prove that
the sides of the statement are equal.
Left hand side (LHS) = right hand side (RHS)
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Example
Let P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, Q = {3, 5, 7} and R = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Prove that the following identity is true:
P ∩ (Q ∪ R) = (P ∩ Q) ∪ (P ∩ R)
Solution
To prove P ∩ (Q ∪ R) = (P ∩ Q) ∪ (P ∩ R) is true, we must prove that
the sides of the equation are equal (left hand side = right hand side).
zzLHS = P
∩ (Q ∪ R)
(Q ∪ R) = {3, 5, 7} ∪ {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
∴ P ∩ (Q ∪ R) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∩ {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} = {2, 3, 4, 5}
∩ Q) ∪ (P ∩ R)
zzRHS = (P
(P ∩ Q) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∩ {3, 5, 7} = {3, 5}
(P ∩ R) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∩ {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = {2, 3, 4, 5}
∴ (P ∩ Q) ∪ (P ∩ R) = {3, 5} ∪ {2, 3, 4, 5} = {2, 3, 4, 5}
Therefore, P ∩ (Q ∪ R) = (P ∩ Q) ∪ (P ∩ R) as both sides of the
equation equal the set {2, 3, 4, 5}.
Solving word problems using three-set
Venn diagrams
When solving word problems using Venn diagrams, we generally use the same
method to work out each region in the three-set Venn diagram as given earlier
in this chapter. However there is one key difference, which is that when we are
dealing with a word based problem we work with the cardinal number of each
set rather than each element of the set.
Top Tip
When dealing with a Venn diagram for (word) problems involving three
sets, follow these steps:
1 Find the cardinal number for the members that are common to all three sets.
# ( X ∩ Y ∩ Z )
2 Find the cardinal numbers for the members that are common to two sets.
# ( X ∩ Y )\ Z
# ( X ∩ Z )\ Y
# ( Y ∩ Z )\ X
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Top Tip
3 Find the cardinal numbers for the members that are unique to each set.
#X \( Y ∪ Z )
#Y \( X ∪ Z )
#Z \( X ∪ Y )
4 Find the cardinal number for any remaining members listed in the
universal set that have not been used.
#U \ ( X ∪ Y ∪ Z )or #( X ∪ Y ∪ Z )′
5 Represent all information on a Venn diagram like the one below:
U
X [#X] Y [#Y]
#[X \ (Y ∪ Z)] #[(X ∩ Y) \ Z] #[Y \ (X ∪ Z)]
#[X ∩ Y ∩ Z]
#[(X ∩ Z) \ Y] #[(Y ∩ Z) \ X]
#[Z \ (X ∪ Y)]
#[U \ (X ∪ Y ∪ Z)]
Z [#Z]
Example
U = {the number of students in a class}
L = {the number of students in the class who have a laptop at home}
S = {the number of students in the class who have a smart tablet at home}
P = {the number of students in the class who have a PC at home}
Describe in your own words the members of the following sets:
(a) (L ∪ S ) (c) (L ∪ S ∪ P)′ (e) (L ∩ S ) \ P
(b) (P ∩ L) (d) L \ P
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Solution
(a) (L ∪ S) = The number of students in the class who have a laptop
and/or a smart tablet.
(b) (P ∩ L) = The number of students in the class who have a PC and a laptop.
(c) (L ∪ S ∪ P)′= The number of students in the class who do not have a laptop,
nor a smart tablet, nor a PC.
(d) L \ P = The number of students in the class who have a laptop but do
not have a PC.
(e) (L ∩ S) \ P = The number of students in the class who have a laptop and
a smart tablet but do not have a PC.
Example
70 teenagers responded to a survey about holiday destinations.
30 had travelled to France.
26 had travelled to Spain, and 28 had travelled to Italy.
12 had travelled to both France and Spain.
8 had travelled to both Spain and Italy, while x had travelled to France and Italy only.
4 teenagers had travelled to all three countries.
Twice as many had never travelled to any of these destinations as had travelled to
France and Italy only.
(a) Represent the above information on a Venn diagram.
(b) Find the number of teenagers who had travelled to France only.
(c) What is the probability that a teenager drawn at random from the group has
been to at least two of these countries?
(SEC 2006)
Solution
(a) 1 Find the cardinal number for the members that are common to all three sets.
#(F ∩ S ∩ I ) = 4
2 Find the cardinal numbers for the members that are common to two sets
#(F ∩ S ) \ I = 12 − 4 = 8
#(F ∩ I ) \ S = x
#(S ∩ I ) \ F = 8 − 4 = 4
3 Find the cardinal numbers for the members that are unique to each set.
#F \ (S ∪ I )= 30 − (8 + 4 + x) = 18 − x
#S \ (F ∪ I ) = 26 − (8 + 4 + 4) = 10
#I \ (F ∪ S) = 28 − (4 + 4 + x) = 20 − x
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4 Find the cardinal number for any remaining members listed in the
universal set that have not been used.
#U \ (A ∪ B ∪ C ) = 2x
5 Represent all information on a Venn diagram.
U = 70
F = 30 S = 26
18 – x 8 10
4
x 4
2x
20 – x
I = 26
(b) Solve for x:
#U = 26 + (18 − x) + (x) + (20 − x) + (2x) = 70
64 + x = 70
∴ x = 70 − 64 = 6
The number of teenagers who travelled to France only = 18 − x = 18 − 6 = 12.
(c) From the diagram, we can see that 22 teenagers have been to at least two of
___
22 ___ 11
these countries, so the probability is or .
70 35
Exercise
Q1 (a) List all the subsets for the set:
A = {10, 20}.
(b) From the Venn diagram shown, U
list the elements in each of the
P Q
following sets: 6
2 8
(i) P (vi) Q \ P
3 7
(ii) Q (vii) P ′
1
9
(iii) P ∪ Q (viii) Q ′ 4
(iv) P ∩ Q (ix) (P ∩ Q)′ 5 10
(v) P \ Q (x) (Q \ P)′
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Q2 (a) List all the subsets for the U
following set: A B
B = {red, green, blue}.
(b) Copy the Venn diagram four times
and shade in the regions that
represent each of the following:
(i) (A ∪ B)′
(ii) U \ (B \ A)
(iii) (A \ B)′
(iv) U \ (A ∩ B)
(c) Given the following sets:
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j}, A = {a, b, c, d } and B = {c, d, e, f, g},
list the elements in:
A′
(i) (iii) (A ∪ B)′
(ii) U \ (A ∩ B) (iv) (A \ B)′
Q3 You are given the following sets:
U = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 },
X = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } and Y = { 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 }.
(a) Describe each set given using the rule method.
(b) Find the cardinal number for each of the following:
(i) #(X ∪ Y ) (iv) #(X ∪ Y )′
(ii) #(X ∩ Y ) (v) #(X \ Y )
(iii) #Y ′ (vi) #(Y \ X )
(c) In a school of 430 students, 250 students study History and
240 students study Geography. Let x represent the number of students
who study neither History nor Geography. The number of students
who study both History and Geography is three times the number who
study neither of these subjects.
(i) Represent this information on a Venn diagram.
(ii) Find the number of students who study neither History nor Geography.
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Q4 (a) Using set notation, describe the shaded region in each of the following
Venn diagrams.
(i) U (iii) U
P Q P Q
R R
(ii) U (iv) U
P Q P Q
R R
(b) A class of 29 students were asked if they had ever been to England
or France.
15 students said they had been to England, 22 said they had been to
France, and 13 said they had been to both countries.
(i) Draw a Venn diagram to represent this information.
(ii) How many students in the class have not been to either country?
Q5 (a) Copy the Venn diagram below four times and shade in the regions that
represent each of the following:
(i) (A ∩ B) ∪ C (iii) (A ∪ C)′ \ B
(ii) (A \ B) \ C
(iv) (A \ B) ∩ (C \ B)
U
A B
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(b) In a survey, school students were asked if they travelled home by
bus, by car, or neither.
88 students said they travelled by bus, 95 said they travelled by car,
and 46 said they didn’t use either.
(i) What is the smallest number of students that could have taken part
in the survey?
(ii) What is the largest number of students that could have taken part
in the survey?
Q6 In a survey, 220 people were asked if they like tea, coffee or hot chocolate.
The results were as follows:
98 people said they like tea.
112 said they like coffee.
100 said they like hot chocolate.
57 said they like tea and coffee.
32 said they like coffee and hot chocolate.
29 said they like tea and hot chocolate.
12 said they do not like any of these drinks.
How many people like all three drinks?
Q7 (a) Given the following sets:
F = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }, G = { 2, 3, 5 }and H = { 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 },
list the elements of:
(i) (F \ G) ∪ (H ∩ F) (ii) (F ∩ G) ∪ (H \ F)
(b) A group of second year students were asked if they like tennis,
badminton and/or golf.
43 like tennis, 36 like badminton and 31 like golf.
18 like tennis and badminton, 14 like tennis and golf, and 21 like
badminton and golf.
6 like all of these activities, and 18 like none of these activities.
How many second year students are in the group?
Q8 A survey of 40 students was carried out to find how many owned an
MP3 player, a digital camera or a CD player.
1 student does not own any of these.
x students own all three, and 2x own an MP3 player and a digital camera
but not a CD player.
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10 own an MP3 player and a CD player, while 11 own a digital camera
and a CD player.
22 own an MP3 player, 22 own a digital camera and 24 own a CD player.
(a) Construct a Venn diagram and solve for x.
(b) Hence, calculate the percentage of students who own one item only.
(SEC 2007)
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Applied Arithmetic 1 3
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
zzWorking with percentages
zzDecimals
zzEstimation, rounding and significant figures
zzScientific notation
zzOrder of magnitude
zzRatios
zzSpeed.
Percentages
To find a percentage means to divide the whole into 100 equal parts; the whole
can be a representation of anything, such as money, exam results, area, volume,
weight, work, time, etc.
Working with percentages
Top Tip
To find a percentage of a given quantity, follow these steps:
1 Change the required percentage into a decimal or fraction.
2 Multiply the decimal or fraction by the given quantity.
Alternatively, you can use the % button on a calculator.
The example below is for a Casio calculator.
To calculate 20% of 500 using the % button, press 2 0 SHIFT ( × 5 0 0 =
Answer: 100
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Examples Solutions
1 Find 15% of €340. 15% × 340 = €51
2 Find 28% of 170 cm. 28% × 170 = 47·6 cm
3 Find 66% of 8·8 kg. 66% × 8·8 = 5·808 kg
4 Find 12·5% of 5000 people. 12·5% × 5000 = 625 people
Top Tip
To find one value as a percentage of another:
1 Write the value as a fraction (always make sure the units are the same).
2 Multiply the fraction by 100%.
Link
This section links directly with the compound interest formula in Chapter 11.
Example
Mark got 135 out of 250 marks in a maths test. What percentage did he get in the test?
Solution
1 Write the values as a fraction (always make sure the units are the same).
____
135
135 out of 250 marks as a fraction =
250
2 Multiply the fraction by 100%.
____
135
× 100% = 54%.
250
Therefore, Mark got 54% in his maths test.
Percentage increase and decrease
Top Tip
To calculate the percentage increase or decrease, we can use either of
the methods listed below.
Method 1: Formula method
1 Calculate the difference between the two values given (increase or
decrease amount).
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2 To calculate the % increase or % decrease, substitute all known values
into the formula below:
% increase/decrease = _____________________
increase/decrease amount
× 100%
orignal amount
Method 2: Calculator method
To increase $2300 by 18% To decrease $2300 by 18%
(100% + 18% = 118%) (100% – 18% = 82%)
Press 1 1 8 Press 8 2
Press SHIFT ( to get the (%). Press SHIFT ( to get the (%).
Press × 2 3 0 0 = Press × 2 3 0 0 =
Answer: $2714 Answer: $1886
Example
An estate agent sold a house five years ago for €225 000.
She is now selling the same house for €193 500. What is the
percentage decrease in value of the house?
Solution
1 Calculate the difference between the two values given
(increase or decrease amount).
Decrease amount = €225 000 − €193 500 = €31 500
2 Fill all information into the formula to find the % decrease.
________
€31 500
% decrease =
× 100% = 14%
€225 000
Therefore, the house has decreased in value by 14%.
Decimals
Decimals are real numbers (ℝ). This means that natural numbers (ℕ), integers (ℤ),
rational numbers (ℚ) and irrational numbers (ℝ\ℚ) can all be written as decimals.
34.6349
6 ____
___ 3 4
_____ 9
______
30 + 4 + + + +
10 100 1000 10 000
Estimation or approximation
When we estimate or approximate a number, we are finding a number which
is close to the original number within some degree of accuracy.
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Rounding
Rounding is just another way of estimating. Rounding makes a number easier
to work with, by keeping its value close to what its original value was, to some
degree of accuracy.
Top Tip
Rules for rounding decimals
1 Identify the digit just to the right of the place value (the rounding digit).
2 Depending on the value of this digit, either:
î Round down. This means that if the digit is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 we do not
change the value of the rounding digit, and we ignore all the digits to
the right of it.
or
î R
ound up. This means that if the digit is 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9, we must add
one to the rounding digit and ignore all digits to the right of it.
For example, for the number 3·245794:
Round to the Round Round Round
nearest whole correct to correct to correct to
number 1 decimal place 2 decimal places 3 decimal places
3·245794 3·245794 3·245794 3·245794
The rounding digit The rounding The rounding The rounding
is 2, so leave the digit is 4, so leave digit is 5, so digit is 7, so
place value digit (3) the place value increase the increase the
as it is, and ignore digit (2) as it is place value place value
all numbers to the and ignore all digit (4) by 1, digit (5) by 1,
right of it. Thus numbers to the and ignore all and ignore all
3·245794 rounded right of it. numbers to the numbers to the
to the nearest Thus 3·245794 right of it. right of it.
whole number is 3. rounded to Thus 3·245794 Thus 3·245794
1 decimal place rounded to rounded to
is 3·2. 2 decimal places 3 decimal places
is 3·25. is 3·246.
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Example
(a) By rounding each decimal to the nearest whole number,
_____
____
8·23
− 15·89
1·92 √
estimate the value of (6·05 − 1·12)2 + (3·12).
(b) Evaluate the value correct to two decimal places.
Solution -T i p !
To p
(a) Estimate: _____ We can find
____
8·23 putting
(6·05 − 1·12)2 +
15·89
− √ (3·12) the answer by
m di re ctly into
1·92
___ the entire su
__8 Be careful to
16 (3) Round each decimal
≈ (6 − 1)2 + − √
a calculator.
ackets and
2 include all br
to the nearest whole pow s!
er
number.
__8
= (5)2 + − (4)(3)
Follow the rules of BIRDMAS.
2
= 25 + 4 − 12
= 29 − 12 = 17
(b) Evaluate correct to two decimal places:
_____
____
8·23
(6·05 − 1·12)2 + 15·89
− √ (3·12) Follow the rules of BIRDMAS.
1·92
≈ (4·93)2 + 4·2865 − 12·4370
= 24·3049 + 4·2865 − 12·4370 Round to four decimal places only,
to ensure accuracy in the final result.
= 28·5914 − 12·4370 = 16·1544 = 16·15, correct to 2 d.p.
Note: If we put the entire sum directly into a calculator the answer is
16·15433232 which rounds to 16·15, correct to two decimal places.
Significant figures
Writing a value to a required number of significant figures is, again, just
another way of estimating, which makes a number easier to work with by
keeping its value close to the original value.
Top Tip
To round a number to a given number of significant figures:
1 Identify the digit just to the right of the place value (the rounding digit).
2 Depending on the value of this digit, we either:
î Round down. This means that if this digit is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4, we do not
change the value of the rounding digit and we change all the digits to
the right of it to zero.
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Top Tip
or
î R
ound up. This means that if this digit is 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9, we must add one
to the rounding digit and change the digits to the right of it to zero.
Number Round to 1 Round to 2 Round to 3 Round to 4
significant significant significant significant
figure figures figures figures
23 368 2 3 368 23 3 68 23 3 6 8 23 36 8
Round down Round down Round up to Round up to
to 20000 to 23 000 23 400 23 370
0·00345192 0·003 4 5192 0·0034 5 192 0·00345 1 92 0·003451 9 2
Round down Round up to Round down Round up to
to 0·003 0·0035 to 0·00345 0·003452
Rules for working out if a digit in the number is a significant figure
Rule Examples
1 All non-zero digits are 473 has 3 significant figures
significant. 94·38 has 4 significant figures
12 341 has 5 significant figures
2 All leading zeros are not 0·041 has 2 significant figures
significant. 0·343 has 3 significant figures
0·0000321 has 3 significant figures
3 All zeros between two 103 has 3 significant figures
significant digits are 40 034 has 5 significant figures
significant.
97·3023 has 6 significant figures
4 A final zero or trailing zeros 1 000 000 has 1 significant figure
are not significant. 23 000 has 2 significant figures
1 345 000 has 4 significant figures
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Order of magnitude
The order of magnitude is an estimate of the size of a number, found by
estimating the number as a power of 10.
Number Scientific Power of 10 Order of
notation magnitude
0·000 000 000 003 4 3·4 × 10−12
10−12 −12
0·000 000 034 3·4 × 10−8
10−8 −8
0·0034 3·4 × 10−3 10−3 −3
3400 3·4 × 103 103 3
3 400 000 3·4 × 106 106 6
340 000 000 000 000 3·4 × 1014 1014 14
We can use the order of magnitude when comparing numbers of different size.
Example
Earth’s mass is 5·972 × 1024
kg and the Sun’s mass is 1·989 × 1030
kg.
Find the difference in the order of magnitude of the mass of the Sun
and the mass of the Earth.
Solution
Round each number to the nearest power of 10.
Earth’s mass is 5·972 × 1024
kg Round up.
101 × 1024
kg = 1025
kg
Sun’s mass is 1·989 × 1030
kg Round down.
100 × 1030
kg = 1030
kg
Divide the larger number by the smaller number.
1030
____
25 = 1030 − 25 = 105
10
Therefore, the masses of the Earth and the Sun differ by 5 orders of magnitude.
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Ratios
A ratio is a comparison of the size of one number in relation to the size of
another number. When finding equivalent ratios, always multiply or divide the
numbers by the same value.
Ratio Equivalent ratio
9 : 12 3 : 4 Divide each part by 3.
50 : 30 5 : 3 Divide each part by 10.
0·5 : 3 1 : 6 Multiply each part by 2.
Example
__
1 __ 1 __ 1
Divide 3445 g in the ratio : : .
2 3 4
Solution
When dealing with fractions, the easiest method is to convert each fraction to a
whole number. To do this we need to find the LCM and multiply it by each part.
__1 __ 1 __ 1 __
1 __
1 __
1
: : = (12) : (12) : (12) Multiply each fraction by the LCM of 2, 3 and 4, i.e.
2 3 4 2 3 4
12.
= 6 : 4 : 3 Simplify.
Total parts = 6 + 4 + 3 = 13 parts
Calculate each part of the ratio.
4 3
___6 ___ ___
× 3445 g = 1590 g × 3445 g = 1060 g × 3445 g = 795 g
13 13 13
__
1 __
1 __ 1
Hence, 3445 g divided in the ratio : : gives 1590 g, 1060 g and 795 g.
2 3 4
Example
Karl receives €4302 from an investment he made with his brother Paul.
The investment paid out Karl : Paul in the ratio 5 : 7, respectively.
How much did Paul receive from the investment?
Solution
The ratio Karl : Paul is equivalent to 5 : 7. Total number of parts = 5 + 7 = 12 parts.
Calculate how much Paul received from the investment.
___
5
Paul receives 7 parts:
Karl’s part is = €4302
12
___7
To find the value of one part, divide by 5. = 7 × €860·40 = €6022·80
12
___1 ______ €4302 So Paul receives €6022·80.
= = €860·40
12 5
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Speed
Speed is the measurement of how fast an object moves from one place to
another. Speed is measured in km per hour (km/h) or m/s.
Average speed
The average speed of an object is found by dividing the total distance travelled
by the total time taken for the journey.
Top Tip
We can use the following triangle to help remember these formulae.
Speed = _______
distance
time ( )
S = __
D
T
Cover speed with your
thumb to find the formula.
( )
Distance
Time = _______
distance D
T = __ Cover time with your
speed S thumb to find the formula.
Distance = s peed × time Cover distance with your Speed Time
( D = S × T ) thumb to find the formula.
where:
S = speed (metres/second or kilometres per hour)
D = distance travelled (metres or kilometres)
T = time (seconds or hours).
Link
This section is related to speed–time graphs in Chapter 15.
Example
Pat left his house at 9:45 am to make a delivery to Cork and then to Limerick.
__
1
He travelled at an average speed of 65 km/h for 1 hours to get to Cork. He then
2
travelled for 125 km at an average speed of 60 km/h to get to Limerick.
(a) What is the distance travelled from Pat’s house to Cork?
(b) How long did it take Pat to travel from Cork to Limerick?
(c) If Pat spent two hours in Cork before going to Limerick, at what time did
he arrive in Limerick?
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Solution
(a) Using the formula:
Distance = speed × time
__
1
= 65 × 1 = 97·5 km
2
(b) Using the formula:
________
distance
Time =
speed
____
125
60
___
1
12 (
___
12
1
)
= = 2 hr = 2 h + 60 × min = 2 hours 5 minutes
(c) Taking into account the two hours Pat spent in Cork before going to Limerick:
Total time = 1·5 hours + 2 hours + 2 hours 5 minutes = 5 hour 35 minutes
Arrival time = 9:45 am + 5 hour 35 minutes = 15:20 = 3:20 pm
Example
The speed limit on a section of a motorway has been
reduced to 60 km/h. Express this new speed limit in
metres per second.
Solution
Note: 1 km = 1000 m, and 1 hour = 3600 seconds
Convert units:
60 km = 60 × 1000 = 60 000 m
1 hour = 60 × 60 seconds = 3600 seconds
________
distance ______60 000
Speed =
= = 16·6̇ 6̇ m/s ≈ 16·67 m/s
time 3600
Exercise
Q1 Calculate each of the following, Q2 (a) A
company decides to
correct to the nearest whole increase its workforce from
number percentage: 1200 staff to 1450 staff over
(a) 38 cents as a percentage of the coming year.
€2·50 What is the percentage
increase in staff?
(b) 50 seconds as a percentage of
3 minutes
(c) 15 kg as a percentage of 75 kg.
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(b) A hairdresser offers ‘12% off’ Q5 A prize fund pays out 1st, 2nd and
all haircuts for students. 3rd prizes in the ratio 10 : 5 : 3.
If the normal cost of a The value of the 3rd prize was
student’s haircut is €22, €1539. Calculate the value of the
what is the new price? total prize fund.
(c) Ciara sells 42 cupcakes in Q6 (a) Peter and Anne share a lotto
one day, which represents __
1 __
1
prize in the ratio 3 to 2 .
21% of her 2 2
stock. How Peter’s share is €35 000.
many cupcakes What is the value of the prize
did Ciara have fund?
at the start of (b) The diameters of Venus and
the day? Saturn are 1·21 × 104 km and
Q3 (a) By rounding correct to the 1·21 × 105km, respectively.
nearest whole number, What is the difference
estimate the value of between the diameters of the
(10·21)2
_______
____ two planets?
3·81
(9·98) − √ (6·13)2.
4·91 Give your answer in the form
Then evaluate the value a × 10n, where n ∈ ℤ and
correct to one decimal place. 1 ≤ a < 10.
(b) By rounding correct to the (c) By rounding to the nearest
nearest whole number, whole number, estimate the
estimate the value of value of
____________
_____
√ (7·17)2 + 14·59
_______________
√ 35·91
(6·16) + 17·94 − (4·12)2
_________________________
.
.
8·29 − 1·64 × 2·23
(3·89)3− 7·32
Then evaluate the value Then find the value correct to
correct to two decimal one decimal place.
places. (SEC 2011)
Q4 Divide each of the following
amounts into the given ratio:
(a) €360 in the ratio 5 : 11
(b) 4494 cm in the ratio 3 : 5 : 13
(c) 3·120 kg in the ratio 3 : 6 : 11.
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4 Algebra 1:
Algebraic Expressions
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn how to:
� Explain the terminology associated with algebraic expressions
� Evaluate an expression
� Explain the commutative, associative and distributive properties
� Multiply algebraic expressions
� Simplify algebraic expressions.
Key Terminology
Variable: The letters which stand for unknown numbers in algebra.
For example: x, y, z .
Constant: A term whose value never changes. For example: +7, −31.
Term: When a constant and variable(s) are multiplied together.
For example: 7x, 6x 2.
Coefficient: The constant multiplied by the variable in a term.
For example: in the term 6x 2, 6 is the coefficient of x 2.
Expression: A set of terms which are added or subtracted.
For example: 13x +7x 2 − 35 + 3y.
Linear expression: 7x − 2 is a linear expression, where the highest power
(or degree) of x is 1.
Quadratic expression: 5x 2 − 3x + 4 is a quadratic expression, where the
highest power (or degree) of x is 2.
Cubic expression: 8x 3 − 3x 2 − 2x + 1 is a cubic expression, where the
highest power (or degree) of x is 3.
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Example
(a) 17x − 3 is a linear expression. (b) 12x 2− 23x + 10 is a quadratic
(i) Name the variable in the expression.
expression. (i) Write down the coefficient of x 2.
x. (ii) Write down the coefficient of x.
(ii) Write down the coefficient of
(iii) Write down the constant. (iii) Write down the constant.
Solution
(a) In the linear expression 17x − 3: (b) In the quadratic expression
(i) the variable in the 12x 2− 23x + 10:
expression is x (i) the coefficient of x 2is 12
(ii) the coefficient of x is 17 (ii) the coefficient of x is −23
(iii) the constant is −3.
(iii) the constant is +10.
Evaluating expressions
Points to note
zzEvaluate an expression means to find the value of the expression. We do
this by replacing each variable in the expression with its value. Then we
work out the final value of the expression, using the order of operations
(BIRDMAS).
For example: if x = −2 then the value of 7x − 2 is 7(−2) − 2 = −14 − 2 = −16.
zzBIRDMAS: stands for Brackets, Indices and Roots, Division and
Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction. This shows the order in which
operations should be carried out when evaluating an expression. You might
also hear it referred to as BOMDAS or BIMDAS.
zzWhen there are two or more terms in a numerator and/or denominator,
evaluate the numerator and denominator separately before dividing.
Top Tip
To evaluate an expression:
1 Substitute the correct number for each variable, using brackets.
2 Evaluate the expression, using:
• the order of operations (BIRDMAS) to work out the answer, or
• a scientific calculator, typing in the expression exactly as written in step 1.
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Example
If a = −3 and b = −7, find the value of the following expressions:
3a − b
_________
(a) 3ab (b) 3a − b (c) a 2− ab + 3 (d) 2 .
a − ab + 3
Solution
For each part, substitute −3 for a and −7 for b.
(a) 3ab = 3(−3)(−7) = 63
(b) 3a − b = 3(−3) − (−7) = −9 + 7 = −2
(c) a 2− ab + 3 = (−3) 2− (−3)(−7) + 3 = 9 − 21 + 3 = −9
3a − b
_________ ___
−2 __ 2
(d)
= = [3a − b = −2 from (b) and a2 − ab + 3 = −9 from (c)]
a − ab + 3
2 −9 9
Example
______
When x = −7 and b = −25, find the value of √
3x − b
.
Solution
_____ ___________
3x − b
√ = √ _______
3(−7) Let x = −7 and b = −25.
− (−25)
−21 + 25
= √
__
4
= √
= ±2
Example
2
__
1 __
2 c2 − 2d − 3
__________
When c = and d = − , find the value of .
3 3 6c − 1
Solution
) − 2( − ) − 3
(
2__
1 2 __
2
2
2
c
__________ _______________
− 2d − 3 3 3 __
1 __
2
= Let c = and d = − .
6( )− 1
6c − 1 __
1 3 3
3 Use the order of operations to simplify.
)− 2( )− 3
( __
1 __
4
Remember when squaring ( − ) that
__
2
9
____________ 9
=
3
6( )− 1
__
1 (minus) × (minus) = (plus).
3
)− ( )− 3 −( )− 3 − ___
( __
1 __
8 __
7 34
9 9 9
___________ ________ _____ 9 ___
34
= = = = −
( )− 1
__
6 2−1 1 9
3
Alternatively, type the formula into your calculator, including all brackets!
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Simplifying and multiplying out expressions
Points to note
zzMonomial: An expression with one term. For example: 3, x, 3x 3.
zzBinomial: An expression with two terms. For example: x 2 − 6.
zzTrinomial: An expression with three terms. For example: 5x 2 − 3x + 4.
zzLike terms: Terms with the same variables and the same powers.
For example: 2x and −13x.
zzSimplify an expression: Reduce the expression to its simplest form.
For example: 2x − 5x + 7x can be simplified to 4x. This is also called
collecting like terms.
zzExpand: Multiply out/remove the brackets, by multiplying the terms within
them. For example: 4 (3x − 7) can be multiplied out /expanded to give 12x − 28.
zzProduct: The answer when two or more terms are multiplied together.
Remember
Commutative, associative and distributive properties
You must be able to apply the commutative, associative and distributive
properties when simplifying algebraic expressions.
Commutative property
The commutative property allows us to swap the order of terms when we
add or multiply, without changing the result.
a+b=b+a
a×b=b×a
Associative property
The associative property states that it doesn’t matter how we group terms
when we add or multiply.
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
(a × b) × c = a × (b × c)
Distributive property
We only distribute multiplication over addition (or subtraction).
a(b − c) = ab − ac
a(b + c) = ab + ac
(a + b)(c + d ) = a(c + d ) + b(c + d ) = ac + ad + bc + bd
(a + b)(c + d + e) = a(c + d + e) + b(c + d + e) = ac + ad + ae + bc + bd + be
In general, distribute the terms by multiplying each term in the first bracket
by each term in the second bracket.
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Example
Simplify the following expressions:
(a) 3x + 7y − 12x + 8y − 3 (c) 3( y 2− 2y + 7) − (2y 2+ 7y − 9)
(b) (5a 2− 4a + 3) − (7a 2+ 3a − 8) (d) 2c(3c − 7) − 2(−2c + 5).
Solution
(a) 3x + 7y − 12x + 8y − 3 = 3x – 12x + 7y + 8y − 3 Collect like terms.
= –9x + 15y − 3 Add/subtract like terms.
(b) (5a 2− 4a + 3) − (7a 2+ 3a − 8)
= 5a 2− 4a + 3 − 7a 2− 3a + 8
= 5a 2− 7a 2− 4a − 3a + 3 + 8 Collect like terms.
= −2a 2− 7a + 11 Add/subtract like terms.
(c) 3( y 2− 2y + 7) − (2y 2+ 7y − 9) (d) 2c(3c − 7) − 2(−2c + 5)
= 3y − 6y + 21 − 2y − 7y + 9
2 2 = 6c 2− 14c + 4c − 10
= y − 13y + 30
2 = 6c 2− 10c − 10
Points to note
zzPerfect squares
(a + = (a + b) (a + b)
b)2
= a(a + b) + b(a + b)
= a 2 + ab + ab + b2 The middle terms are the same.
= a 2 + 2ab + b 2
There is a clear pattern when we square a binomial:
(first + second) 2 = (first) 2 + 2(first)(second) + (second) 2.
zzDifference of two squares
(a + b) (a – b) = a(a − b) + b(a − b)
= a 2 − ab + ab − b 2 T
he middle terms are the same but
have different signs.
= a − b
2 2
There is a clear pattern when we have the sum of two numbers multiplied by the
difference of the same numbers:
(first + second)(first − second) = (first) 2 − (second) 2
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Example
Expand and simplify the following expressions:
(a) (3x − y)(x + y) (d) (3x − 7)(3x + 7)
(b) (ax − b) 2 (e)
(5x − 3)(2x + 4), using a multiplication array, or otherwise
(c) (5a + 3) 2 (f) (x − 4)(x 2− 3x + 21).
Solution
(a) (3x − y)(x + y) = 3x(x + y) − y(x + y)
= 3x 2+ 3xy − xy − y 2
= 3x 2+ 2xy − y 2
(b) (ax − b) 2= (ax − b)(ax − b) This is a perfect square so we could use the
rule above or the method below.
= ax(ax − b) − b(ax − b)
= a 2x 2− abx − abx + b 2
= a 2x 2− 2abx + b 2
(c) (5a + 3) 2= (5a)2 + 2(5a)(3) + (3)2 Use (first + second) 2 =
(first) 2+ 2(first)(second) + (second) 2.
= 25a 2+ 30a + 9
(d) (3x − 7)(3x + 7) = (3x) 2− (7) 2 This is a difference of two squares so use
= 9x − 49
2 (first + second)(first − second) =
(first) 2− (second) 2.
(e) Method 1: Expanding brackets. Method 2: Array or box method.
(5x − 3)(2x + 4) = 5x(2x + 4) − 3(2x + 4) × 2x +4
= 10x 2+ 20x − 6x − 12 5x 10x2 +20x
= 10x 2+ 14x − 12
−3 −6x −12
= 10x 2− 6x + 20x − 12
= 10x 2+ 14x − 12
(f) Method 1: Expanding brackets. Method 2: Array or box method.
(x − 4)(x 2− 3x + 21) = x(x 2− 3x + 21) − 4(x 2− 3x + 21)
× x2 −3x +21
= x 3− 3x 2+ 21x − 4x 2+ 12x − 84 x x3 −3x2 +21x
= x 3− 3x 2− 4x 2+ 21x + 12x − 84
−4 −4x2 +12x −84
= x 3− 7x 2+ 33x − 84
= x 3− 3x 2+ 21x − 4x 2+ 12x − 84
= x 3− 7x 2+ 33x − 84
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Example
If (2x + 5)(3x + a) = 6x 2+ 7x − 20, find the value of a.
Solution
o i n t -t o -n o t e
(2x + 5)(3x + a) = 6x 2+ 7x − 20 P Equate
⇒ 2x(3x + a) + 5(3x + a) = 6x 2+ 7x − 20 qual to’.
means ‘put e
⇒ 6x 2+ 2ax + 15x + 5a = 6x 2+ 7x − 20
Equating the constant terms gives:
5a = −20
____
−20
a = = −4
5
We can check this by equating the x terms:
2ax + 15x = 7x Divide across by x.
⇒ 2a + 15 = 7
⇒ 2(−4) + 15 = 7
⇒ −8 + 15 = 7
⇒7=7
Example
Simplify (5x − 1)(x 2+ 3x − 1). Hence, find the value of the expression when x = −3.
Solution
ʻHenceʼ means that the second part of the question is dependent on the first part.
In this question it means that we must simplify the expression first, then evaluate
the answer when x = −3.
(5x − 1)(x 2+ 3x − 1) = 5x(x 2+ 3x − 1) − 1(x 2+ 3x − 1)
= 5x 3+ 15x 2− 5x − x 2− 3x + 1
= 5x 3+ 14x 2− 8x + 1
= 5(−3) 3+ 14(−3) 2− 8(−3) + 1 Let x = −3 and evaluate
using order of operations.
= 5(−27) + 14(9) + 24 + 1
= −135 + 126 + 25
= 16
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Exercise
Q1 Explain the meaning of each of Q5 (a) When x = 7 and y = −1, find
the following, with an example the value of the following
where possible: expressions:
(a) variable
(i) x + y
(b) constant
(ii) x + 7y
(c) term (iii) 2x − y 2
(d) coefficient
(iv) x 2 + y − 13
(e) expression
x + 2y
________
(f) linear expression (v)
x + y + 2
2
(g) quadratic expression
(b) When a = 10, b = 4 and c = 2
(h) cubic expression find the value of the following
Q2 Identify each type of expression expressions:
(i.e. linear, quadratic or cubic): (i) a + b
(a) 5x 2+ 7x − 9
(ii) (a + b)c
(b) x − 6
(iii) a + 2(b + c)
x 2− 7x + 3
(c) 10b 2 + c 3
________
(iv)
(d) 2a − 1
a 2
Q6 Evaluate:
x 3− x 2− 2x − 3
(e) 3
(a) −4(3k + 5), when k = 4
Q3 x − 8 is a linear expression.
d−6
____
(b) , when d = 6
(a) Name the variable in the
7
expression. (c) −3(h − 7) 2, when h = 2
(b) Write down the coefficient of x.
(d) −4(−7 − 6g + g 2), when g = −1
(c) Write down the constant.
Q7 Evaluate:
Q4 4x 2+ 12x + 9 is a quadratic z 2+ y + z, when y = −5 and z = −3
(a)
expression.
(b) k(h − j) + h, when h = 5, j = −4
(a) Write down the coefficient and k = 2
of x 2. __x
(c) y + 6 + y3, when x = 5 and y = 1
(b) Write down the coefficient
of x. (d) y 2 + yz + z + y, when y = −2
and z = 6
(c) Write down the constant. _____
√ z 2− x
(e)
, when x = −2 and z = −4
p − q) 2− (q + 1)
( _____________
(f) when p = 1
,
3p
and q = −1
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Q8 Evaluate: Q13 Simplify the expressions:
p 2− (r − 2)
_________
(a) , (a) (2x + 3) 2
6
when p = 5 and r = −3 (b) (7a − 2) 2
(c) (6b + 7) 2
(a + b) 2− 27b
___________
(b)
, (d) (13d − 4) 2
a − 3b + 20
when a = 7 and b = 11 (e) (7x + 8y) 2
Q14 Simplify the expressions:
Q9 Explain the meaning of each of
the following, with an example (a) (x + y)(x − y)
when possible: (b) (4x − 3)(4x + 3)
(a) monomial
(c) (2a − 7b)(2a + 7b)
(b) binomial
(d) (3n − 15)(3n + 15)
(c) trinomial
(e) (2c − 7d )(2c + 7d )
(d) like terms
Q15 Expand and simplify the
expressions:
(e) simplify an expression
(a) (a − 2)(a + 5)
(f) product
(b) (p − 5)(p + 3)
(g) expand.
(c) (c − 4)(c + 3)
Q10 Explain the meaning of each of
(d) (x − 5)(x + 9)
the properties below:
(e) (2x + 1)(x + 5)
(a) commutative property
(f) (6x − 3)(7 − 2x)
(b) associative property
(g) (7x − 1)(3x − 2)
(c) distributive property.
Q16 Expand and simplify the
Q11 Simplify the expressions:
expressions:
(a) a + b − c + 2b + 7c − 5
(a) (x − 3)(1 − 2x + y)
(b) x 2− 7x + 2x 2− 11x + 13
(b) (a − b)(2a + b − 3)
(c) xy + y 2− 2y − 7x − 17xy − 4y 2
3 2 (c) (3 + y)(y 2+ 5y − 36)
(d) d − 13 − 2d − 7d + d + 7
(d) (3a + 7b)(a 2− 2ab + 4b 2)
Q12 Simplify the expressions:
(e) (2x − 3y)(−2x 2+ 9xy − 7y 2)
(a) 2(b − 3)
Q17 Simplify (x − 4)(x 2− x + 2).
(b) x(x − 2) + 3(2x + 9)
Hence, evaluate the expression
(c) 2n(n − 3) + 7m(5n − 7)
when x = −3.
(d) x(x 2 + x − 2) + 3(x 2− 7x + 1)
Q18 If (x + 2)(3x − a) = 3x 2+ 2x − 8,
a 2− 7a − 2) − (5a 2+ 3a − 7)
(e) (2 find the value of a.
(f) x(x 2+ 2xy + y 2) − 7(x 2− 3xy)
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Algebra 2: Factorising 5
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn how to factorise expressions:
� With a common factor across all terms
� Where grouping is necessary
� With three terms (trinomials) – quadratic expressions
� Using the difference of two squares.
Factorising
Points to note
Factorising is the opposite/reverse of finding a product (multiplying).
zzWhen
we find a product, we multiply:
2(x − y ) = 2x − 2y
(a + b)(c − d ) = ac − ad + bc − bd
(x − 7)(x + 4) = x 2 − 3x − 28
(x + 7)(x − 7) = x 2 − 49
zzWhen we do this process the other way round, i.e. convert terms to factors,
we factorise (make factors).
2x − 2y = 2(x − y )
ac − ad + bc − bd = (a + b)(c − d )
x 2 − 3x − 28 = (x − 7)(x + 4)
x 2 − 49 = (x + 7)(x − 7)
There are four factorisation methods we learn on the Junior Certificate
course. They are:
1 Taking out the highest common factor
2 Grouping
3 Quadratic trinomials
4 Difference of two squares.
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Factorising by taking out the highest common factor
Top Tip
When we have two or more terms in an expression with a common factor,
we factorise by taking out the highest common factor (HCF).
To factorise by taking out the HCF, follow these steps:
1 Find the HCF of all the terms in the expression.
2 Put the HCF outside the brackets.
3 Divide each term by the HCF to find the factor inside the brackets.
4 Write down the factors.
5 Check the solution.
Remember
When ‘taking out’ a common factor, the number of terms in the brackets
must be the same as the number of terms in the original expression.
Example
Factorise the following expressions:
(a) 3x − 6 (d) 20xy 2− 4xy
x 2− 63x
(b) 7 (e) 3a 2+ 18a + 39ab
x 2− x
(c) 5 (f) 2x 2yz − 10x 3yz 2+ 6x 2y 2z 3.
Solution
(a) 3x − 6 = 3(x − 2) The HCF is 3.
x 2− 63x = 7x(x − 9)
(b) 7 The HCF is 7x.
x 2− x = x(5x − 1) Remember that –x means –1x.
(c) 5
The HCF is x.
(d) 20xy 2− 4xy = 4xy(5y − 1) The HCF is 4xy.
(e) 3a2 + 18a + 39ab = 3a(a + 6 + 13b) The HCF is 3a.
x 2yz − 10x 3yz 2+ 6x 2y 2z 3= 2x 2yz(1 − 5xz + 3yz 2)
(f) 2 The HCF is 2x 2yz.
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Factorising by grouping
Top Tip
When we have four terms in an expression with no common factor,
we factorise using grouping. To factorise by grouping, follow these steps:
1 Group the terms into pairs with a common factor.
2 Factorise each pair separately.
3 Make sure the factor inside the first and second brackets are the same.
4 Take out the new common factor.
5 Write down the factors.
6 Check the solution.
Example
Factorise the expression 3cd − 10c − 10e + 3ed.
Solution
3cd − 10c − 10e + 3ed Factorise each pair separately.
= c(3d − 10) + e(−10 + 3d) Take out the common factor.
= c(3d − 10) + e(3d − 10) Note that −10 + 3d is the same as 3d − 10.
= (c + e)(3d − 10)
Check solution:
(c + e)(3d − 10)
= c(3d − 10) + e(3d − 10)
= 3cd − 10c + 3de − 10e ü
Example
Factorise the expression 3x − 12yz + 4z − 9xy.
Solution
3x − 12yz + 4z − 9xy Group in pairs with a common factor.
= 3x − 9xy − 12yz + 4z Factorise each pair separately.
= 3x(1 − 3y) + 4z(−3y + 1) Make sure the factor inside the first
and second brackets are the same.
= 3x(1 − 3y) + 4z(1 − 3y) Take out the common factor.
Note that −3y + 1 is the same as 1 − 3y.
= (3x + 4z)(1 − 3y)
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Factorising quadratic trinomials
Points to note
zzA trinomial is a polynomial with three terms.
zzA quadratic trinomial is an expression with three terms in the form
ax 2 + bx + c, where a, b, c ∈ , a ≠ 0 and the highest power of x is 2.
For example: 5x 2 − 3x + 4.
zzWhen the sign of the constant is positive, then the signs inside the middle
of the brackets will both be either plus (+, +) or minus (−, −). To work out
which, look at the sign in front of the x term. The sign in both brackets will
match the sign of this term.
x 2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3)
x 2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 2)(x − 3)
zzWhen the sign of the constant is negative, then the signs in the middle of the
brackets will be different, i.e. one plus and one minus (+, −). The sign of the
bigger constant in the brackets will be the same as the sign in front of the x term.
x 2 + 5x − 6 = (x + 6)(x − 1)
x 2 − 5x − 6 = (x − 6)(x + 1)
Point to note
We can factorise a quadratic trinomial using the following methods:
zzguess and check method zzMAM method
zzguide number method zzcross method
zzbox/array method
Top Tip
To factorise a quadratic trinomial using the guess and check method, follow
these steps:
1 Remove common factors, if 4T est all possible binomials you
possible. can make from these factors.
2 L ist all the factors of the 5 Write down the factors.
coefficient of the x 2 term. 6 Check the solution.
3 List all the factors of the constant
term.
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Example
Factorise the expression x 2 + x − 2 using the guess and check method.
Solution
x 2 + x − 2 ⇒ (x )(x ) he factors of x 2are (x) and (x).
T
Place both factors in the LHS of each bracket.
⇒ (x + )(x − ) A
s the sign of the constant is minus, we must put a
different sign in each bracket after the x term.
⇒ (x + 2)(x − 1) F ind the factors of −2 which add to +1.
These factors are (+2) and (−1).
Check: (x + 2)(x − 1) = x(x − 1) + 2(x − 1) = x 2− x + 2x − 2 = x 2 + x − 2
Top Tip
To factorise a quadratic trinomial using the box/array method, follow these
steps:
1 First draw a box and divide it into quarters, with spaces above and to
the left as shown.
2 Place the term that contains x 2in the top left hand side (LHS) of the box.
3 Place the constant in the bottom right hand side (RHS) of the box.
4 Multiply the term that contains x 2 by the constant.
5 List the factors of the number found in step 4.
6 Identify the factors that add to give the coefficient of the middle x term.
7 Place these factors in the remaining boxes with an x. It doesn’t matter
which box you place them in.
8 Take the common factors from the box and place them outside the
shaded areas.
9 Use the sign of the constant to identify the signs.
10 Write down the factors.
11 Check the solution.
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Example
Factorise the expression 2x 2 + x − 1 using the box/array method.
Solution
Draw a box and divide into quarters, as shown below.
Place the 2x 2term in the top LHS and −1 in the bottom RHS of the box.
×
2x2
−1
Multiply the term that contains x 2by the constant: (2x 2)(−1) = −2x 2.
List the factors of −2x 2:
(−2x)(x)
(−x)(2x)
Find the factors that add to give +x. They are −x + 2x. Place these factors in the box.
×
2x2 −x
+2x −1
Take the common factors from inside the box and place them in the dark blue
sections outside the box.
× 2x −1
x 2x2 −x
+1 +2x −1
Write down the factors:
2x 2 + x − 1 = (2x − 1)(x + 1)
Check: (2x − 1)(x + 1) = 2x(x + 1) −1(x + 1) = 2x 2+ 2x − x − 1 = 2x 2 + x − 1
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Top Tip
To factorise a quadratic trinomial using the cross method, follow these steps:
1 Draw a St Andrew’s cross:
2 Find two factors of the term that contains x 2.
3 Write these factors on the top left and bottom left of the cross.
4 Find two numbers which multiply to give the constant and write these on
the top right and bottom right of the cross, so that the two products of the
diagonals sum to give the middle x term value.
5 If this doesn’t work for the chosen factors of the term that contains x 2,
find new factors and repeat the steps until you find a pair that does work.
6 Write down the factors.
7 Check the solution.
Example
Factorise the expression 4x 2− 4x − 3 using the cross method.
Solution
Draw a St Andrew’s cross.
Two factors of 4x 2are 4x and x.
Write these factors on the top left and bottom left of the cross.
4x
The factors of −3 are 1 and −3, or −1 and 3.
No matter which way we arrange these factors we cannot get
the diagonals to sum to (−4x).
(4x)(1) + (x)(−3) = x
(4x)(−3) + (x)(1) = −11x
(4x)(−1) + (x)(3) = −x
(4x)(3) + (x)(−1) = 11x
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We must chose new factors for 4x 2. These new factors are 2x and 2x.
Place these factors on the top left and bottom left of the cross.
2x
2x
Repeating the factors for the RHS, we can now factorise as:
(2x)(1) + (2x)(−3) = +2x − 6x = −4x
Put +1 on the top RHS of the cross and −3 on the bottom RHS of the cross.
2x +1
2x –3
The factors are (2x + 1)(2x − 3).
Check: (2x + 1)(2x − 3) = 2x(2x − 3) + 1(2x − 3) = 4x 2− 6x + 2x − 3 = 4x 2− 4x − 3
When quadratic trinomials become more difficult, the guess and check method,
box/array method and cross method can take a long time to factorise, due to the
number of combinations of factors. This is why the two methods listed below
can be more useful.
Top Tip
To factorise a quadratic trinomial using the guide number method, follow
these steps:
1 Remove common factors, if possible.
2 Find the guide number (GN) by multiplying the coefficient of the x 2 term
by the constant.
3 Find the only pair of factors of the GN which add up to give the coefficient
of the x term.
4 Break up the x term into two separate x terms with these factors as
coefficients.
5 Use the grouping method to find the factors.
6 Write down the factors.
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Example
Factorise the expression x 2+ 9x + 20 using the guide number method.
Solution
x 2+ 9x + 20 Note: x2 = 1x2
T
he guide number is (1)(+20) = +20.
The plus sign tells us that the signs are the same.
Factors of +20 which add to + 9 are (+4)(+5).
x 2+ 9x + 20 = x 2+ 5x + 4x + 20 Break up +9x into + 5x + 4x.
= x(x + 5) + 4(x + 5) Factorise using the grouping method.
= (x + 4)(x + 5)
Check: (x + 4)(x + 5) = x(x + 5) + 4(x + 5) = x 2+ 5x + 4x + 20 = x 2+ 9x + 20
Example
Factorise the expression 8x 2+ 14x − 15 using the guide number method.
Solution
8x 2+ 14x − 15 The guide number is (+8)(−15) = −120.
The minus sign tells us that the signs are different.
Factors of −120 which add to +14 are (−6)(+20).
= 8x 2− 6x + 20x − 15 Break up +14x into − 6x + 20x.
= 2x(4x − 3) + 5(4x − 3) Factorise using the grouping method.
= (2x + 5)(4x − 3)
Check: (2x + 5)(4x − 3) = 2x(4x − 3) + 5(4x − 3) = 8x 2− 6x + 20x − 15 = 8x 2+ 14x − 15
Factorising using the difference of two squares
Remember
An expression of the form a 2 − b 2 is called the difference of two squares.
We can factorise an expression like this as:
a 2 − b 2= (a − b) (a + b).
Note that this formula is not in the Formulae and Tables booklet.
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Top Tip
To factorise an expression of the form a 2− b 2, follow these steps:
1 Remove any common factor outside a bracket.
2 Write each term as a perfect square.
3 Use the rule a 2 − b 2 = (a − b) (a + b) to completely factorise the expression.
Example
Factorise the following expressions:
(a) x 2− y 2 (b) 64x 2− 49 (c) 9a 2− 1 (d) 8p 2− 18q 2.
Solution
x 2− y 2
(a) Write each term as a perfect square.
= (x) 2− (y) 2 Use the rule a 2− b 2= (a − b)(a + b) to factorise
the expression.
= (x − y)(x + y)
(b) 64x 2− 49 Write
_____each term as ___a perfect square:
√ 64x 2 49 = 7
= 8x and √
= (8x) 2− (7) 2 Use the rule a 2− b 2= (a − b)(a + b) to factorise
the expression.
= (8x − 7)(8x + 7)
a 2− 1
(c) 9 Write
____ each term__as a perfect square:
√ 9a 2 = 3a and √ 1 = 1
= (3a) 2− (1) 2 Use the rule a 2− b 2= (a − b)(a + b) to factorise
the expression.
= (3a − 1)(3a + 1)
(d) 8p 2− 18q 2 Remove the HCF of both terms outside the brackets.
HCF = 2
= 2(4p 2− 9q 2) Write
___ each term___ as a perfect square:
√ 4p 2 = 2p and √ 9q 2 = 3q
= 2[(2p) 2− (3q) 2] Use the rule a 2− b 2= (a − b)(a + b) to factorise
the expression.
= 2(2p − 3q)(2p + 3q)
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Example
Use factors to evaluate:
(a) (101) 2− (99) 2
(b) (17·1) 2− (7·1) 2
Solution
Note: Use the difference of two squares rule a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b) to evaluate.
(a) (101) 2− (99) 2= (101 − 99)(101 + 99) = (2)(200) = 400
(b) (17·1) 2− (7·1) 2= (17·1 − 7·1)(17·1 + 7·1) = (10)(24·2) = 242
Exercise
Q1 Factorise fully each of the Q4 Factorise fully each of the
following expressions by taking following expressions:
out the HCF: (a) x 2− y 2 (c) 36a 2− 9b 2
(a) 4a + 8b (b) 25 c 2− 49d 2 (d) 1 − 9a 2b 2.
(b) 2xy + 18x Q5 Factorise fully each of the
a 2b − a 2b 2
(c) following expressions:
x 2y 3− 20xy 2
(d) 5 (a) 2x 2− 32
(e) 4pq 2− 8pq − 12p 2q (b) 12 a 2y 2− 27b 2y 2
Evaluate each of the following:
(f) 4p r 2− 8p r.
(c) 43 2− 13 2
Q2 Factorise fully each of the (d) 27 2− 3 2.
following expressions by
Q6 Factorise fully each of the
grouping:
following quadratic trinomials:
(a) a − b − ax + bx
x 2− 6x + 9 (d) x 2− 6x − 16
(a)
(b) c − d + cd − 1
c 2− 2c + 1 (e) x 2+ 11x − 12
(b)
(c) 5x + ay + 5y + ax
x 2+ 2xy + y 2 (f) x 2− x − 2.
(c)
a 2b + 3a 2+ 5b 2+ 15b 3
(d) 9
Q7 Factorise fully each of the
x 2− 5x + 2xy − y.
(e) 10 following quadratic trinomials:
Q3 Factorise fully: (a) 2x 2− 5x + 3
(a) 2p(a − b) − (a − b) (b) 22 x 2− 13x + 1
(b) 3a( p − 3q) − 2b( p − 3q) (c) 7 x 2+ 19x − 6
(c) 7x(2y − 7z) + (7z − 2y) (d) 6x 2+ 17x + 5
(d) (3x − 7y) − 4p(3x − 7y). Q8 Factorise fully:
(a) 6a 2b − 4ab 2
(b) 36a 2− 25b 2
(c) xy − 7a + xa − 7y.
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6 Algebra 3: Algebraic
Fractions and Long Division
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn how to:
� Add and subtract algebraic fractions
� Multiply algebraic fractions
� Divide algebraic fractions
� Divide algebraic expressions using long division.
Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions
Points to note
zz The rules that apply for adding and subtracting arithmetic fractions also
apply for adding and subtracting algebraic fractions.
zzEquivalent fractions are fractions which can be written in a different form
__
2 __4 __ 6
but which have the same value. For example: = =
3 6 9
Equivalent fractions are extremely useful when adding/subtracting fractions
with different denominators.
__
0
zz = 0, a ∈ . A fraction can only be zero when the numerator is zero.
a
a
__
zz is undefined for a ∈ . A scientific calculator will show ‘math error’
0
for this fraction.
zzWhen we are asked to simplify an expression which contains algebraic
fractions we must write the expression as a single fraction.
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Top Tip
When adding/subtracting fractions, follow these steps:
1 Find the lowest common denominator (LCD).
2 Rewrite each fraction in terms of the LCD, using equivalent fractions.
3 Write the expression as a single fraction.
4 Simplify the numerator.
Example
x
__
Simplify 3 + .
5 Alternative method
Solution Find equivalent fractions with
x
__ an LCD of 5.
3 + The LCD is 5.
5 __3 ____ 3(5) ___15
5(3) + x
_______ = =
= Use brackets and expand. 1 5 5
5 ___
15 __ 15 + x
x _____
15 + x
_____ + =
=
5 5 5
5
Example
_____
3a − 7 _____
2a + 1
Write the following expression as a single fraction: − + 4a.
3 4
Solution
_____
3a − 7 _____ 2a + 1
− + 4a The LCD is 12.
3 4
4(3a − 7) − 3(2a + 1) + 12(4a)
_______________________ Use brackets and expand for the
=
12 numerator only.
___________________
12a − 28 − 6a − 3 + 48a _______
54a − 31
=
=
12 12
Example
_____
4 ____
1
Write the following expression as a single fraction:
− .
7b − 3 b − 2
Solution
_____4 ____
1
− The LCD is (7b − 3)(b − 2).
7b − 3 b − 2
4(b − 2) − 1(7b − 3)
_______________
= Expand brackets for the numerator only.
(7b − 3)(b − 2)
____________
4b − 8 − 7b + 3
=
Simplify.
(7b − 3)(b − 2)
____________
−3b − 5
=
(7b − 3)(b − 2)
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Example
____
2 _____
4 __2
Write the following expression as a single fraction: −
+ .
x − 3 2 x − 7 3
Solution
____2 _____
4 __2
−
+ The LCD is (3)(x − 3)(2 x − 7).
x − 3 2 x − 7 3
(2)(3)(2 x − 7) − (3)(4)(x − 3) + (2)(x − 3)(2 x − 7)
_____________________________________
=
(3)(x − 3)(2 x − 7)
(6)(2 x − 7) − (12)(x − 3) + (2 x − 6)(2 x − 7)
________________________________ Expand brackets for the
=
numerator only.
(3)(x − 3)(2 x − 7)
12 x − 42 − 12 x + 36 + 2 x(2 x − 7) − 6(2 x − 7)
__________________________________
=
(3)(x − 3)(2 x − 7)
−6 + 4x 2− 14x − 12 x + 42
_____________________
= Simplify.
(3)(x − 3)(2 x − 7)
4x 2− 26x + 36
______________
=
(3)(x − 3)(2 x − 7)
2(2x 2− 13x + 18)
______________ Factorise the numerator and
=
simplify if possible.
(3)(x − 3)(2 x − 7)
2(2 x − 9)(x − 2)
_____________
=
3(x − 3)(2 x − 7)
Multiplying algebraic fractions
Point to note
The rules that apply for multiplying arithmetic fractions also apply for
multiplying algebraic fractions.
Top Tip
When multiplying algebraic fractions, follow these steps:
1 Factorise the algebraic expressions if possible.
2 Multiply the numerators by the numerators, and the denominators by the
denominators.
3 Simplify.
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Example
25y 3
6x 3 ____
___
Simplify × .
5y 2 9x
Solution
6x 3 ____
___ 25y 3 _______
150x 3y 3 Multiply top by top (numerators) and bottom by bottom
2 × =
5y 9x 45xy 2 (denominators). Divide by 15xy 2.
10x 2y
_____
=
3
Alternatively we can cancel from the beginning.
Example
(x − y) ______
_____ −(x + y)
Simplify
×
.
(x + y) x
Solution
(x − y) ______
_____ −(x + y)
×
Multiply top by top and bottom by bottom.
(x + y) x
−(x − y)(x + y)
___________
= Simplify by cancelling factors where possible.
x(x + y)
−(x − y)
______
= x Multiply out the brackets.
−x + y
_____
= x Note: you cannot cancel the x terms here!
Example
3x − 2y + xy − 6 _____
_____________ 1
Simplify
× 2 .
xy + 3x x − 4
Solution
3x − 2y + xy − 6 _____
_____________ 1
× 2 Factorise the numerator and denominator
xy + 3x x − 4
for both fractions.
3x + xy − 2y − 6 _____
_____________ 1
=
× 2
xy + 3x x − 4
x(3 + y) − 2( y + 3)
______________ __________ 1
= ×
x( y + 3) (x − 2)(x + 2)
(x − 2)( y + 3) __________
___________ 1 Multiply top by top and bottom by bottom.
=
×
x( y + 3) (x − 2)(x + 2)
(x − 2)( y + 3)
________________ Simplify by cancelling factors where possible.
=
x( y + 3)(x − 2)(x + 2)
______ 1 Note: When all factors from the numerator
=
x(x + 2) are cancelled this is replaced by 1, not 0.
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Example
6a 2− 47a + 15
____________
Simplify:
.
27a 2− 3
Solution
First factorise the numerator and denominator.
Numerator: 6a 2− 47a + 15 = (2a − 15)(3a − 1)
Denominator:
27a 2− 3 = 3(9a 2− 1) HCF is 3.
= 3( 3a − 1 )( 3a + 1 ) F actorise (9a 2− 1) using the difference of two
squares formula.
6a 2− 47a + 15
____________
⇒
27a 2− 3
(2a − 15)(3a − 1)
______________ Cancel the common factor (3a − 1) on the top
=
and bottom.
3(3a − 1)(3a + 1)
________
2a − 15
=
3(3a + 1)
Dividing algebraic fractions
Point to note
zzThe rules that apply for dividing arithmetic fractions also apply for
dividing algebraic fractions.
Top Tip
When dividing algebraic fractions, follow these steps:
1 Factorise algebraic expressions where possible.
2 Turn the second fraction upside down.
3 Change the operation sign from division to multiplication.
4 Multiply the top by the top, and the bottom by the bottom.
5 Simplify.
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Example
______
5x 10x 2
____
Simplify
÷ .
3x − 3y 3
Solution
______ 5x 10x 2
____
÷ Factorise all parts.
3x − 3y 3
______5x 10x 2
____
=
÷ Turn the second fraction upside down and
3(x − y) 3
change the sign to multiplication.
______5x ____3
=
× Multiply top by top and bottom by bottom.
3(x − y) 10x 2
_________
15x
= Divide like terms.
30x 2(x − y)
_______ 1
=
2 x(x − y)
Example
4x 2− 64y 2 _______
___________ 6x − 24y
Simplify 2
÷ .
3x + 7x − 20 3x − 5
Solution
4x 2− 64y 2 _______
___________ 6x − 24y
2
÷
Factorise all parts.
3x + 7x − 20 3x − 5
(2 x − 8y)(2 x + 8y) _________
______________ 3(2 x − 8y) Turn the second fraction
= ÷
upside down and multiply.
(x + 4)(3x − 5) (3x − 5)
(2 x − 8y)(2 x + 8y) _________
______________ (3x − 5) Multiply top by top and
= ×
(x + 4)(3x − 5) 3(2 x − 8y) bottom by bottom.
(2 x − 8y)(2 x + 8y)(3x − 5)
____________________
=
Cancel like factors.
3(2 x − 8y)(x + 4)(3x − 5)
(2 x + 8y)
________
=
Factorise the numerator (top).
3(x + 4)
2(x + 4y)
_______
=
3(x + 4)
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Applications of algebraic expressions
We use algebraic fractions on occasions to solve practical applications.
Example
(a) Find the perimeter of the rectangle.
4x – 3
(b) Express your answer as a single fraction.
2
Solution
3x + 2
(a) Perimeter = 2(length) + 2(width) 3
(
_____
4x − 3 _____
3x + 2
) (
= 2 + 2 units
2 3 )
(b) As a single fraction:
_____
4x − 3
(
_____
3x + 2
Perimeter = 2 + 2
2 3 ) ( )
2(4x − 3) ________
________ 2(3x + 2)
= +
2 3
(4x − 3) ________
_______ 2(3x + 2)
= + The LCD is 3.
1 3
3(4x − 3) + 2(3x + 2)
________________
=
Expand brackets and simplify.
3
12 x − 9 + 6x + 4
_____________
=
3
______
18x − 5
= units
3
Long division of algebraic expressions
Points to note
1 The rules that apply for traditional long division also apply for
algebraic long division.
2 If an algebraic expression is a factor of another expression then there
must be no remainder when it is divided.
3 If the expression that you are dividing has a term missing, add this
term and place a zero in front of it. For example: before dividing the
expression 3x 3+ 2 x − 3, we will rewrite it as 3x 3+ 0x 2+ 2 x − 3.
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Example
Divide 2x 2− 9x − 5 by x − 5.
Solution
Method 1
Divide 2x 2− 9x − 5 by x − 5 using long division.
2 x + 1
_____________ Divide x into 2x 2 ⇒ 2 x on top line.
x − 5 ) 2x 2− 9x − 5 Multiply 2 x by (x − 5) ⇒ 2x 2− 10x.
_____________
– 2x 2 + 10x
Subtract (2x 2− 10x) from (2x 2− 9x). Result = + x.
+x − 5 Note: –(2x2 – 10x) = –2x2 + 10x. Bring down −5.
−x + 5 Divide x into +x ⇒ +1 on top line.
0 Multiply +1 by (x − 5) ⇒ x − 5.
Answer = 2 x + 1 Subtract (x − 5) from x − 5. Note: −(x − 5) = −x + 5.
Method 2
Divide 2x 2− 9x − 5 by x − 5 using × ? ?
the box method/array model.
x 2x 2
−5 −5
To get the term 2x 2we must multiply x by 2 x. × 2 x ?
So the first ? = 2 x.
x 2x 2
−5 −5
To get the constant −5 we must multiply −5 by +1. × 2 x +1
So the second ? = +1.
x 2x 2
So the factor is (2 x +1).
−5 −5
Fill in the remainder of the box/array model
× 2 x +1
and check that your solution is correct.
x 2x 2 +x
Check:
2x 2 + x − 10x − 5 = 2x 2− 9x − 5 ✓ −5 −10x −5
(x − 5)(2 x + 1) = x(2 x + 1) − 5(2 x + 1) = 2x 2 + x − 10x − 5 = x 2− 9x − 5 ✓
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Example
Divide 3x 3− 5x + 2 by x − 1.
Solution
3x + 3x − 2
2
_______________
) I nclude 0x 2. Divide x into 3x 3 ⇒ 3x 2on top line.
x − 1 3x 3 + 0x 2
− 5x + 2
Multiply 3x 2 by (x − 1) ⇒ 3x 3− 3x 2.
− 3x 3+ 3x 2
Subtract (3x 3− 3x 2) from 3x 3+ 0x 2. Bring down −5x.
+ 3x 2− 5x
Divide x into 3x 2 ⇒ +3x on top line.
− 3x 2+ 3x Multiply +3x by (x − 1) ⇒ 3x 2− 3x.
− 2 x + 2 Subtract (3x 2− 3x) from 3x 2− 5x. Bring down +2.
+ 2 x − 2 Divide x into −2 x ⇒ −2 on top line.
0 Multiply −2 by (x − 1) ⇒ −2 x + 2.
Answer = 3x 2+ 3x − 2 Subtract (−2 x + 2) from −2 x + 2.
Long division of algebraic expressions can be used to solve practical problems.
Example
The area of a rectangle is x 3+ x 2− 12 x + 10.
If one of the sides is x − 1, find the other side.
Area = x3 + x2 – 12x + 10 x–1
Solution
x + 2 x − 10
2
_______________
Divide x into x 3 ⇒ x 2on top line.
)
x − 1 x 3+ x 2−
12 x + 10
Multiply x 2 by (x − 1) ⇒ x 3− x 2.
− x 3+ x 2
Subtract (x 3− x 2) from x 3 + x 2. Bring down −12 x.
+ 2x 2− 12 x
Divide x into 2x 2 ⇒ +2 x on top line.
− 2x 2+ 2 x
Multiply +2 x by (x − 1) ⇒ 2x 2− 2 x.
− 10x + 10
Subtract (2x 2− 2 x) from 2x 2− 12 x. Bring down +10.
+ 10x − 10
Divide x into −10x ⇒ −10 on top line.
0
Multiply −10 by (x − 1) ⇒ −10x + 10.
Answer = x + 2 x − 10
2
Subtract (−10x + 10) from −10x + 10.
Exercise
__
1 __ __ ___ __
1
Q1 (a) Complete: = = = . (ii) 22 ÷
2 4 6 24 2
__
2 ___ 12
(b) Simplify the following:
(iii) ×
3 8
___
16 ____
23x
(i) (iv) x
30
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−xyz
____ __
1
(v)
(b) 2 + x
−2yz
__x __y
12a 3b 5c 2
________ (c) y − x
(vi)
3ab 6c 2 ___
3c ___ 5c
______
3a − 3b (d) +
(vii) 2 6
a−b ____
14d
(e) − 3d
(c − d)
_______ 3
(viii) . _____
4x − 1 _____ 3x − 2
− (c − d) (f) +
2 5
Q2 Simplify the following: _____
7x − 4 _____ 2 − 3x
(x + 2)(x − 2) (g) +
__________ 3 5
(a) 2
x − 4x + 4 _____
3x − 1 _____ 5x − 3
(h) −
y − 5 ____ y+5 5 2
______
(b) 2 × _____
2a − 7 _____ 3 − 5a
y − 25 3 (i) −
2 5
(x + y ) _______
______
2 (x − y )
2 2
__
1 __
2
(c)
× (j) (2b − 1) + (5b − 3)
(x + y) x 3 5
x 2 + ax − bx − ab ________ ax 2+ a 2x
__x 2 x
_____− 1 x+1
____
______________ (k) − +
(d) × 2 5 10
bx + ab ax
f + 1 ____
____ f−1
4x 2+ 4x − 3 ______
__________ 6x (l) − + f
(e) × 2 2 3
2 4x − 9
x − 1 _____
____ 3x − 4 _____
5x + 3
a − 1 _________
______ 4 1 (m) + −
(f) 2 × 2 . 5 3 15
6a + 6 a − 2a + 1 2 x − 1 ____
_____ x + 1 _____
5x − 1
(n) − − .
Q3 Simplify the following: 4 7 28
___a _____ a 2 Q6 Use long division for the following
(a) ÷
3b 6abc
questions.
9a 5 ___
___ 3a 3
(b) 4 ÷ 5 (a) If x − 1 is factor of x 2+ 3x − 4,
x 3x
x 2− x __
_____ x find the second factor.
(c) ÷
2 8 (b) If x + 1 is factor of x 2− x − 2,
x____+ y ______ x 2− y 2 find the second factor.
(d) ÷
8 12
(c) If x + 6 is factor of x 2+ 2 x − 24,
3x − 9y ______
______ 3
(e) ÷ find the second factor.
2 x − 5 8x − 20
x 2 + x
_________ ____x (d) If x − 5 is factor of 2x 2− 7x − 15,
(f) 2 ÷ .
x + 2 x + 1 x + 1 find the second factor.
Q4 Simplify the following: Q7 (a) Divide x 3− 5x 2− 2 x + 24 by x − 4.
__
1 __ 5 ___
2 ___ 1
(a) + (c) − (b) Divide x 3+ 6x 2+ 5x − 12 by x + 3.
2 6 13 39
__
1 ___ 3 ___
9 __ 2
(b) + (d) − . (c) Divide 2x 3− 3x + 1 by x − 1.
5 10 10 5
Q5 Write each of the following (d) Divide x 3− 8 by x − 2.
expressions as a single fraction:
__
1 __ 3
(a) x + y
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Q8 (a) Find the perimeter of the Q10 (a) Find the perimeter of this
rectangle below in terms of x. triangle:
x+3
x–3 4x + 3
2
6 2
2x + 5
3
x+1
(b) Express your answer as a 3
single fraction. (b) Express your answer as a
(c) If x = 2, find the perimeter of
single fraction.
the rectangle. ____
3 ____
2
Q11 (a) Express − in its
x+1 x+4
Q9 Find the width of the rectangle simplest form.
below in terms of x, if the area of
the rectangle is x 2− 6x − 27 and (b) Divide 3x 2− 19x − 14 by x − 7,
the length is x + 3. by factorisation.
(SEC 2010)
Area = x2 – 6x – 27
x+3
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Algebra 4: Linear Equations 7
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
The key terminology and information associated with linear equations
zz
Different methods used to solve linear equations
zz
zzHow to solve different types of linear equations
zzApplications of linear equations.
Key Terminology
Word Meaning
Expression An expression is a set of terms which are added or subtracted.
An expression does not have an equals sign.
For example: 7x − 2, 5x2 − 3x + 4, 8x3 − 3x2 − 2x + 1.
Term A term is an individual part of an expression or an equation.
For example: 5x2, −3x, +4.
Constant A constant is a term whose value never changes.
For example: +7, −31.
Variable Variables are the letters which stand for unknown numbers
in algebra. For example: x, y, z.
Equation An equation is an expression equal to another expression,
term or constant.
An equation can be solved to find the value(s) of unknown
variable(s), but only certain values will work to make the
equation true.
For example: 2x − 7 = 1.
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Word Meaning
Linear An equation of the form ax + b = 0, where a, b, x ∈ R.
equation
Here, x is the unknown variable. The equation is linear
in one
because the highest power of x is 1 (x = x1).
variable
Solve Find the value of the unknown variable(s).
__
4
For example: 2x = 4 ⇒ x = ⇒ x = 2.
2
Substitute Replace the unknown variable with the value of the solution
found.
Inverse The inverse operation is the opposite operation. For example:
operation zzthe inverse of addition is subtraction and vice versa
zzthe inverse of multiplication is division and vice versa.
We use inverse operations to help solve linear equations.
LHS Left hand side
RHS Right hand side
Solution/ The solution or root is the value of the unknown variable
root which makes an equation true.
Verify/ Replace the unknown with the value of the solution/root and
check show that the left hand side of the equation is equal to the
right hand side.
Points to note
To solve a linear equation, we must:
zzfind a value for the unknown variable that makes the linear equation true
zzperform the same ‘inverse operation’ to both sides of the equation so that
the equation remains balanced, i.e. LHS = RHS
zzverify
that the solution/root is true by substituting the value for the
unknown variable into the original equation and showing that both sides
are equal.
The two important pairs of ‘inverse operations’ that we use in this chapter are:
zz+ and −
zz× and ÷
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Different methods used to solve linear equations
Linear equations can be solved using the methods listed below:
zztrial and improvement
zzthe balance method.
Example
(a) Solve the linear equation x − 5 = 4, using the methods listed above.
(b) Hence, verify your solution.
Solution
(a) Method 1: Trial and improvement
To solve a linear equation using the trial and improvement method, we substitute
the unknown variable with different values until the linear equation is balanced.
Substitute the value for Is the solution correct?
Try x
x into x − 5 = 4 Does LHS = RHS?
1 x − 5 = 1 − 5 = −4 No: −4 ≠ 4 û
2 x − 5 = 2 − 5 = −3 No: −3 ≠ 4 û
3 x − 5 = 3 − 5 = −2 No: −2 ≠ 4 û
4 x − 5 = 4 − 5 = −1 No: −1 ≠ 4 û
5 x−5=5−5=0 No: 0 ≠ 4 û
6 x−5=6−5=1 No: 1 ≠ 4 û
7 x−5=7−5=2 No: 2 ≠ 4 û
8 x−5=8−5=3 No: 3 ≠ 4 û
9 x−5=9−5=4 Yes: 4 = 4 ü
Alternatively, we can use the table function on a calculator to find the solution for x.
Using a Casio calculator:
1 Press ON .
2 Press MODE 3 to choose the table option.
3 At the prompt ‘f (x) =’ press ALPHA ) −5 = .
4 At the prompt ‘Start?’ choose an appropriate value for x. In this case choose 1.
Press = .
5 At the prompt ‘End?’ choose an appropriate value for x. In this case choose 9.
Press = .
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6 At the prompt ‘Step?’ choose an appropriate value. In this case choose 1,
so that the values for x are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, etc. Press = .
7 From the table shown on the calculator read off the value of x which makes
f(x) = 4.
8 From the table we can see that the equation is true when x = 9.
Method 2: The balance method
To find the value for x, we put the x’s on the left and the constants on the right.
x − 5 = 4 Add 5 to both sides (as the ‘inverse operation’ of − 5 is + 5).
Note: when we add 5 to the LHS we are left with x
⇒ x − 5 + 5 = 4 + 5
⇒x=4+5 terms only.
⇒x=9
(b) Verify/check the solution is true:
x−5=4
1 1
x 5 1 1
(9) − 5 = 4
4 = 4
As shown in the example above, the balance method can take less time than the
trial and improvement method.
From this point on we will use the balance method to solve all problems.
Solving different types of linear equations
Points to note
To solve a linear equation containing an unknown variable and constants,
follow these steps:
1 If the linear equation contains fractions, multiply both sides of the equation
by the lowest common denominator (LCD).
2 Expand/multiply out any brackets.
3 Rearrange the formula so that the terms with unknown variables are on
one side and the constants are on the other.
4 Collect all like terms.
5 Divide both sides by the coefficient of the unknown variable to find the
solution/root.
6
Verify (check) the solution is true by substituting the solution into the
original equation.
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Example
Solve the linear equations:
b
__
(a) x + 3 = 8 (b) a − 11 = −2 (c) 2y = 7 (d) = −4.
7
Solution
(a) x + 3 = 8 Subtract 3 from both sides, as the opposite
⇒x+3−3=8−3 operation to + 3 is – 3.
⇒x=5
(b) a − 11 = −2 Add 11 to both sides, as the opposite
⇒ a − 11 + 11 = −2 + 11 operation to – 11 is + 11.
⇒a=9
(c) 2y = 7 To find the value of y, divide both sides by 2.
2y __
___ 7 This is because the inverse/opposite
⇒ = operation to multiplication is division.
2 2
⇒ y = 3·5
__b
(d) = −4 To find the value of b, multiply both sides by 7.
7
___
7b This is because the inverse/opposite operation
⇒ = 7(−4)
7 to division is multiplication.
⇒ b = −28
Example
Solve the linear equation 2(x − 4) + 7 = x − 3 and verify your answer.
Solution
2(x − 4) + 7 = x − 3 Expand brackets. Verify:
⇒ 2x − 8 + 7 = x − 3 Simplify. 2(x − 4) + 7 = x − 3
⇒ 2x − 1 = x − 3 Add 1 to both sides. 2(−2 − 4) + 7 = −2 − 3
⇒ 2x = x − 3 + 1 Subtract x from both sides. 2(−6) + 7 = −5
⇒ 2x − x = −2 Simplify. −12 + 7 = −5
⇒ x = −2 −5 = −5
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Example
Solve the linear equation 5(3 − a) + 4 = a + 7 and verify your answer.
Solution
5(3 − a) + 4 = a + 7 Expand brackets. Verify:
⇒ 15 − 5a + 4 = a + 7 Add like terms on both sides. 5(3 − a) + 4 = a + 7
⇒ −5a + 19 = a + 7 Subtract 19 from both sides. 5(3 − 2) + 4 = 2 + 7
⇒ −5a = a + 7 − 19 Subtract a from both sides. 5(1) + 4 = 9
⇒ −5a − a = −12 5+4=9
⇒ −6a = −12 Divide both sides by −6. 9 = 9
____
−12
⇒ a =
−6
⇒a=2
Example
__
5t __t
Solve the linear equation − 2 = + 15 and verify your answer.
4 4
Solution
__5t __t
− 2 = + 15 Multiply all terms by 4 (the LCD).
4 4
( )
__
5t
( )
__t
⇒ 4 − 4(2) = 4 + 4(15)
4 4
Multiply out brackets.
⇒ 5t − 8 = t + 60 Add 8 to both sides.
⇒ 5t = t + 60 + 8 Subtract t from both sides.
⇒ 5t − t = 68
⇒ 4t = 68 Divide both sides by 4.
___
68
⇒ t =
4
⇒ t = 17
Verify:
5(17)
_____ (17)
____
− 2 = + 15
4 4
19·25 = 19·25
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Example
__
1 ______
7m − 4 ____
−11
Solve the linear equation (2m + 3) − = and verify your answer.
7 2 14
Solution
__1 ______
7m − 4 ____
−11 Multiply all terms Verify:
(2m + 3) − =
7 2 14 by 14 (the LCD). 7(1) − 4 ____
__
1 _______ −11
( ) ( )
___
14 ______
7m − 4 ____
−11 (2(1) + 3) − =
⇒ (2m + 3) − 14 = 14 Simplify. 7 2 14
7 2 14 __
1 ____
7 − 4 ____
−11
(2 + 3) − =
⇒ 2(2m + 3) − 7(7m − 4) = 1(−11) Expand the 7 2 14
brackets. __
1 __
3 ____−11
(5) − =
⇒ 4m + 6 − 49m + 28 = −11 Simplify. 7 2 14
__
5 __ 3 ____ −11
⇒ −45m + 34 = −11 Subtract 34 from − =
7 2 14
both sides.
⇒ −45m = −11 − 34 ____
−11 ____ −11
=
14 14
⇒ −45m = −45 Divide each side
by −45.
____
−45
⇒ m =
−45
⇒m=1
Applications of linear equations
Linear equations can be used to solve problems in many areas of mathematics.
On the JCHL course, the use of linear equations can be linked directly with other
topics such as geometry, statistics, functions, sets, trigonometry, and distance,
speed and time, to mention a few.
Example
A number is doubled and divided by 5. This has the same answer as the sum
of the number and 3, divided by 8. What is the number?
Solution
We know:
A number doubled and divided by 5 = sum of the number and 3, divided by 8.
Let x = number.
___
2x
A number doubled and divided by 5 can be written as .
5
x+3
____
The sum of the number and 3, divided by 8 can be written as .
8
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Hence: Verify:
___
2x ____
5
x+3
=
8
( ) ( )___
15 ___
15
2 + 3
_____
=
11 _______ 11
Solve: 5 8
___ x+3
2x ____
⇒ =
5 8
Multiply both sides by 40 (the LCD). ( ) ( )
____
___
30 ___
48
11 ____ 11
( ) ( )
___
2x x+3
____
⇒ 40 = 40 Simplify.
5 8
=
___
5
6 ___ 6
8
⇒ 8(2x) = 5(x + 3) Expand the brackets. =
11 11
⇒ 16x = 5x + 15 Subtract 5x from both sides.
⇒ 16x − 5x = 15
⇒ 11x = 15 Divide both sides by 11.
___
15
⇒ x =
11
Example
The base of a box is 12 cm longer than it is wide, and the
perimeter of the base of the box is 56 cm. Allow w to represent
w
the width of the base of the box. Write an equation for the
information given and solve to find both the width and the
length of the base of the box. w + 12
Solution
Let:
w = width of the base of the box
w + 12 = length of the base of the box
We know that the perimeter of the base = 2(length) + 2(width) = 56.
∴ 2(w + 12) + 2(w) = 56 Expand the brackets.
⇒ 2w + 24 + 2w = 56 Simplify.
⇒ 24 + 4w = 56 Subtract 24 from both sides.
⇒ 4w = 56 – 24
⇒ 4w = 32 Divide both sides by 4.
___
32
⇒ w =
4
⇒w=8
Width = 8 cm
Length = w + 12 = 8 + 12 = 20 cm
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Exercise
Q1 Explain the meaning of the following words, or give an example:
(a) expression (e) equation (i) inverse
(b) term (f) linear equation operation
(c) constant (g) solve (j) solution/root
(d) variable (h) substitute (k) verify/check.
Q2 Solve the following linear equations for each unknown variable:
2y
___
(a) −3 + x = 7 (d) −2 = k − 1 (g) = 4
−3
(b) a + 9 = 17 (e) 14 f = 182 ___
3d
(h) = −9.
(c) 6 = −b + 3 (f) 7h = −56 −7
Q3 Solve the following linear equations for the unknown variable:
(a) 12 + 5x = 47 (c) −3 − 8c = −11
(b) 2a − 7 = −9 (d) −22 = 3y − 1.
Q4 Solve the following linear equations for the unknown variable:
(a) −2a − 14 = 5 − 3a (c) 3x − 7 = −4 + 5x
(b) 7b − 11 = 13b + 25 (d) 5 + 6d − 8 = 2d − 3 − 5d.
Q5 Solve the following linear equations for the unknown variable:
(a) 6y − 3(y + 2) = 3 − 6y (c) 2(c + 1) − (3 − 2c) = 2c − 7(1 − 2c)
(b) 3(w − 2) − 4(w − 1) = 2(4 − w) − 7 (d) 5(1 − 3z) − 2(10 − z) = −10 + z.
Q6 Solve the following linear equations for the unknown variable:
y−2
____ b __
__ b 2 __1
(a) 3 − = −4 (c) − = 3 (e) __ 3 (3x − 5) + 2 = (x − 1).
4 5 2 2
x
__ __ 1 d
____
− 1
(b) − = 2 (d) − 5 = −d
3 5 3
Q7 Solve the following linear equations for the unknown variable:
x + 3 ____
____ x−4 x ____
__ x + 2 __
3 __ x
(a) − = 7 (c) + = +
4 2 3 4 4 2
_____
2n − 3 ____ n + 1 _____
3n − 1 _____ 2y + 1 __
3y + 2 _____ 1
(b) + = (d) = + .
2 3 3 8 4 3
Q8 Write each statement below as a linear equation and solve to find the
unknown number.
(a) If a number is tripled and 4 is subtracted from the result, then the
answer is 17. Find the number.
(b) The sum of three consecutive natural numbers is 99. Find the three numbers.
(c) Jack thinks of a number, divides it by 4 and subtracts 6, and the answer
is 15. Find the number.
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Q9 Katie has €438 in her credit union account and saves €12 per week.
Conor has €620 in his credit union account and withdraws €14 each week.
They wish to know when they will have the same amount of money in
their credit union accounts.
(a) Write an equation to represent this information. Let x equal the
number of weeks.
(b) After how many weeks will they have the same amount in their accounts?
(c) Verify your answer.
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Algebra 5: 8
Solving Linear Inequalities
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
� Linear inequalities
� Compound inequalities
� Word problems using linear inequalities.
Linear inequalities
Key Terminology
Word/ Symbol Meaning
Linear inequality A linear inequality involves a linear function and contains
one of the symbols of inequality: < , > , ≤ , or ≥ , and may
have an infinite number of solutions, or a range of values
as the solution.
For example: 3 < x, x ∈R, is a linear inequality whose
solution set has an infinite number of elements,
whereas 3 < x < 7, x ∈Z is a linear inequality whose
solution set has three elements: {4, 5, 6}.
Solution The values of the unknown variable which make the
inequality true.
LCD Lowest common denominator
< Less than
≤ Less than or equal to
> Greater than
≥ Greater than or equal to
∈ An element of the set
ℕ The set of natural numbers: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …}
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Word/ Symbol Meaning
ℤ Integers: {… , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
ℚ Rational numbers are the set of numbers which can be
p
__
written in the form q , where p and q ∈ℤ, and q ≠ 0.
ℝ\ℚ Irrational numbers are the set of numbers which cannot
p
__
be written in the form q , where p and q ∈ ℤ, and q ≠ 0.
ℝ Real numbers: all the rational and irrational numbers.
The set of real numbers includes the sets ℕ, ℤ, ℚ and
ℝ\ℚ.
Note: The number systems ℕ, ℤ, ℚ and ℝ are described in the Formulae
and Tables booklet.
Points to note
To represent the solution set of an inequality on the number line:
zzFor < and > we use an unshaded circle ¡ to indicate that an endpoint is not
part of the solution set.
zzFor ≤ and ≥ we use a shaded circle l to indicate that an endpoint is part of
the solution set.
For
zz the ℕ, ℤ, ℚ and ℝ\ℚ sets, the data is discrete, and is represented by
shaded circles on the number line.
For example: when x ≤ 3, x ∈ℕ, the data is discrete it is represented by
shaded circles on the number line, as shown:
0 1 2 3 4
zzFor the real numbers ℝ, the data is continuous, and is represented by a
thick line with a shaded circle or unshaded circle at either end.
For example: when x > −3, x ∈R, as the data is continuous it is represented
on the number line by a thick line with an unshaded circle, as shown:
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2
zzTo multiply or divide a linear inequality by a negative number we must
divide across by the negative number and reverse the inequality sign.
This means that:
� < changes to > � ≤ changes to ≥
� > changes to < � ≥ changes to ≤
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Solving inequalities
Top Tip
To solve a linear inequality:
1 Expand/multiply out any brackets and collect like terms.
2 Rearrange the inequality so that terms containing the unknown variable
are on one side of the inequality sign and the constants are on the other.
3 Divide both sides by the coefficient of the unknown variable to find
the solution set. If we divide across by a negative number, we must
remember to reverse the direction of the inequality.
4 List the elements of the solution set or represent the solution set on a
number line, as requested.
Example
(a) Solve the inequality 3x − 8 ≤ 4.
(b) Hence, graph the following solution sets on the number line:
(i) x ∈
(ii) x ∈ ℤ (iii) x ∈ ℝ
(c) List the elements of the solution set A, for x ∈ ℕ.
Solution
(a) 3x − 8 ≤ 4 Add 8 to both sides.
⇒ 3x − 8 + 8 ≤ 4 + 8
⇒ 3x ≤ 12
Divide both sides by 3.
___
3x ___12
⇒ ≤
3 3
⇒x≤4
(b) (i) x ≤ 4, x ∈ ℕ
For the natural numbers, ℕ, the data is discrete,
so use shaded circles on the number line.
–1 0 1 2 3 4
(ii) x ≤ 4, x ∈ ℤ
For the integers, ℤ, the data is discrete, so use shaded
circles on the number line. The inequality sign points
left, so the arrow on the number line should point left.
–1 0 1 2 3 4
(iii) x ≤ 4, x ∈ ℝ
For the real numbers, ℝ, the data is continuous, and is
represented by a thick line. The inequality sign points
left, so the arrow on the number line should point left.
–1 0 1 2 3 4
(c) A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
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Example
(a) Solve the inequality 3(x − 2) − 7(3x + 1) ≤ 2 − 3x, x ∈ℕ.
(b) Graph the solution set on the number line.
Solution
(a) 3(x − 2) − 7(3x + 1) ≤ 2 − 3x
⇒ 3x − 6 − 21x − 7 ≤ 2 − 3x Expand the brackets.
⇒ −18x − 13 ≤ 2 − 3x Collect like terms.
⇒ −18x + 3x ≤ 2 + 13 Put x terms on the left and constants on the right.
⇒ −15x ≤ 15
_____
−15x ____ 15
⇒
≥
Divide by −15 and change the direction of the
−15 −15
inequality sign.
⇒ x ≥ −1
(b) x ≥ −1, x ∈ℕ As the solution to this inequality is for natural
numbers, we start at 1 and include all natural
numbers to the right.
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Top Tip
To solve a double/compound linear inequality, use either of the two methods
listed below:
Method 1
�
Separate
the double inequality into two separate inequalities and solve
each one as normal.
Method 2
�
Rearrange the inequality so only the unknown variable is in the middle of
the inequality, and the constants are on either side. Continue as normal.
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Example
(a) Solve the inequality −6 < 4x + 2 ≤ 14, x ∈ℝ.
(b) Graph the solution set on the number line.
Solution
(a) Method 1: Solving the inequalities separately.
−6 < 4x + 2 ≤ 14 Separate the double inequality into
two separate inequalities.
⇒ −6 < 4x + 2 and ⇒ 4x + 2 ≤ 14 Put x terms on the left and constants on
the right.
⇒ −4x < 2 + 6
⇒ 4x ≤ 14 − 2
⇒ −4x < 8
⇒ 4x ≤ 12
____
−4x ___ 8 ___
4x ___12
⇒ >
⇒ ≤
−4 −4 4 4
⇒ x > −2
⇒ x≤3
Method 2: Solving the inequalities simultaneously (at the same time).
−6 < 4x + 2 ≤ 14 Subtract 2 from each part of the inequality.
⇒ −6 − 2 < 4x + 2 − 2 ≤ 14 − 2
⇒ −8 < 4x ≤ 12
Divide each part of the inequality by 4.
___
−8 ___ 4x ___12
⇒ < ≤
4 4 4
⇒ −2 < x ≤ 3, x ∈ℝ
Points to note
It is important to note that we read the inequality from the:
centre
� to the left for the inequality x > −2
centre
� to the right for the inequality x ≤ 3.
(b) −2 < x ≤ 3, x ∈ℝ The unshaded circle at −2 shows that the number
is not included.
The shaded circle at 3 shows that the number is
included.
For the real numbers, ℝ, the data is continuous,
and is represented by a thick line.
–2 –1 0 1 2 3
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Applications of linear inequalities
Example
(a) Find the solution set of A: 1 − 4x ≤ 21, x ∈ ℝ.
(b) Find the solution set of B: 5x + 2 ≤ 22, x ∈ ℝ.
(c) Graph the solution set of A ∩ B on the number line.
Solution
(a) 1 − 4x ≤ 21 Subtract 1.
⇒ 1 − 4x − 1 ≤ 21 − 1
⇒ −4x ≤ 20 Divide by −4 and change the
direction of the inequality sign.
____
−4x ___
20
⇒ ≥
−4 −4
⇒ x ≥ −5
(b) 5x + 2 ≤ 22 Subtract 2.
⇒ 5x ≤ 22 − 2
⇒ 5x ≤ 20
Divide by 5.
___
5x ___20
⇒ ≤
5 5
⇒ x≤4
(c) −5 ≤ x ≤ 4, x ∈ℝ The shaded circles at −5 and 4 show that both
numbers are included.
For the real numbers, ℝ, the data is continuous,
and is represented by a thick line.
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
Example
The relationship between Fahrenheit temperature and Celsius temperature is given by
__
5
the formula: C = (F − 32). If the temperature in the Sahara Desert ranges from 10 °C to
9
45 °C in a 24-hour period, what is the temperature range in degrees Fahrenheit?
Solution
The temperature is between 10 °C and 45 °C, so C must be greater than or equal to
10 °C and less than or equal to 45 °C.
10 ≤ C ≤ 45
__
5 __
5
⇒ 10 ≤ (F − 32) ≤ 45 Let C = (F − 32).
9 9
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( ) ( )
__
9
5
__
9 __
5 9
5
( )
__
9
⇒ 10 ≤ (F − 32) ≤ 45
5
__
9
( ) __
5
( )
Multiply all parts by , the reciprocal of .
5 9
⇒ 18 ≤ F − 32 ≤ 81 Add 32 to all parts of the inequality.
⇒ 18 + 32 ≤ F − 32 + 32 ≤ 81 + 32
⇒ 50 ≤ F ≤ 113
The temperature range in the Sahara Desert is from 50 °F to 113 °F.
Exercise
Q1 Write an inequality which is represented by the following graphs:
(a) –2
–1 0 1 2 3 4
(b) 0
1 2 3 4
(c) –5
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(d) –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2
Q2 Graph on the number line the solution sets of:
_____
1 − 3x
(a) 9 − 4x > − 3, x ∈ ℕ (b) < 5, x ∈ℝ
2
Q3 List the elements of the solution sets of:
(a) −1 ≤ −3x + 5 < 8, x ∈ℤ
(b) 2x − 1 < x − 2 ≤ 2x + 10, x ∈ℤ
Q4 Graph on the number line the solution sets of:
(a) 14x + 1 > 2(6x − 3) − 5, x ∈ℝ
(b) 6x − 3 > 2(4x − 3) − 6, x ∈ℝ
Q5 Graph on the number line the solution sets of:
(a) 5x − 3(2x − 1) ≥ 2(x − 3), x ∈ℕ (b) 2(x − 2) ≤ 2(2x − 1) < 2x + 6, x ∈ℤ
Q6 (a) Write out a compound inequality which represents the set of values of c
for which c2≤ 9, c ∈ℝ.
(b) Graph the solution set on a number line.
Q7 (a) Solve the inequality 7x − 3 > 18, where x ∈ℕ.
(b) Write down the smallest value of x for which the inequality is true.
Q8 (a) Graph on a number line the solution set of A where
A = {x|x ∈ 3x − 8 < 7, x ∈ℤ}.
(b) Graph on a number line the solution set of B where
B = {x|x ∈ 5 − 2x < 9, x ∈ℤ}.
(c) List all the elements of A ∩ B.
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Q9 Passenger trains in Ireland have a minimum speed limit of 10 km/h and a
maximum speed limit of 160 km/h.
(a) Represent this information as a compound inequality, where s
represents speed.
(b) Graph this information on a number line.
Q10 A gymnast scores 7·5, 8·5, 8·2 and 9 in four events out of five. In order to get
a minimum overall average score of 8·5, what score must she get in the fifth
event?
Q11 Niamh is in a clothes shop and has a voucher which she must use. The voucher
gives a €10 reduction when more than €35 is spent. She also has €50 cash.
(a) Write down an inequality in x to show the range of money she could
spend in the shop.
(b) Write an inequality in y to show the price range of articles she could buy.
(SEC 2015)
Q12 Josephine hopes to go to college. She has saved €3000. She will attend
college for 32 weeks in her first year. She plans to have at least €800 left at
the end of the year.
(a) If she spends €x each week, write an inequality to represent her
spending during the year.
(b) Hence, or otherwise, find the maximum amount Josephine can spend
each week.
(SEC 2013)
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Algebra 6: Solving 9
Simultaneous Equations
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
� Linear equations in two variables (simultaneous equations)
� Word problems using simultaneous equations.
Simultaneous equations
Key Terminology
Word Meaning
Variable The letters which stand for unknown numbers in algebra.
For example: x, y, z.
Linear An equation of the form ax + by = c, where a, b, c ∈ℝ.
equation
Simultaneous Can be two linear equations with two unknown variables,
equations which are both true at the same time. The equations
must be solved, either algebraically or graphically,
to find the values of the unknown variables.
For example: x + y = 9 and x − y = 3.
Solution The values of the unknown variables which make the
equation true.
Verify/check Replace the unknowns with the values of the variables
found and show that the left hand side (LHS) of the
equation equals the right hand side (RHS).
Point of Graphically, the point where two lines cross is called
intersection the point of intersection. The point of intersection is the
solution to the simultaneous equations that describe the
two lines.
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Solving simultaneous equations
Points to note
� In order to solve two linear equations in two variables (say x and y),
we need two equations to be true at the same time. These are known as
simultaneous equations.
� We can solve simultaneous equations in two unknowns either algebraically
or graphically. These methods are:
1 trial and improvement 3 substitution
2 elimination 4 graphing.
Top Tip
To solve simultaneous equations in two unknowns, using the ‘trial and
improvement’ method:
1 Label the linear equations (1) and (2).
2 Rearrange both equations in the form ‘y =’.
3 ‘Guess and check’ for values of x until you find the correct solution.
Note: The correct solution is found when the value of y is the same for
both equations when the correct value for x is substituted in.
Example
Solve the two simultaneous equations using the ‘trial and improvement’ method:
x+y=9
x−y=3
Solution
1 Label the linear equations (1) and (2).
x + y = 9
(1)
x − y = 3
(2)
2 Rearrange both equations in the form ‘y = ’:
y = 9 − x (3)
y = x − 3
(4)
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3 ‘Guess and check’ for values of x until you find the correct solution.
Try x Substitute the Check solutions by Are the
guessed value of x substituting the solutions
into equation (3): values of x and y into correct?
y=9−x equation (4):
y=x−3
x=1 y = 9 − x = 9 − (1) y = x − 3 = (1) − 3 O
=9−1=8 = 1 − 3 = −2 wrong solution
x=2 y = 9 − x = 9 − (2) y = x − 3 = (2) − 3 O
=9−2=7 = 2 − 3 = −1 wrong solution
x=3 y = 9 − x = 9 − (3) y = x − 3 = (3) − 3 O
=9−3=6 =3−3=0 wrong solution
x=4 y = 9 − x = 9 − (4) y = x − 3 = (4) − 3 O
=9−4=5 =4−3=1 wrong solution
x=5 y = 9 − x = 9 − (5) y = x − 3 = (5) − 3 O
=9−5=4 =5−3=2 wrong solution
x=6 y = 9 − x = 9 − (6) y = x − 3 = (6) − 3 P
=9−6=3 =6−3=3 x = 6 and y = 3
The correct solution is: x = 6 and y = 3.
Top Tip
To solve simultaneous equations in two unknowns using the
‘substitution’ method:
1 Label the linear equations (1) and (2).
2 Rearrange one equation in the form ‘y = ’ (or ‘x = ’ ).
3 Substitute this expression into the other equation.
4 Find the value of the x variable (or the y variable).
5 Find the value of the second variable by substituting the value of the
x variable (or the y variable) into the equation, found in step 2.
6 Check the values of both variables by substitution into the other linear
equation.
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Example
Solve the following simultaneous equations using the ‘substitution’ method:
5a − b = 15
a + b = −3
Solution
5a − b = 15 (1) Label the linear equations (1) and (2).
a + b = −3 (2)
5a − b = 15 (1) Rearrange equation (1) in the form ‘b = ’.
⇒ b = 5a − 15
a + b = −3 (2) Substitute 5a − 15 into equation (2) for b
and find the value of a.
⇒ a + (5a − 15) = −3
⇒ a + 5a − 15 = −3 Add 15 to both sides.
⇒ 6a = −3 + 15
⇒ 6a = 12 Divide across by 6 to find a.
___
12
⇒ a = = 2
6
Find the value of b by substituting the value of a into the equation: b = 5a − 15.
⇒ b = 5(2) − 15
⇒ b = 10 − 15
⇒ b = −5
Check the values of both variables by substitution into either linear equation.
a + b = −3
⇒ 2 − 5 = −3
⇒ −3 = −3 P
Top Tip
To solve simultaneous equations in two unknowns using the
‘elimination’ method:
1 Label the linear equations (1) and (2).
2 Rearrange both equations in the form ax + by = c.
3 Eliminate one variable and find the value of the other variable.
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4 Find the value of the second variable by substitution into either
original linear equation.
5 Check the values of both variables by substitution into the other linear
equation.
Example
Solve the following simultaneous equations using the ‘elimination’ method:
2x − 6 = −y
−2y = 16 − 3x
Solution
� Label the linear equations (1) and (2).
2x − 6 = −y (1)
−2y = 16 − 3x (2)
� Rearrange both equations in the form ax + by = c.
2x + y = 6 (3)
3x − 2y = 16 (4)
� To eliminate y, multiply equation (3) by 2 and add equation (4).
4x + 2y = 12 Equation (3) multiplied by 2.
+ 3x − 2y = 16 Equation (4).
7x = 28
___
28
⇒ x =
Divide across by 7 to find x.
7
⇒ x=4
� Find the value of y by substituting x = 4 into equation (3).
2x + y = 6 (3)
⇒ 2(4) + y = 6
⇒ 8+y=6
⇒ y=6−8
⇒ y = −2
� Check the values of both variables by substitution into equation (4).
3x − 2y = 16 (4)
⇒ 3(4) − 2(−2) = 16
⇒ 12 + 4 = 16
⇒ 16 = 16 P
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Top Tip
To solve simultaneous equations in two unknowns, using the ‘graphical’
method:
1 Label the linear equations (1) and (2).
2 Find a minimum of two coordinates for each linear equation.
3 Plot the points and draw a graph for each linear equation, labelling
each line.
4 Find the point where the two lines cross (called the point of intersection).
5 Check the solution/values of both variables by substitution into either
linear equation.
Example
Solve the following simultaneous equations ‘graphically’:
x+y=5
2x − 3y = −30
Solution
� Label the equations (1) and (2).
x + y = 5 (1)
2x − 3y = −30 (2)
� Find two points for each linear equation.
Equation 1: x + y = 5 (1)
When x = 0, find y: 0 + y = 5 ⇒y=5 Point 1 is (0, 5).
When y = 0, find x: x + 0 = 5 ⇒ x = 5 Point 2 is (5, 0).
Equation 2: 2x − 3y = −30 (2)
When x = 0 find y: 2(0) − 3y = −30 ⇒ −3y = −30
____
−30
⇒ y = = 10 Point 3 is (0, 10).
−3
When y = 0 find x: 2x − 3(0) = −30 ⇒ 2x = −30
____
−30
⇒ y = = −15 Point 4 is (−15, 0).
2
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� Plot the points and draw a graph for each linear equation, labelling each line.
10
x+y=5
9
(–3, 8) 8
7
6
5
2x – 3y = –30
4
3
2
1
0
–16 –15 –14 –13 –12 –11 –10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
� The point where the two lines cross is (−3, 8). This is the solution ( x = −3 and y = 8),
and shows that by solving simultaneous equations we are finding the point of
intersection.
� Check the values of both variables by substitution into either linear equation.
x + y = 5 ⇒ −3 + 8 = 5 ⇒ 5 = 5 P
Top Tip
To solve simultaneous equations containing fractions:
1 Rearrange both equations in the form ax + by = c, where a, b, c ´ ℤ.
2 Multiply all terms by the LCD.
3 Label the linear equations (1) and (2).
4 Solve using one of the previously described methods.
Example
Solve the simultaneous equations:
3x − y = 7
y+4
x − 1 ____
____
− = 0
3 2
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Solution
x − 1 ____
____ y+4
− = 0 Multiply each term by the LCD = 6.
3 2
( ) ( )
x____
−1
3
y+4
____
⇒ 6 − 6 = 0
2
Simplify.
⇒ 2(x − 1) − 3( y + 4) = 0 Expand brackets.
⇒ 2x − 2 − 3y − 12 = 0
⇒ 2x − 3y = 14
� Label the equations (1) and (2):
3x − y = 7 (1)
2x − 3y = 14 (2)
� Eliminate the y variable:
−9x + 3y = −21 (1) × −3
+ 2x − 3y = 14 (2)
−7x = −7
___
−7
⇒ x =
−7
⇒ x=1
� Substitute x = 1 into (1) to find y:
3x − y = 7
⇒ 3(1) − y = 7
⇒ −y = 7 − 3
⇒ −y = 4
⇒ y = −4
� Check your solution by substituting both values into equation (2):
2x − 3y = 14 ⇒ 2(1) − 3(−4) = 14 ⇒ 2 + 12 = 14 ⇒ 14 = 14 P
Answer: x = 1 and y = −4
Top Tip
To solve word problems using simultaneous equations:
1 Select/set two variables to represent the two unknowns.
2 Write two linear equations to represent the information provided.
3 Label the linear equations (1) and (2).
4 Solve using one of the previously described methods.
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Example
Marie has €25 made up of 20-cent coins and 50-cent coins. She has 104 coins in total.
(a) Taking x to be the number of 20-cent coins and y to be the number of 50-cent
coins, write down two equations in x and y to represent this information.
(b) Solve the equations to find the number of each type of coin Marie has.
(SEC 2004)
Solution
(a) Write two linear equations to represent the information given and label
them (1) and (2):
Let x = number of 20-cent coins
Let y = number of 50-cent coins
x + y = 104
(1)
20x + 50y = 2500 (2) Note: € 25 has been converted into
cents i.e. €25 = 2500 cents.
(b) � Eliminate the y variable to find x:
−50x − 50y = −5200 (1) × −50
+ 20x + 50y = 2500 (2)
−30x = −2700
______
−2700
⇒ x =
−30
⇒ x = 90
Substitute x = 90 into (1) to find y.
�
x + y = 104
⇒ 90 + y = 104
⇒ y = 104 − 90
⇒ y = 14
Check your solution by substituting both values into equation (2):
�
20x + 50y = 2500 ⇒ 20(90) + 50(14) = 2500
⇒ 1800 + 700 = 2500 ⇒ 2500 = 2500 P
Answer: There are ninety 20-cent coins and fourteen 50-cent coins.
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Exercise
Q1 Solve the following simultaneous equations using the elimination method:
(a) x + 2y = 20 (b) 4x − 3y = 3 (c) 3x + 4y = −1
9x − 2y = 80 2x + 6y = −1 2x + 9 = −6y
Q2 Solve the following simultaneous equations using the substitution method:
(a) x − 2y = 5 (b) 3x + 4y = 1 (c) a − 2b = −3
x + 5y = −9
x = −3 + 2y
a + 2b = 1
Q3 Solve the following simultaneous equations graphically:
(a) x + y = 3 (b) y = x + 1 (c) x − 2y = 5
2x − 3y = 6 y = −2x + 4
x + 5y = −9
Q4 Solve the following simultaneous equations:
x
__ __
1 ___
2x ___2y ___ 12
(a) − y = −1 (b) x − y = −5 (c) − =
3 2 5 3 5
4x − y = 10 __
5 x − 3 ____ y − 1 __
x + y = −1 ____ 5
2 − =
4 3 6
Q5 The Henry family of two adults and three children plan to visit Dublin Zoo.
The total cost of admission for the whole family is €68.40. On the same day
they meet the Clarke family of three adults and four children who pay €96.70
to visit the zoo.
(a) Write down two equations to represent the above information.
(b) Find the cost of admission to Dublin Zoo for an adult, and for a child.
(c) Verify your answer.
Q6 Jack saves 1-cent and 2-cent coins in a money box. After counting his
money, he finds he has 250 coins in total which add up to €4.10.
(a) Taking x to be the number of 1-cent coins and y to be the number of
2-cent coins, write down two equations in x and y to represent this
information.
(b) Solve these equations to find the number of each type of coin Jack
has saved.
(c) Verify your answer.
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Algebra 7: 10
Solving Quadratic Equations
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn:
� How to solve quadratic equations using factors
� How to solve quadratic equations using the quadratic formula
� How to solve quadratic equations with algebraic fractions
� How to form quadratic equations given the roots
� How to solve problems using quadratic equations.
Quadratic equations
Key Terminology
Word Meaning
Quadratic An equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0 and
equation a, b, c ∈ℝ.
Zero rule When we factorise a quadratic equation we get two factors:
i.e. (a)(b) = 0
This is called the zero rule, which means that either a = 0 or b = 0.
The zero rule is used when solving quadratic equations.
Roots When we solve a quadratic equation we can get two values
for x, as the highest power of a quadratic equation is 2.
The values of x are called the solution or the roots of the
quadratic equation.
Graphically, the roots of a quadratic equation are found where
the graph cuts the x-axis, i.e. when y = 0.
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Points to note
The roots of a quadratic equation are found where the graph cuts the x-axis,
i.e. when y = 0.
When a quadratic equation is graphed, its shape is commonly called a parabola.
If the coefficient of the x2 term is If the coefficient of the x 2 term is
a positive number, then the graph a negative number, then the graph
will be ‘∪-shaped’. will be ‘∩-shaped’.
This is covered in further detail in Chapter 14.
Solving quadratic equations using factors
We can solve quadratic equations using the factorisation methods we met in
Chapter 4. They are:
1 Taking out the highest common factor. For example: 7x2 − 63x = 7x(x − 9).
2 The difference of two squares.
For example: 64x2 − 49 = (8x)2 − (7)2 = (8x − 7)(8x + 7).
3 Quadratic trinomials. For example: x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3).
Please review these methods at this point.
Top Tip
To solve a quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0,
where a ≠ 0, and a, b, c ∈:
1 Ensure that the quadratic equation is written in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
2 Factorise the left hand side (LHS) of the equation.
3 Set each factor equal to zero, from the ‘zero rule’.
4 Find the value(s) of x.
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Example
Solve the quadratic equation 5x2 − x = 0.
Solution
5x2 − x = 0 Take out the HCF = x.
⇒ x(5x − 1) = 0 Factorise the LHS.
⇒ x = 0 or 5x − 1 = 0 Let each factor = 0.
⇒ x = 0 or 5x = 1
__
1
⇒ x = 0 or x = These values for x are the roots.
5
Graphically, we see that the roots are found where y
the graph cuts the x-axis, i.e. when y = 0. 0·5
Algebraically, check the roots by substituting x = 0 0·4
__
1 y = 5x2 – x
and x = into the original equation:
5 0·3
When x = 0: 5x2 − x = 0 ⇒ 5(0)2 − (0) = 0 ⇒ 0 = 0 ü 0·2
__
1 __
1
( ) ( ) __
1
2
When x = : 5x2− x = 0 ⇒ 5 − = 0 0·1
5 5 5
( ) ( )
___1 __
1 0
⇒ 5 − = 0 –0·2 –0·1 0 0·1 0·2 0·3 0·4 x
25 5
( ) ( )
__
1 __
1 –0·1
⇒ − = 0 ⇒ 0 = 0 ü
5 5
Example
Solve the quadratic equation 110x2 − 11x = 0.
Solution
110x2 − 11x = 0 Take out the HCF = 11x. y
0·4
⇒ 11x(10x − 1) = 0 Factorise the LHS.
Let each factor = 0. 0·3
___
0 0·2
⇒ x = or 10x
=1
11
___
1 0·1
⇒ x = 0 or x = These values for x are the roots.
10 0
–0·05 0 0·05 0·1 0·15 x
Graphically, we see that the roots are found where the –0·1
graph cuts the x-axis, i.e. when y = 0.
–0·2
Check the roots algebraically by substituting x = 0 and
___
1 –0·3
x = into the original equation. y = 110x2 – 11x
10
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Example
Solve the quadratic equation x2 + x − 2 = 0.
Solution
x2 + x − 2 = 0 Factorise the LHS using the guide number method.
Guide number = (coefficient of x2 term) × (constant).
Here x2= 1x2 , so the coefficient of x2 is 1 and
the constant is −2.
The guide number is (1)(−2) = −2.
⇒ x2 − x + 2x − 2 = 0 The factors which add to +x are −x + 2x.
⇒ x(x − 1) + 2(x − 1) = 0 Factorise using grouping.
⇒ (x + 2)(x − 1) = 0
⇒ x + 2 = 0 or x − 1 = 0 Let each factor = 0.
⇒ x = −2 or x = 1 These values for x are the roots.
Graphically, we see that the roots are y
found when y = 0. 4
Check the roots by substituting x = −2 3
and x = 1 into the original equation.
2
1
0
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x
–1
–2
y = x2 + x – 2
Example
Solve the quadratic equation 4x2 − 4x − 3 = 0.
Solution
4x2 − 4x − 3 = 0 Factorise the LHS using the guide number method.
Guide number = (4)(−3) = −12.
⇒ 4x2+ 2x − 6x − 3 = 0 The factors which add to −4x are + 2x − 6x.
⇒ 2x(2x + 1) − 3(2x + 1) = 0 Factorise using grouping.
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⇒ (2x − 3)(2x + 1) = 0
⇒ 2x − 3 = 0 or 2x + 1 = 0 Let each factor = 0.
⇒ 2x = 3 or 2x = −1
__
3 __
1
⇒ x = or x = − These values for x are the roots.
2 2
Graphically, we see that the roots are y
found where the graph cuts the x-axis, 10
i.e. when y = 0.
8
Algebraically, check the roots by
__
1 __
3 6
substituting x = − and x = into the
2 2 4
original equation.
2
0
–1·5 –1 –0·5 0 0·5 1 1·5 2 x
–2
–4
y = 4x2 – 4x – 3
Example
(a) Solve the equation x2 − 4x − 12 = 0.
(b) Hence, solve the equation (y − 1)2 − 4(y − 1) − 12 = 0.
Solution
(a) x 2 − 4x − 12 = 0 Factorise the LHS.
Guide Number = (1)(−12) = −12
Factors which add to −4x are −6x + 2x.
⇒ x2 + 2x − 6x − 12 = 0
⇒ x(x + 2) − 6(x + 2) = 0 Factorise.
⇒ (x − 6)(x + 2) = 0
⇒ x − 6 = 0 or x + 2 = 0
⇒ x = 6 or x = −2
(b) The equation ( y − 1)2 − 4( y − 1) − 12 = 0 is of the same form as x2 − 4x − 12 = 0,
except that x has been replaced with ( y − 1). We can therefore replace x by
( y − 1) in the answers.
y−1=x
∴ y − 1 = 6 or y − 1 = −2
∴ y = 6 + 1 or y = −2 + 1
∴ y = 7
or y = −1
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Solving quadratic equations using the
quadratic formula
There are occasions when it is not possible to find integer values for the factors
of a quadratic equation. For example, when factorising the quadratic formula
x2 + x − 1 = 0, it is not possible to find integer factors of the guide number = −1,
where the factors sum to give the middle term +1x.
In such cases, mathematicians
_______ use the quadratic formula, also known as the
−b ± √ b2 − 4ac
____________
‘−b formula’: x = ,
given in the Formulae and Tables booklet,
2a
to find the roots/solution of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0.
We always use this formula when we are asked to find the values of the roots
to a given number of decimal places, or a number of significant figures, or the
nearest integer or in surd form.
Top Tip
To solve a quadratic equation using the quadratic formula:
1 Ensure that the quadratic equation is written in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
2 Identify the values of a, b and c, including the sign of each.
3 Substitute the_______
values of a, b and c into the quadratic formula:
b2 − 4ac
−b ± √
____________
x =
.
2a
4 Calculate both values for x.
Example
Solve the quadratic equation 3x2 − 2x − 3 = 0, giving your answer in surd form,
correct to two decimal places.
Solution
3x2 − 2x − 3 = 0
We know that: a = 3, b = −2 and c = −3.
_______
−b ± √ b2− 4ac
_____________ Substitute a = 3, b = −2 and c = −3 into the
x =
2a quadratic formula.
_____________ _____
− (−2) ± √ (−2)2 − 4(3)(−3)
_____________________ 2 ± √ 4 + 36
__________
⇒ x = ⇒ x =
___ 2(3) ___
6
___ ___
2 + √ 40
_______ 2 − √ 40
_______
⇒ x = or x = Simplify √ 40 = 2√ 10 using a calculator.
6 6
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___ ___
2 + 2√ 10
________ 2 − 2√ 10
________
⇒ x = or x =
Leave the roots in surd form.
6 6
___ ___
__
1 ____ √ 10 __
1 ____ √ 10
⇒ x = + or x = −
3 3 3 3
⇒ x = 1·39 or x = −0·72
Check the roots by substituting them into the original equation.
Example
___
15 is one root of the quadratic equation x2 − 2x − 14 = 0.
Verify that 1 − √
Solution
___
15 .
Solve the quadratic equation x2 − 2x − 14 = 0 to verify that one of the roots is 1 − √
We know that: a = 1, b = −2 and c = −14.
_______
−b ± √ b2− 4ac
____________ Substitute a = 1, b = −2 and c = −14 into the
x =
2a quadratic formula.
______________
−(−2) ± √ (−2)2 − 4(1)(−14)
_____________________
⇒ x =
2(1)
_____
2 ± √ 4 + 56
__________
⇒ x =
2
___ ___
___ ___
2 + √ 60
_______ 2 − √ 60
_______
⇒ x = or x = Simplify √ 60 = 2√ 15 using a calculator.
2 2
___ ___
2 + 2√ 15
________ 2 − 2√ 15
________
⇒ x = or x =
Leave the roots in surd form.
2 2
___ ___
15
⇒x=1+√ 15
or x = 1 − √
___
We have verified that 1 − √ 15 is a root of the equation x2 − 2x − 14 = 0.
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Solving quadratic equations with algebraic
fractions
Top Tip
To solve a quadratic equation with algebraic fractions:
1 Find the lowest common denominator (LCD) for the fractions in the equation.
2 Multiply each term in the equation by the LCD.
3 Ensure that the quadratic equation is written in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0
and solve.
Example
x2 __
__ 1 _____ 3x − 1
Solve the equation − = .
3 2 6
Solution
__x2 __
1 _____3x − 1
− = Multiply all terms by the LCD = 6.
3 2 6
⇒ 2x2 − 3 = 3x − 1
⇒ 2x2− 3x − 3 + 1 = 0
⇒ 2x2− 3x − 2 = 0 Factorise the LHS.
⇒ (2x + 1)(x − 2) = 0
⇒ 2x + 1 = 0 or x − 2 = 0
⇒ 2x = −1 or x = 2
⇒ x = −0.5 or x = 2
Forming quadratic equations given the roots
Top Tip
To form a quadratic equation given the roots, we can use either of the
methods below.
Method 1: Working back from the roots
1 Assume that a and b are the roots.
2 Let x equal the value of each root: x = a and x = b.
3 Form both factors: (x − a) = 0 and (x − b) = 0.
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4 Set the factors equal to zero: (x − a) (x − b) = 0, using the zero rule.
5 Expand the brackets:
x ( x − b) − a ( x − b) = 0 ⇒ x2 − bx − ax + ab = 0
⇒ x2 − (a + b) x + ab = 0
Method 2: Using the formula x2 − (sum of the roots) x + (product of the roots) = 0
1 Assume that a and b are the roots.
2 Add both roots together: sum of the roots = a + b.
3 Multiply both roots together: product of the roots = ab.
4 Substitute the value for the sum and the product into the quadratic
formula below:
x2− (sum of the roots) x + (product of the roots) = 0
⇒ x 2 − (a + b)x + ab = 0 (This is the same formula used in Method 1.)
Note: This formula is not in the Formulae and Tables booklet.
Example
Form the quadratic equation for the roots x = −4 and x = 5.
Solution
Method 1: The roots are x = −4 and x = 5
⇒ x + 4 = 0 and x − 5 = 0 The factors.
⇒ (x + 4)(x − 5) = 0
⇒ x(x − 5) + 4(x − 5) = 0 Expand the brackets.
⇒ x2 − 5x + 4x − 20 = 0 Simplify.
⇒ x2− x − 20 = 0
Method 2: The roots are x = −4 and x = 5
The sum of the roots = −4 + 5 = 1
The product of the roots = (−4)(5) = −20
Substitute into the quadratic formula:
x2− (sum of the roots)x + (product of the roots) = 0
⇒ x2− (1)x + (−20) = 0
⇒ x2− x − 20 = 0
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Example
Form the quadratic equation for the graph shown.
y
15
10
5
0
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
–5
–10
–15
–20
Solution
The roots of the quadratic equation are found from the graph where y = 0.
From the graph we see that the roots are x = −2 and x = 7.
Using Method 1:
The roots of this quadratic equation are x = −2 and x = 7.
⇒ x + 2 = 0 and x − 7 = 0 (x + 2) and (x − 7) are the factors.
⇒ (x + 2)(x − 7) = 0
⇒ x(x − 7) + 2(x − 7) = 0 Expand the brackets.
⇒ x2 − 7x + 2x − 14 = 0 Simplify.
⇒ x2− 5x − 14 = 0
Using Method 2:
The roots of this quadratic equation are x = −2 and x = 7.
The sum of the roots = −2 + 7 = 5.
The product of the roots = (−2)(7) = −14.
Substitute the value for the sum and the product of the roots into
the quadratic formula below:
x2− (sum of the roots)x + (product of the roots) = 0
⇒ x2− (5)x + (−14) = 0
⇒ x2− 5x − 14 = 0
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Solving problems using quadratic equations
Example
In a right-angled triangle ABC, the hypotenuse AB is 18 cm longer than AC,
and BC is 17 cm longer than AC.
(a) Draw a sketch to represent this information.
(b) Using Pythagoras’ Theorem, write a formula that represents this information
and simplify to a quadratic equation.
(c) Solve the quadratic equation.
(d) Find the lengths of the three sides.
(e) Verify that the triangle is right-angled.
Solution
(a) A
x + 18
x
C x + 17 B
(b) x2 + (x + 17)2 = (x + 18)2
⇒ x2 + x 2 + 34x + 289 = x 2 + 36x + 324
⇒ x2 − 2x − 35 = 0
(c) x2 − 2x − 35 = 0
⇒ (x − 7)(x + 5) = 0
⇒ x = 7 or x = −5
(d) x = 7 cm as we cannot have a negative length.
|AB| = x + 17 = 24 cm
|CB| = x + 18 = 25 cm
(e) If the triangle is right-angled then:
(24)2 + (7)2 = (25)2
⇒ 576 + 49 = 625
⇒ 625 = 625 ü
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Example
A parachutist descends at a speed of 10 m/s. At an altitude (height) of 50 m above
the ground she drops her locker key. The quadratic equation h = −4.9t2 + 10t + 50
describes the height h (in m) of the locker key above the ground, t seconds after
being dropped. After how many seconds does the locker key hit the ground?
Write your answer correct to two decimal places.
Solution
When the key hits the ground, the height is 0 m. So we need to find t when h = 0.
h = −4.9t2 + 10t + 50
⇒ 0 = −4.9t2+ 10t + 50
We know that: a = −4.9, b = 10 and c = 50.
_______
−b ± √ b2 − 4ac
____________ ubstitute a = −4·9, b = 10 and c = 50
S
t =
2a _______________ into the quadratic formula.
−(10) ± √ (10)2 − 4(−4·9)(50)
_______________________
⇒ t =
2(−4·9)
________
−10 ± √ 100 + 980
______________
⇒ t =
−9·8
_____ _____
−10 + √ 1080
___________ −10 − √ 1080
___________
⇒ t = or t = Find the roots using a calculator.
−9·8 −9·8
⇒ t = −2.33 or t = 4.37
Note: Time can’t be negative so we disregard the t = −2.33 option.
The locker key reached the ground after 4.37 seconds.
Exercise
Q1 Solve the following quadratic equations using a suitable factorisation method:
36x2= 9
(a) (c) c2 − 2c + 1 = 0
2x2− 32 = 0
(b) (d) x2 + 11x − 12 = 0
Q2 Solve each of the following quadratic equations:
2x2− 5x − 3 = 0
(a) (c) 7x2 + 19x − 6 = 0
(b) 22x2− 13x + 1 = 0 (d) −4x2 − 7x + 2 = 0
Q3 Solve each of the following quadratic equations, giving your answers in
surd form:
x2− 7x + 2 = 0
(a) (b) 3x2 − 4x − 5 = 0
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Q4 Solve each of these quadratic equations, correct to two decimal places:
(a) 2x2+ 9x − 13 = 0 (b) 8x2 + 7x − 8 = 0 (c) 5
x2 − 3x − 4 = 0 (d) 6x2 + 5x − 7 = 0
Q5 Solve the following equations:
__ x2 __
9 __x2 __
x ___ 3
(a) + 2x − = 0 (c) − =
4 4 5 2 10
x2 − 3x
______ 2x2 ___
___ 5x __ 7
(b)
= 5 (d) = +
2 __ 3 6 2
Q6 (a) Verify that 2 − √ 5 is one root of the quadratic equation x2 − 4x − 1 = 0.
___
11 is one root of the quadratic equation x2 − 8x + 5 = 0.
(b) Verify that 4 + √
Q7 Form the quadratic equations given the roots below, algebraically in parts
(a) and (b), and graphically in parts (c) and (d):
x = 3 and x = −1
(a) x = −5 and x = −4
(b)
(c) y (d) y
1 1
0 0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
–5 –5
–6 –6
–7 –7
–8 –8
–9 –9
Q8 The roots of the quadratic equation x2 + bx + c = 0 are 7 and −6.
Find the values of b and c.
Q9 (a) Solve the equation 2x2 − 5x − 3 = 0.
Hence, solve the equation 2(y − 3)2− 5(y − 3) − 3 = 0.
(b)
Q10 The number x is a real number. Number A is equal to 1 less than x.
Number B is equal to 2 greater than seven times x.
(a) Write down the numbers A and B, in terms of x.
(b) The product of A and B is 2. Use this information to write an equation in x.
(c) Solve this equation to find the two possible values of x. Give each of
your answers correct to two decimal places.
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Q11 A feather is dropped vertically downwards
from the shorter side of the Leaning Tower
of Pisa, a height of 55 m. The quadratic
equation h = −4.9t2 + 55 describes the
height h (m) of the feather above the ground,
t seconds after being dropped.
How long will it take the feather to reach the ground?
Write your solution correct to two decimal places.
Q12 In a right-angled triangle ABC, the hypotenuse AB is 8 cm longer than AC,
and BC is 4 cm longer than AC.
(a) Draw a sketch to represent this information.
(b) Using Pythagoras’ Theorem, write a formula that represents this
information and simplify it to a quadratic equation.
(c) Solve the quadratic equation.
(d) Find the lengths of the three sides.
(e) Verify that the triangle is right-angled.
Q13 A teacher checks out the cost of calculators for her students on two websites,
C and D. On website C, for €480, she can get a class set of calculators, one
for each student. On website D, for the same price, she can get four extra
calculators.
(a) If x represents the number of students in her class, write an expression
in x for the cost per calculator on website C and an expression in x for
the cost per calculator on website D.
The cost per calculator on website D is €6 cheaper than the cost per calculator
on website C.
(b) Use this information to form an equation in x and solve it to find the
number of students in the class.
(SEC 2013)
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Algebra 8: Surds, Indices, 11
Exponential Equations and
Manipulating Formulae
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
� Simplifying surds and solving problems using surds
� Using exponential notation and rules of indices
� Solving exponential equations
� Manipulating formulae.
Key Terminology
Word Meaning
Index notation The expression an is written in index form, where
a = base number, and n = index or power or
exponent. an is read as ‘a to the power of n’.
Exponential An equation in which the variable is contained in
equation the index. For example: 4 = 2x − 1
Numerator The top part of a rational number.
__
3
For example: the numerator of is 3.
4
Denominator The lower part of a rational number.
__
3
For example: the denominator of is 4.
4
Manipulate a Rearrange the formula (equation) to make the
formula requested variable the subject.
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Exponential notation and rules of indices
Points to note
Exponential notation is a shorter way of writing repeated multiplication.
For example: 73 = 7 × 7 × 7. The exponent (index or power) shows how many
times the base is multiplied by itself. In general, for any natural number an,
a = base number, n = power/exponent/index and an is pronounced as
‘a to the power of n’.
Rules for indices
Rule Example, using a = 2, b = 5, p = 3 and q = 7
a pa q = a p + q2327 = 23 + 7 = 210
a p = a p − q __
___ 23 = 23 − 7 = 2− 4
a q
27
( a ) = a ( 23 )7 = 2(3)(7)
p q pq = 221
a 0 = 1 20 = 1
1p
a −p = ___ 13
2−3 = __
a
__
2__
_ 1 q 1
__ 7
a 27 = √ __
aq= √ ___ 2
_ p q _ 3 7
aq= √ a p 27 = √ 23
(ab) p = a p b p (2 × 5)3 = 2353 = (8) (125) = 1000
( )
a = ___
__
b
p
b
p
a p __
5( )
2 = __
3 3
2 = ____
5 125
3
8
All of the rules for indices above are listed in the Formulae and Tables booklet.
Example
Write in expanded form:
(a) 23 (b) 56 (c) a3b2
Solution
(a) 23 = 2 × 2 × 2 Note: the base number is 2 and the power/index is 3.
(b) 56 = 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5
(c) a 3 b2 = a × a × a × b × b
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Example
Evaluate the following using the rules for indices.
( ____
144 )
_1
1 2
(a) 3233 (d) ( 23 )2 (g) 9−1 (j) (m) (7 × 9)2
(e) ( 5 2 ) ( ) ( )
_1 2
__
1 −1 _2 __
4 3
(b) 515−2 (h) (k) (4) 3 (n)
7 5
( ____
_3
100 )
25
__ _1 36 2
(c) 3 (f) 890 (i) ( 25 ) 2 (l)
2
Solution
Rule Rule
(a) 32 33 = 32 + 3 = 35 = 243 a paq = ap + q ( )
__
1 −1 __ 7
(h) = = 7
7 1
___ ___
__1
a−p = p
a
_1 2 _1
q __
(b) 51 5−2 (i) ( 25 ) 2 = √ 25 = √
25 = ± 5 a __ q = √ a
__
2
= 51 − 2 a pa q = a p + q ____ √ a = √ a
( ) √
__
1 __
1 1 _ 12 ____ _1 q __
____ 1 ___
1 q
= 5−1 =
5
a −p = p
a (j) = = ± a
= √ a
144 144 12
__ ___ q __
25
__ a p
__ _2
3 3 _p
(c) 3 = 25 − 3 = 22 = 4 q = a p − q
a (k) (4) 3 = √ 42 = √ 16 aq = √ ap
2 ____
( ) ( √ )
_3 3
q ____
36 2 ____ 36
(d) ( 23 )2 = 23 × 2 = 26 = 64 ( ap ) = a pq (l) =
100 100
( )
_p q __
(e) ( 5 2 ) = 5 2
_1 2 _1
× 2
= 51 = 5 ( ap ) = a pq
q ___6 3 _____
216 q
= =
a = √ ap
10 1000
(f) 890 = 1 a0 = 1 (m) (7 × 9)2 = (7)2 (9)2
__
1
(g) 9−1 =
9
__
a
1
a−p = p ( )
__
4 3 __ 43 ____ 64
(n) = 3 =
5 5 125
__a p __ a p
= p
b b ( )
Scientific notation
Scientific notation or index notation is a way of making very large and
very small numbers easier to work with.
Scientific notation is expressed in the form:
a × 10n
where 1 ≤ a < 10, and n is an integer (ℤ).
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Number Method Scientific
Move the decimal point notation
to get a, where 1 ≤ a < 10
Move the decimal point 9 spaces
0·000 000 005 6 5·6 × 10−9
to the right to get 5·6.
Move the decimal point 5 spaces
0·000 056 5·6 × 10−5
to the right to get 5·6.
Move the decimal point 2 spaces
0·056 5·6 × 10−2
to the right to get 5·6.
Move the decimal point 1 space
56 5·6 × 101
to the left to get 5·6.
Move the decimal point 3 spaces
5600 5·6 × 103
to the left to get 5·6.
Move the decimal point 6 spaces
5 600 000 5·6 × 106
to the left to get 5·6.
Top Tip
When adding or subtracting numbers in scientific notation, we can use either
of the two methods listed below:
Method 1
1 Write the number in decimal form, then add or subtract numbers.
2 Rewrite your answer in scientific notation.
Method 2: Calculator method (Casio)
This method is shown in the example on the next page.
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Example
Evaluate 4·56 × 109 + 2·34 × 107 . Solution
Give your answer in the form a × 10n Method 1
where n ∈ ℤ, and 1 ≤ a < 10.
1 Write each number in decimal
form then add the numbers together.
4·56 × 109 + 2·34 × 107
= 4 560 000 000 + 23 400 000
= 4 583 400 000
2 Rewrite your answer in scientific notation.
4 583 400 000 = 4·5834 × 109
Method 2: Calculator method (Casio)
Press 4 · 5 6 10x 9 +
2 · 3 4 10x 7 =
Answer: 4 583 400 000 = 4·5834 × 109
Top Tip
When multiplying or dividing numbers in scientific notation, we can use
either of the two methods below:
Method 1
1 Multiply or divide the decimal parts of each number and use the rules of
indices to multiply or divide the index parts of each number.
2 Write your answer in scientific notation.
Method 2: Calculator method (Casio)
This method is shown in the example below.
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Example
Evaluate each of the following:
(a) 9·78 × 108 × 3·12 × 106
4·56 × 109
(b) _________
2·34 × 107
Give your answers correct to two decimal places in the form a × 10n ,
where n ∈ ℤ, and 1 ≤ a < 10.
Solution
(a) Method 1
1
Multiply the decimal parts of each number and use the rules of indices to
multiply the index parts of each number.
Decimal part Index part
9·78 × 108 9·78 108
3·12 × 106 3·12 106
Multiply 9·78 × 3·12 = 30·5136 108 × 106 = 108 + 6
= 1014
2 Write your answer in scientific notation.
9·78 × 108 × 3·12 × 106 = 30·5136 × 1014
= 3·05136 × 1015
15
= 3·05 × 10 , correct to two decimal places
Method 2: Calculator method (Casio)
Press 9 · 7 8 10
x 8 3 · 1 2 × 10x 6 =
Answer: 3·05136 × 1015
= 3·05 × 1015
, correct to two decimal places
(b) Method 1
1 Divide the decimal parts of each number and use the rules of indices to divide
the index parts of each number.
Decimal part Index part
4·56 × 109 4·56 109
2·34 × 107 2·34 107
____
4·56 109
___
Divide = 1·9487... = 109 − 7
= 102
2·34 107
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2 Write your answer in scientific notation.
4·56 × 109
_________
= 1·9487... × 102
2·34 × 107
= 1·95 × 102 , correct to two decimal places
Method 2: Calculator method (Casio)
Press 4 · 5 6 10
x 9 ÷ 2 · 3 4 10x 7 =
Answer: 194·8718... = 1·9487 × 102 = 1·95 × 102 , correct to two decimal places
Solving exponential equations
Points to note
zzAn exponential equation is of the form a x = b, a ≠ 1, a > 0.
Note: If a x = a y, where a ≠ 1, a > 0, then x = y.
Note: a is the base number and both x and y are powers.
Top Tip
To solve exponential equations:
1 Write all numbers as powers of the same prime number.
2 Use the rules for indices to write each side of the equation as a
power with the same base number.
3 Set both powers equal to one another (equate the powers/ indices).
4 Solve for x (or the variable).
Example
Solve the equation 5 x = 125 for x.
Solution
The base number is 5.
5 x = 125 Write 125 as a power of 5.
⇒ 5 x = 53 Equate the indices.
⇒ x = 3
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Example
Solve the equation 16 x − 1 = 321 + x for x.
Solution
The base number is 2, as this is the lowest common prime factor of 16 and 32.
16 x − 1 = 32 1 + x
⇒ ( 24 )x − 1 = ( 25 )1 + x Rule ( a p )q = a pq.
⇒ 24x − 4 = 25x + 5 Equate the powers.
⇒ 4x − 4 = 5x + 5
⇒ 4x − 5x = 5 + 4
⇒ −x = 9
⇒ x = −9
Example
_1
32 × 814 n
_______
If _1 = 3 , find n, where n ∈ ℚ.
27 2 × 35
Solution
_1
32 × 814 n
_______
_1
= 3 Write as powers of 3.
2 5
27 × 3
_1
32 × ( 34 ) 4 n
________ q
⇒ _1
=3 Rule ( a p ) = a pq.
( 33 ) 2 × 35
32 × 31 n
______
⇒ _3
= 3 Rule a p aq = a p + q.
2 5
3 × 3
____32 + 1
⇒ _3 = 3n
+ 5
3 2
___ 33 a p
__
⇒ 6·5 = 3n Rule q = a p − q.
3 a
⇒ 33 − 6·5 = 3n
⇒ 3 −3·5 = 3n Equate the powers.
⇒ −3·5 = n
⇒ n = −3·5
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Example
Solve the simultaneous equations:
2x = 8 y + 1
3 x − 9 = 9 y
Solution
2x = 8 y + 1 Write as powers of 2.
y+1 q
⇒ 2 x = ( 23 ) Rule ( a p ) = a pq.
⇒ 2 x = 23y + 3 Equate the powers.
⇒ x = 3y + 3
⇒ x − 3y = 3 (1)
3 x − 9 = 9 y Write as powers of 3.
y q
⇒ 3 x − 9 = ( 32 ) Rule (
a p ) = a pq.
⇒ 3x − 9 = 32y Equate the powers.
⇒ x − 9 = 2y
⇒ x − 2y = 9 (2)
Solve the equations:
x − 3y = 3 (1)
x − 2y = 9 (2) Eliminate x by (1) + −1(2).
x − 3y = 3 (1)
+ −x + 2y = −9 (2) × −1
−y = −6 Divide by −1.
⇒ y = 6
Calculate the value of x by substituting y = 6 into x = 3y + 3:
x = 3y + 3 ⇒ x = 3(6) + 3 ⇒ x = 18 + 3 ⇒ x = 21
Check the solution for x = 21 and y = 6:
3x − 9 = 9 y
⇒ 321 − 9 = 96 ⇒ 312 = 96 ⇒ 531 441 = 531 441
Solution: x = 21 and y = 6
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Manipulating formulae
Top Tip
To manipulate/rearrange formulae:
1 Identify the variable that needs to be isolated.
2 Use SADMIB, the opposite operations to BIMDAS to make this variable the
subject of the formula.
We can use the acronym SADMIB to help remember the sequence:
1st and 2nd 3rd and 4th 5th 6th
S A D M I B
Subtraction Addition Division Multiplication Indices Brackets
(Powers)
Note: Other acronyms are used such as BIRDMAS, etc. When reversed this
becomes SAMDRIB.
Example
____
R2T
____
√
Make T the subject of the formula K = .
V
Solution
____
√
R2T
____
K =
The inverse operation to square rooting is squaring, so square both
V
sides of the equation.
R 2T
____
K 2 = The inverse operation to division is multiplication, so multiply by V.
V
⇒ VK 2 = R2T The inverse operation to multiplication is division, so divide by R2.
VK 2
____ VK 2
____
⇒ = T ⇒ T =
R2 R2
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Example
__
1
(a) Make a the subject of the formula s = ut + at 2.
2
(b) Hence, find the value of a in m/s2 if s = 40 m, u = 10 m/s and t = 3 s.
Solution
__
1
(a) s = ut + at 2 The opposite operation to addition is subtraction, so subtract ut.
2
__
1
⇒ s − ut = at 2 The opposite operation to division is multiplication, so multiply by 2.
2
⇒ 2s − 2ut = at 2 The opposite operation to multiplication is division, so divide by t 2.
_______
2s − 2ut
⇒ = a
t 2
_______
2s − 2ut
⇒ a = 2
t
_______
2s − 2ut _____________2(40) − 2(10)(3) ______
80 − 60 ___ 20
(b) a = 2 =
= = m/s2
t (3)2 9 9
Example
The stopping distance of a car (d ) in metres depends on the road surface and the
speed (v) in km/h that the car is travelling. The speed and the stopping distance
_____
for a wet road surface is given by the formula v = √ 88·9d
.
_____
88·9d
(a) Rearrange the formula v = √ to find the equation for the stopping
distance (d ).
(b) Complete the table below for the general speed limits in Ireland and calculate
the stopping distance using the formula in part (a), correct to two decimal places.
Speed (km/h) Stopping distance (m)
30
40
50
60
80
100
120
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Solution
(a) We need
_____
to make d the subject of the formula:
v = √ 88·9d
Square both sides of the equation.
⇒ v 2 = 88·9d Divide both sides by 88·9.
v 2
____
⇒ d =
88·9
(b) Speed (km/h) Stopping distance (m)
v 2 _____
____ (30)2 ____ 900
30 d = = = = 10·12 m
88·9 88·9 88·9
v 2 _____
____ (40)2 _____ 1600
40 d = = = = 18·00 m
88·9 88·9 88·9
v 2 _____
____ (50)2 _____ 2500
50 d = = = = 28·12 m
88·9 88·9 88·9
v 2 _____
____ (60)2 _____ 3600
60 d = = = = 40·49 m
88·9 88·9 88·9
v 2 _____
____ (80)2 _____ 6400
80 d = = = = 71·99 m
88·9 88·9 88·9
v 2 ______
____ (100)2 ______
10 000
100 d = =
=
= 112·49 m
88·9 88·9 88·9
v 2 ______
____ (120)2 ______
14 400
120 d = =
=
= 161·98 m
88·9 88·9 88·9
Exercise
Q1 Given that x = 1·234 × 105,
y = 3·241 × 104 and z = 4·641 × 106, evaluate each of the following:
(a) z + 2y
2z − x
_____
(b) y
.
Give your answers correct to two significant figures in the form
a × 10n , where n ∈ ℤ, 1 ≤ a < 10.
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Q2 Answer the following questions based on the table given.
Give your answers correct to two significant figures in the form
a × 10n, where n ∈ ℤ and 1 ≤ a < 10.
Object Mass (kg)
Sun 1·9891 × 1030
Jupiter 1·8986 × 1027
Saturn 26
5·6846 × 10
Earth 5·9736 × 1024
Mars 23
6·4185 × 10
Earth’s moon 7·349 × 1022
Pluto 22
1·25 × 10
(a) What are the combined masses of Jupiter, Mars and Pluto?
Q3 Evaluate the following:
( ) ( ____
144 )
__1
114
___ __
1 −1 1
(a) 2223 (c) (e) (g) 2 (i) ( 23 )2
114 2
( )
58 __1 __4
__ __
5 2
(b) 3 (d) ( 3 )−2
(f) ( 49 ) 2 (h) ( 32 ) 5 (j)
5 2
__
(____________
5 ) 2 ) ( )
3
x x √ x2
(
Q4 Simplify _ giving your answer in the form x n.
,
( x )( x )
4
3
3
Q5 Solve for each unknown variable:
____
8
(a) 23x + 12= 16x
(c) y + 1 = 64
2__
(b) 25n = 52 + n
√ 8 __1 2x − 1
___
(d) =
16 4
( )
Q6 Solve the simultaneous equations:
(a) 32x + y = 37 (b) 7 x + 2y = __ 1
7
7x − 2y = 7
4 x = __ 1
y
___ 8
Q7 (a) Express √ 32 as a power of 2.
25 ___
__
(b) Hence, solve the equation x = √ 32 .
2
(c) Verify your answer to part (b). ____ ___
√ 128 − √
__________ 50
(d) Use the properties of surds to show that __ simplifies to a
constant. √
8
Q8 (a) If A = p (R2 − r 2), make r the subject of the formula.
__ 1 __ 1 __ 1
(b) If u + v = , make f the subject of the formula.
f
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Q9 The area of a parallelogram is 20 cm2.
The perpendicular height is h.
h
a
(a) Rearrange the formula A = ah to make h the subject.
(b) Find the perpendicular height h if the base length a is 4 cm.
u2
___
10 The height a ball can be thrown, h, is given by the formula h = ,
Q
2g
where u = initial speed and g = acceleration due to gravity.
(a) Rearrange the formula to make u the subject.
(b) If the ball is thrown to a height of 82·45 m and g = 9·8 m/s2 , find the
initial speed in m/s.
__
4
Q11 The formula for the volume of a sphere is V = p r 3, where V = volume of the
3
sphere and r = radius of the sphere.
__
4
(a) Rearrange the formula V = p r 3, to make r
3
the subject.
The volume of the Earth is 108·21 × 1010 km3.
Take p = 3·14.
(b) Assuming the Earth to be a perfect sphere,
find the radius of the Earth, correct to two
decimal places.
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Applied Arithmetic 2 1 2
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
zzCurrency exchange
zzPercentage profit and loss
zzValue added tax
zzDiscounts
zzValue-for-money calculations and judgements
zzHousehold bills and meter readings
zzIncome tax and net pay
zzCompound interest.
Currency exchange
Key Terminology
Currency exchange rates are given as direct proportions, such as the
conversion rate of €1 = $1·15.
This means that 1 Euro buys $1·15, or $1·15 will buy 1 Euro.
Top Tip
There are a number of methods used when converting currency.
Two of these methods are shown below:
Method 1: The unitary method
1 Always put the currency you require on the right hand side (RHS) of the
equation, equal to a unit of 1 of the other currency in the question.
2 Then multiply both sides of the equation by the amount to be converted.
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For example: if given €1 = $1·15
Convert €1000 to $ Convert $1000 to €
Always put the currency you require on the right hand side of the
equation, equal to a unit of 1 of the other currency.
€1 = $1·15 $1·15 = €1
____
1·15 ____
1
$ = €
1·15 1·15
____
1
$1 = €
1·15
Multiply both sides of the equation by the amount to be converted.
____
1
1000 × €1 = 1000 × $1·15 1000 × $1 = 1000 × €
1·15
€1000 = $1150 $1000 = €869·565
$1000 = €869·57, correct to 2 d.p.
Method 2: The array method
1 Draw a 2 × 3 grid.
2 Place the symbols for the given exchange rate into the first row of the grid.
3 Then, place the given exchange rate value in the next row of the grid.
4 Now, complete the grid by placing the currency amount to be exchanged
under its given currency symbol and place an X in the last box in the grid.
5 To solve for X, you simply multiply diagonally the values in the grid and
rearrange if needed.
For example: if given €1 = $1·15
Convert €1000 to $ Convert $1000 to €
1 Draw a 2 × 3 grid as shown.
2 Place the symbols for the given exchange rate into the first row of the grid.
3 Then, place the given exchange rate value in the next row of the grid.
4 Now, complete the grid by placing the currency amount to be
exchanged under its given currency symbol and place an X in the last
box in the grid.
€ $ € $
1 1·15 1 1·15
1000 X X 1000
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5 To solve for X, you simply multiply diagonally the values on the grid and
rearrange if needed.
€ $ € $
1 1·15 1 1·15
1000 X X 1000
1 × X = 1·15 × 1000 X × 1·15 = 1 × 1000
X = 1150 _____
1000
X = = 869·565...
Therefore €1000 = $1150 1·15
Therefore $1000 = €869·57
Example
Nathan wants to exchange €1589 for US Dollars ($). There is a 4% commission on the
transaction charged by the bank. If Nathan receives $1800, what is the exchange rate
that Nathan received, correct to two decimal places?
Solution
Amount received less commission:
100% − 4% = 96% = $1800 Divide by 96.
_____
1800
1% = = $18·75 Multiply by 100.
96
_____
1800
100% = × 100 = $1875
96
€1589 × (Exchange rate) = $1875
_____
1875
Exchange rate = = 1·17998... ≈ 1·18
1589
Exchange rate: €1 = $1·18
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Percentage profit and loss
Key Terminology
Definition Formula
The percentage profit profit amount
____________
% profit =
× 100%
cost price
The percentage loss ___________
loss amount
% loss =
× 100%
cost price
Percentage mark-up selling price − cost price
____________________
This is the profit as a % mark-up =
× 100%
cost price
percentage (%) of the profit
_________
cost price. ⇒ % mark-up =
× 100%
cost price
Percentage margin selling price − cost price
_____________________
% margin =
× 100%
This is the profit as a selling price
percentage (%) of the profit
___________
selling price. ⇒ % margin =
× 100%
selling price
% Margin versus % mark-up
Points to note
% Margin % Mark-up
profit
___________ profit
_________
× 100%
× 100%
selling price cost price
Note: Both numerators are the same.
profit
___________ profit
_________
<
selling price cost price
% margin < % mark-up
The cost price is smaller than the selling price if a profit is made.
Therefore, the fraction with the smaller denominator is the larger value.
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Example
A company sells computers for €675, which gives them a profit margin of 30%.
(a) Calculate the profit made on one computer, to the nearest cent.
(b) What is the cost price of one computer?
The company decides to reduce the selling price of the computer in a sale.
They want the new selling price to include a profit mark-up of 26%.
(c) Find the selling price of each computer in the sale.
Solution
(a) Information given: Selling price = €675, % margin = 30%
Substitute the information into the required formula.
profit
___________
% margin =
× 100%
selling price
profit
_____
30% = × 100%
675
Let x = profit
Divide both sides by 100.
____
30 ____ x
=
Multiply both sides by 675.
100 675
(0·3) × 675 = x
€202·50 = profit
(b) Cost price = selling price – profit
= €675 − €202·50
= €472·50
(c) Information given: Cost price = €472·50, % mark-up = 26%
Substitute information into the required formula.
Let x = profit.
profit
_________
% mark-up =
× 100%
cost price
x
______
26 = × 100% Multiply both sides by 472·50.
472·50
26(472·50) = x(100) Divide both sides by 100.
26(472·50)
_________
=x
100
€122·85 = x = profit
Therefore, new selling price = cost price + profit
New selling price = €472·50 + €122·85 = €595·35
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Value added tax (VAT)
Value added tax (VAT) is a tax on consumer spending which is charged on the
sale of most products and services. VAT is charged at every stage of the sale of
an item or product.
Points to note
Different VAT rates are applied to various products and services.
These VAT rates include:
23% = the standard rate of VAT on all goods and services that do not fall into
the reduced rate category.
13·5% = the reduced rate of VAT applied to items including fuel, electricity,
building and building services, etc.
9% = a special reduced rate of VAT applied to tourism-related goods and
services including restaurants, hotels, cinemas, hairdressers, etc.
Top Tip
VAT inclusive means that the price shown includes VAT.
VAT exclusive means that the price shown does not include VAT.
Example
A shop sells a particular sofa for €899 + VAT @ 23%.
(a) What is the total selling price of a sofa?
In a sale, the shop sells a sofa for €950 VAT inclusive.
(b) What is the selling price of the sofa before VAT @ 23% was added?
(c) Calculate the saving as a percentage of the original price of the sofa,
correct to the nearest percent.
Solution
(a) Method 1
Find the VAT @ 23% of €899. Multiply by 0·23 (23% written as a decimal).
VAT = €899 × 0·23 = €206·77
Find the total price of the sofa.
Total price = €899 + VAT @ 23%
= €899 + €206·77 = €1105·77
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Method 2
Total price including VAT = cost price + VAT @ 23%
= 100% + 23% = 123%
= €899 × 1·23 = €1105·77
(b) Total price including VAT = cost price + VAT @ 23%
= 100% + 23% = 123%
= €950
€950 = 123%
_____ €950
= 1%
123
Price excluding VAT:
_____ €950
× 100 = 100%
123
€772·357 =100%
Selling price excluding VAT is €772·36
(c) Savings made: original selling price − sales price
Savings made: €1105·77 − €950 = €155·77
savings
_________________
% Savings =
× 100%
original selling price
_______
155·77
=
× 100% = 14·087% = 14%, correct to the nearest percent
1105·77
Bills
Top Tip
When working with bills, always:
include the standing charge for the goods or service if given
know the units you are working in
calculate the total units used in the given time frame
calculate the total cost of the units used in the given time frame
note if VAT is inclusive or exclusive in the question.
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Example
A gas bill shows the following information for the month of September:
Unit price Present reading Previous reading
Night rate €0·083 45 38 465 37 253
Day rate €0·153 86 21 082 20 192
(a) Calculate the cost for the units used.
A service charge of €18 per month, and VAT at 13·5% is included on the bill.
(b) Calculate the total gas bill inclusive of VAT.
Solution
(a) Night rate
Units used = present reading – previous reading
= 38 465 − 37 253 = 1212
Cost @ €0·083 45 per unit = 1212 × €0·083 45 = €101·14
Day rate
Units used = present reading – previous reading
= 21 082 – 20 192 = 890
Cost @ €0·153 86 per unit = 890 × €0·153 86 = €136·94
Total cost = €101·14 + €136·94 = €238·08
(b) Total bill = service charge + cost of units used + VAT @13·5%
= €18 + €238·08 + (€238·08 × 0·135)
= €290·65
Example
The conditions of Susannah,s mobile phone contract are given below:
Standing charge = €23
200 minutes of free calls and 150 free text messages per month.
Additional calls are charged at 12c per minute.
Additional texts are charged at 9c per text.
During the month of February, Susannah made 3 hours and 34 minutes of calls and
she sent 173 text messages.
Calculate Susannah,s total bill for the month of February, if VAT is charged at 23%.
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Solution
Calculation Amount
Standing charge: €23
including 200 minutes of free calls
and 150 free text messages
Additional call minutes over 200 3 hours and 34 minutes €1·68
minutes are charged at 12c per = 214 minutes
minute. 214 – 200 = 14 minutes
14 × 0·12 = €1·68
Additional texts over 150 texts are 173 – 150 = 23 text messages €2·07
charged at 9c per text. 23 × 0·09 = €2·07
Subtotal (excluding VAT) €26·75
VAT @ 23% (0·23 × €26·75 = €6·1525) €6·15
Total bill €32·90
Discounts
Discounts are a reduction in the original price of goods or services. Generally,
discounts are offered to encourage people to buy or pay for services quickly,
for example, in a sale.
Top Tip
Formula for calculating % discount:
discount amount × 100%
% Discount = _________________
original selling price
Example
In the January sales, an electrical shop sells all smart TVs for 12% off the retail
recommended price. John bought a smart TV for €836 in the sale. Calculate the
original price of the smart TV before the sale.
Solution
Sale price = 100% − 12% = 88%
88% = €836
_____
€836
1% = = €9·5
88
100% = €9·5 × 100 = €950
The original price of the smart TV was €950.
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Example
In a sale, a hardware shop offers €70 back when you spend over €350.
What is the percentage discount offered by the hardware shop?
Solution
_________________
discount amount
% Discount =
× 100%
original selling price
____
70
= × 100% = 20%
350
‘Value for money’ deals
Top Tip
Many companies offer their products in different size containers or as
multi-packs. When deciding on the best value-for-money deal on offer,
we generally find the lowest common unit price and compare.
Example
Ciara sees two different offers on packs of crisps in her local shop. Option A is a
12-pack of crisps for €4·80 and option B is a 15-pack of crisps for €5·25.
Which option offers the better ‘value for money’?
Solution
Option A: a 12-pack of crisps costing €4·80
zz
12-pack = €4·80 Divide by 12.
____
4·80
1 pack = = 0·4
12
= 40 cents
Option B: a 15-pack of crisps costing €5·25
zz
15-pack = €5·25 Divide by 15.
____
5·25
1 pack = = 0·35
15
= 35 cents
As the unit cost for option B is less than that for option A, the 15-pack of crisps
for €5·25 is the better deal.
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Wages
Key Terminology
Key words Definitions
Gross salary/ Income before deductions is called gross salary
gross pay or gross pay.
Standard rate The standard rate of tax is 20%, for 2016.
of tax
Higher rate The higher rate of tax is 40%, for 2016.
of tax
Standard rate The SRCOP is the amount of the gross salary/pay that we
cut-off point pay the standard rate of tax on.
(SRCOP)
Gross tax Gross tax is the total tax owed to the government before
any deductions are made. It is calculated using the
formula:
Gross tax = (SRCOP × standard rate of tax) +
(all income above SRCOP × higher rate of tax)
Tax credits Tax credits are the amount the state allows each person
to earn before paying tax. Tax credits are deducted from
gross tax.
Tax payable Tax payable is also called tax due. It is calculated using
the formula:
Tax payable = gross tax – tax credits
Net income Net income is also called net pay or take-home pay.
It is calculated using the formula:
Net income/take-home pay = gross salary – all deductions
Point to note
The standard rate of tax, higher rate of tax, standard rate cut-off point
(SRCOP) and tax credits can change yearly depending on the government’s
yearly budget.
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Example
Fergus has a gross income of €42 500 for the year. He has an annual tax credit of
€1650. The standard rate cut-off point is €33 800. The standard rate of income tax is
20% and the higher rate is 40%.
(a) Calculate Fergus’ net income for the year.
Fergus receives a pay rise and thus his net income for the year increases to €45 500.
(b) Find Fergus’s new gross income for the year.
Solution
(a) Steps to calculating net income Calculation
1 Standard rate of tax @ 20% 0·2 × 33 800 = €6760
2 Higher rate of tax @ 40% on balance Balance = €42 500 − €33 800 = €8700
0·4 × 8700 = €3480
3 Gross tax due = standard rate of tax + higher rate of tax
€6760 + €3480 = €10 240
4 Tax payable = gross tax – tax credits €10 240 − €1650 = €8590
5 Net income/take-home pay = gross salary – tax payable
€42 500 − €8590 = €33 910
Fergus’s net income for the year is €33 910.
(b) His net income increase = €45 500 − €42 500 = €3000
Note: As the higher rate of tax @ 40% on the balance has been paid,
we can state that:
€3000 = 60% of increase in gross income
Solve to find 100%: Divide by 60.
€3000
______
= 1%
60
€50 = 1% Multiply by 100.
€50 × 100 = 100%
€5000 = 100%
New gross income = €42 500 + €5000 = €47 500.
Fergus’s new gross income for the year is €47 500.
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Deductions
There are two main types of deductions we will focus on:
Statutory deductions Non-statutory deductions
These are deductions which These are voluntary deductions
must be paid to the state that each person has a choice
Meaning
from each person’s gross of paying.
income.
zz PAYE – income tax zzHealth insurance
zzPRSI – pay related social zzPension deductions
Examples insurance
zzGym membership
zzUSC – universal social
zzUnion fees
charge
Statutory deductions in more detail
PAYE
PAYE (pay as you earn) is money all employees pay for public services such as
healthcare, education, gardaí, etc.
Deduction PAYE (Pay as you earn)
Single person Tax credits of €1650
Income tax rates:
€33 800 @ 20%, balance @ 40%
Married couple or couple in a civil partnership Tax credits of €3300
with two incomes Income tax rates:
€42 800 @ 20% (with an
increase of €24 800 max),
balance @ 40%
All tax rates are accurate for 2016. These tax rates can vary on a yearly basis.
PRSI
PRSI stands for pay related social insurance. Both the employer and the
employee must pay a PRSI contribution which goes towards services such as
social welfare benefits.
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USC
USC stands for universal social charge.
Note: All PAYE workers pay USC if their total income is more than €13 000 a year.
For people with incomes of €13 000 or more, the following USC rates apply:
USC (universal service charge)
2016 Rate
On the first €12 012 1%
On the next €6656 3%
On the next €51 376 5·5%
On the balance 8%
All tax rates are accurate for 2016. These tax rates can vary on a yearly basis.
Example
Karen has a gross income of €50 800.
She has to pay universal social charge (USC) and income tax on her gross income.
Use the USC rates given in the table above.
(a) Calculate the amount of USC that Karen must pay.
Karen has an annual tax credit of €3300. The standard rate cut-off point is €33 800.
The standard rate of income tax is 20% and the higher rate is 40%. Karen also pays
private health insurance of €45 per month and union fees of €28 per month.
(b) Calculate Karen’s net income for the year.
Solution
(a) USC (universal service charge)
2016 Rate Calculation
On the first €12 012 1% 0·01 × 12 012 = €120·12
On the next €6656 3% 0·03 × 6656 = €199·68
On the next €51 376 5·5% 0·055 × (50 800 − 12 012 − 6656)
= 0·055 × 32 132 = €1767·26
Total USC to be deducted = €120·12 + €199·68 + €1767·26 = €2087·06
The total USC that Karen must pay is €2087·06.
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(b) Steps to calculating net income Calculation
1 Standard rate of tax @ 20% 0·2 × 33 800 = €6760
2 Higher rate of tax @ 40% on balance Balance = €50 800 − €33 800 = €17 000
0·4 × €17 000 = €6800
3 Gross tax due €6760 + €6800 = €13 560
4 Tax payable = gross tax – tax credits €13 560 − €3300 = €10 260
5 Other deductions per month: private Per year:
health insurance of €45, union fees of €45 × 12 = €540
€28 €28 × 12 = €336
6 Net income/take-home pay = €50 800 − (€2087·06 + €10 260 + €540 + €336)
gross salary – all deductions = €37 576·94
Karen’s net income for the year is €37 576·94.
Compound interest
Compound interest is the interest which is added to the principal of an
investment or loan each year, which in turn becomes the principal for the
next year and so on.
Method 1: Using the compound interest formula
F = P(1 + i)t is given in the Formulae and Tables booklet, where:
� F = final amount including interest (also called the future value)
� P = principal invested (also called the present value)
� i = annual interest rate (as a decimal)
� t = time in years.
Note: This formula assumes that compounding happens once a year.
Method 2: Compounding the interest one year at a time
� Final amount for year 1 = multiply the principal for year 1 by (1 + i)
� Final amount for year 2 = multiply the principal for year 2 by (1 + i), and so on.
Note: Generally used when the interest rate varies from year to year.
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Top Tip
Always convert the annual interest rate given into a decimal.
For example:
i = 6% = 0·06 i = 11% = 0·11 i = 15·5% = 0·155
Points to note
Annual percentage rate (APR) and annual equivalent rate (AER)
� We use the annual percentage rate (APR) when dealing with loan and
credit agreement calculations. The APR is the interest rate paid to the
financial institution.
� When dealing with savings and investments we use the annual equivalent
rate (AER). The AER is the interest rate paid by the financial institution.
� To calculate the interest rate for a given year we need to know both the
principal and interest for that year.
_____________
interest amount
� Interest rate (%) =
× 100%
principal
� When asked for the value of an investment when it ‘matures’, we mean the
amount the investment is worth at the end of the given time period.
Example
Jack invests €2500 for two years in an investment which offers
a compound interest rate of 8%.
(a) How much will Jack’s investment be worth when it matures?
(b) What is the total interest earned on this investment?
At the end of the third year the amount of the investment was €3207·60.
(c) Calculate the rate of interest for the third year.
Solution
(a) Method 1: Using the compound interest formula
F = P(1 + i)t , as shown in the Formula and Tables booklet.
Information given: Substitute all known values into the
F = final amount = ? compound interest formula to find F:
P = principal (investment) = €2500 F = 2500(1 + 0·08)2
i = interest rate 8% = 0·08 = 2500(1·08)2
t = time = 2 years = €2916
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Method 2: Compounding the interest one year at a time
Investment at the start of year 1 = €2500
Final amount at the end of year 1 = €2500 × 1·08 = €2700
Investment at the start of year 2 = €2700
Final amount at the end of year 2 = €2700 × 1·08 = €2916
Jack’s investment will be worth €2916 when it matures.
(b) Total interest earned = final amount − investment
= €2916 − €2500
= €416
(c) At the end of the third year the total investment was €3207·60.
Interest earned = final amount − investment
= €3207·60 − €2916
= €291·60
interest
________
Interest rate (%) =
× 100%
principal
______
291·60
=
× 100% = 10%
2916
The rate of interest for the third year was 10%.
Example
Mark decides to invest money for three years at an annual interest rate of 12·5%.
He wants the investment to return €5400 at the end of the three years.
How much money does Mark need to invest?
Solution
Method 1 Using the formula:
Information given: F = P(1 + i)t
F = final amount = €5400 Substitute all known values into the
P = principal (investment) = P compound interest formula. Rearrange
the formula to make P the subject and
i = interest rate of 12·5% = 0·125
solve for the principal.
t = time = 3 years
5400 = P(1 + 0·125)3
_______
5400
=P
(1·125)3
3792·5925... = P
Mark needs to invest €3793.
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Exercise Q2 (a) Mark sells a bike and
treadmill for €530 online,
Q1 (a) The table at the right shows making a profit of 18%.
the value of one Euro against (i) What was the total
other currencies on a original cost of both
particular day at a bank. items?
The bank charges 3% on all Mark paid €115 for the bike
currency transactions. and sold it for €140.
Currency Rate (€)
(ii) Calculate the percentage
US Dollar ($) 1·12 mark-up on the bike,
Chinese Yuan (¥) 7·26 correct to 1 d.p.
Mexican Peso ($) 20·91 (iii) Calculate the percentage
Swedish Krona (kr) 9·46 margin on the treadmill,
correct to 2 d.p.
Based on the information
given, calculate the value (b) A jeweller buys watches
of each of the following for €170 each. The jeweller
transactions: sells the watches with a
percentage mark-up of 28%.
(i) $510 to Euro
(i) For how much does the
(ii) €2100 to Chinese Yuan
jeweller sell each watch?
(iii) kr1750 to Euro
(ii) What is the percentage
(iv) €2500 to Mexican Pesos profit margin, to the
(b) A man buys the following nearest percent?
items on a shopping Q3 (a) In a sale, a store offers 25%
website: discount on all products.
A DVD boxset for £32 If a coffee maker is €160 in
the sale, what was the
A book for £9·40
original price of the coffee
A set of pens for £12·99 maker before the sale?
(i) Based on the exchange (b) In a sale, a clothing store
rate of €1 = £0·81, offers a 30% discount on
calculate the total cost all marked prices.
of the items in Euros.
(i) What was the marked
VAT is charged at 23% on all price of a pair of shoes
goods and a shipping charge if the sales price is €85?
of £7·50 is applied.
(ii) What is the sale price
(ii) What is the total cost for of a pair of jeans if the
all items to be shipped? marked price is €70?
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(c)
A supermarket sells two types Printer Type Sale Price
of printer:
A €165
Printer Price % Profit B €360
Type (ii) What is the percentage
A €190 24% mark-up on each of
B €400 22% the printers in the sale,
(i) What is the cost price of correct to one decimal
each of the printers? place?
(iii) What is the percentage
In a sale, the supermarket
discount given on each
reduced the price of each
of the printers in the
printer to the prices listed
sale, to the nearest
below:
percent?
Q4 (a) David wishes to get some chocolate bars for a party. A packet of 12 bars
costs €4·08 in shop A. A packet of 7 bars costs €2·17 in shop B.
(i) Find the cost of one bar in each shop.
(ii) If David buys 84 bars, how much will he save by buying the bars in
the shop offering the better value?
(b) A supermarket has a special offer on three different brands of baby food.
The following table gives details of the offer:
Brand No. of tins Weight of Price per
per packet each tin packet
A 2 130 g €2·10
B 3 130 g €4·00
C 3 240 g €8·00
Which brand has the cheapest price per gram?
Q5 (a) A gas bill has the following information for the month of June:
Unit price Present reading Previous reading
Night rate €0·083 45 41 323 40 451
Day rate €0·153 86 32 912 32 198
(i) Calculate the cost for the units used.
(ii) A service charge per month of €23 is added to the bill, plus VAT
at 13·5%. Calculate the gas bill, VAT inclusive.
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(b) The terms and conditions of (i) Calculate the amount of
Matt’s mobile phone contract USC that Aoife must pay.
are listed below: The standard rate of income
� Standing charge of €28, tax is 20% and the higher rate
which includes 250 free is 40%. Aoife has tax credits
minutes of calls and of €2700 for the year and the
250 free text messages. standard rate cut-off point is
� Exceeding limits: €33 800.
� Calls are charged at 12
(ii) Calculate the total tax
cents per minute payable by Aoife for the
year.
� Texts are charged at 9
cents per text. Michael pays tax at the same
rates as Aoife. Michael has tax
During the month of May, the credits of €3500 for the year
duration of Matt’s calls were and has the same standard
4 hours and 51 minutes and he rate cut-off point as Aoife.
sent 310 text messages. VAT on His total tax payable amounts
this bill is charged at 23%. to €13 680 for the year.
Calculate his total bill for the (iii) Calculate Michael’s gross
month of May. income for the year.
Q6 (a) Jack has a gross income of (c) Fiona has tax credits of €1790
€57 000. His total income tax for the year and a standard rate
payable adds up to €12 740. cut-off point of €33 800. She
The standard rate cut-off has a gross income of €39 700
point is €33 800. The standard for the year. The standard rate
rate of tax is 20% and the of income tax is 20% and the
higher rate is 40%. What are higher rate is 40%.
Jack’s tax credits for the year?
(i) After tax is paid, what is
(b) Aoife has a gross income of Fiona’s income for the year?
€43 500. She pays universal (ii) What would Fiona’s gross
social charge (USC) and income income for the year need
tax on her gross income. The to be in order for her to
rates and bands for USC are have an after-tax income
shown in the table below: of €38 450?
USC Q7 (a) €7600 was invested in an
2016 Rate account offering compound
On the first €12 012 1% interest. The rate for the first
year was 6% per annum.
On the next €6656 3%
(i) Calculate the total
On the next €51 376 5·5%
investment at the end of
On the balance 8%
the first year.
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(ii) At the end of the second (ii) At the end of the third
year the investment year the investment will
amounted to €8660·20. be worth €7577·10.
Calculate the rate per Calculate the rate of
annum for the second year. interest for the third
(b) Denis has €6800 and decides year. Give your answer
to invest it for three years. as a percentage, correct
The bank offers him a special to one decimal place.
savings account which has an (c) Thomas decides to invest
interest rate of 4·5% for the money for three years at an
first two years and a higher annual interest rate of 9·5%.
rate for the third year, if the He wants the investment to
money is retained in the return €7500 at the end of the
account. Tax of 24% will be three years.
deducted each year from the How much money does
interest earned. Thomas need to invest, to the
(i) How much will the nearest Euro?
investment be worth at
the end of second year,
after tax is deducted?
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13 Fundamental Principles
of Counting
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn:
� About the key terminology associated with the fundamental principles of counting
� How to apply the fundamental principles of counting
� How to list all possible outcomes of an experiment
� How to list outcomes of experiments using a sample space.
Key terminology and information
Key Terminology
Word Meaning
Trial An experiment involving probability or chance which gives
a set of repeatable outcomes. For example, rolling a die,
tossing a coin, selecting one card from a deck of cards, etc.
Outcome The result of a single trial of an experiment. For example,
when rolling a die the possible outcomes are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
Sample space The set of all the possible outcomes of a trial. A sample
space can be represented using a list of outcomes, a
two-way table or a tree diagram.
Event A subset of the sample space.
Probability The measure of how likely an event is to happen.
Fundamental There are two fundamental principles of counting, as
principle of described below.
counting
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Fundamental principles of counting
Points to note
Fundamental principle of counting 1
If one event has m possible outcomes and another event has n possible
outcomes, then the total number of outcomes of the first operation and the
second operation is m × n.
Fundamental principle of counting 2
If one event has m possible outcomes and another event has n possible
outcomes, then the total number of outcomes of the first operation or the
second operation is m + n.
Top Tip
And indicates multiplication Or indicates addition
If in a given question the word If in a given question the word
‘and’ is used when describing ‘or’ is used when describing
possible outcomes, this indicates possible outcomes, this indicates
multiplication of those outcomes addition of those outcomes.
Example
David wishes to buy a new car. He wishes to buy an SUV
or saloon car body shape. He can choose between a diesel or
petrol model. He can choose either black or silver.
(a) How many different choices of car does David have?
(b) List all the possible outcomes.
Solution
(a) As David needs to choose a car body shape and
a fuel type and a colour, we use the
fundamental principle of counting 1 rule.
Number of different choices of car
= (car body shape) and (fuel type) and (colour)
=2×2×2
=8
Remember
The first fundamental principle of counting
states that ‘and’ means ‘multiply’.
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(b) The 8 possible outcomes are:
SUV, Diesel and Black SUV, Petrol and Black
SUV, Diesel and Silver SUV, Petrol and Silver
Saloon, Diesel and Black Saloon, Petrol and Black
Saloon, Diesel and Silver Saloon, Petrol and Silver
Example
Eileen is going on holiday. She goes into a shop to
buy a pair of shorts or a dress. She likes four pairs of shorts
and three dresses. How many possible outcomes are there
for the item of clothing she buys?
Solution
As Eileen needs to buy a pair of shorts or a dress,
we use the fundamental principle of counting 2 rule. m ember
Total number of outcomes
Re The
mental
= (number of pairs of shorts) or (number of dresses) second funda
unting states
principle of co
= 4 + 3 ns ‘add’.
that ‘or’ mea
=7
Example
A restaurant offers a set menu for special events. The menu offers
three starters, six main courses, seven desserts and a choice of
coffee or tea. In how many different ways can you order a four
course meal?
Solution
As with the first example, remember that ‘and’ means ‘multiply’.
So the number of different meal options
= (starters) and (mains) and (desserts) and (drinks)
=3×6×7×2
= 252
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Point to note
Sample spaces
A sample space is the set of all the possible outcomes of a trial. It can be
represented using three methods:
zza list of outcomes,
zza two-way table, or
zza tree diagram.
Example
A coin is tossed and a die is rolled.
(a) How many outcomes are possible?
(b) List all the possible outcomes.
Solution
(a) Let n = the number of possible outcomes when a coin is tossed.
∴ n = 2
Let m = the number of possible
Top Tip
outcomes when a die is rolled. In maths, the three dots
∴m=6 symbol (\) means ‘therefore'.
Using the first fundamental principle of
counting the number of possible outcomes = n × m
So the number of possible outcomes
= (number of coin outcomes) and (number of die outcomes)
= (number of coin outcomes) × (number of die outcomes)
=6×2
= 12
(b) The three methods which can be used to list the outcomes are:
1 making a straightforward list,
2 drawing up a two-way table, or
3 drawing a tree diagram.
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Method 1: List of outcomes (sample space).
A coin has two possible outcomes = {Head, Tail} = {H, T}
A die has six possible outcomes = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
The possible outcomes can be written in pairs as:
(H, 1), (T, 1), (H, 2), (T, 2), (H, 3), (T, 3), (H, 4), (T, 4), (H, 5), (T, 5), (H, 6), (T, 6).
Method 2: A two-way table (sample space).
One set of outcomes is listed across the top of a table, and the other set
down the side. Then each box in the table represents one of the possible
pairs of outcomes.
Die
1 2 3 4 5 6
H (H, 1) (H, 2) (H, 3) (H, 4) (H, 5) (H, 6)
Coin
T (T, 1) (T, 2) (T, 3) (T, 4) (T, 5) (T, 6)
Method 3: A tree diagram (sample space).
From a starting point, one set of outcomes branches out, and then the second
set of outcomes branches out from each of the first branches.
Outcomes
1 (H, 1)
2 (H, 2)
3 (H, 3)
Head
4 (H, 4)
5 (H, 5)
6 (H, 6)
1 (T, 1)
2 (T, 2)
3 (T, 3)
Tail
4 (T, 4)
5 (T, 5)
6 (T, 6)
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Exercise
Q1 Jack goes into an electrical shop to buy either a laptop or a smartphone.
The shop has four laptops and three smartphones that he likes. How many
possible purchase options does Jack have?
Q2 A local shop offers the ‘Student Lunch Special’ shown in the table.
Student Lunch Special
Any sandwich, packet of crisps and drink for €4
Sandwich Crisps Drink
Ham Salt & Vinegar Water
Chicken Cheese & Onion Cola
Tuna Ready Salted Orange
Cheese
Egg Mayonnaise
(a) Calculate the number of different ‘Lunch Specials’ that can be ordered.
(b) If the shop runs out of Cheese & Onion crisps, how many ‘Lunch
Specials’ can now be ordered?
Q3 A code for a combination lock consists of one of the letters A, B, C or D
followed by one digit. How many different codes are possible?
Q4 Conor is going on holiday for a fortnight. He packs the following items in his
suitcase:
5 T-shirts
4 pairs of shorts
1 pair of jeans
1 pair of sandals
1 pair of trainers
If he wears a T-shirt, a pair of jeans or shorts, and either sandals or trainers
each day, how many different outfits can he wear?
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Q5 Joanne prints off her holiday photographs on her home printer. She can
choose from the print options shown in the table.
Size Colour Quality Finish
10 × 15 cm Black and white Best Matt
13 × 18 cm Colour Better Glossy
A4 Draft
(a) In how many different ways can she print off her photographs?
(b)
Joanne decides that she does not want her photos printed in draft
quality or with a matt finish. How many ways can she now print off her
photos?
Q6 A game consists of spinning a fair spinner and tossing a coin.
Spinner
A C
B D
(a) How many possible outcomes are there?
(b) List all possible outcomes of the game using:
(i) the list method
(ii) a two-way table
(iii) a tree diagram.
(SEC 2012)
Q7 A game consists of spinning a fair spinner and rolling a die.
Red Blue
Green Yellow
(a) How many possible outcomes are there?
(b) List all possible outcomes of the game using:
(i) the list method
(ii) a two-way table.
(SEC 2014)
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Q8 A football strip consists of a shirt, shorts and socks. Aspen United has two
shirts, one blue and one green, from which to select. They can also select
from three different colours of shorts and five different colours of socks,
including red in each case.
(a) Calculate how many different strips Aspen United can have.
(b) Willow Celtic plays in an all-red strip. When Aspen United plays Willow
Celtic, Aspen United are not allowed to use their red shorts or their
red socks. Calculate how many different strips Aspen United can have
when they play Willow Celtic.
(SEC 2013)
Q9 Jack rolls a fair die and spins a fair spinner as shown.
Die Spinner
A C
B D
(a) Complete the table below showing all possible outcomes.
Spinner
A B C D
1 (1, A)
2
3
Die
4
5
6 (6, D)
(b) How many possible outcomes are there?
(c) How many outcomes consist of an odd number and B?
(SEC 2012)
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14 Probability
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
� Key terminology and information associated with probability
� The probability scale
� How to calculate probabilities for equally likely outcomes
� Relative frequency/experimental probability
� Using relative frequency to predict expected frequency
� Relative frequency versus theoretical probability
� Using two-way tables, tree diagrams and Venn diagrams to find probability.
Key terminology and information
Key Terminology
Word Meaning
Trial An experiment involving probability or chance which gives
a set of repeatable outcomes. For example, rolling a die,
tossing a coin, selecting one card from a deck of cards, etc.
Outcome The result of a single trial of an experiment. For example,
when rolling a die, the possible outcomes are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
Sample space The set of all the possible outcomes of a trial. A sample
space can be represented using a list of outcomes, a
two-way table or a tree diagram.
Event (E) A subset of the sample space. It is a specific outcome.
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Probability The chance or likelihood that an event will happen.
P (E ) ______________________________
number of favourable outcomes
P (E ) =
total number of possible outcomes
Fair Each outcome has an equal chance of occurring. For example, a fair
die is one where each number has an equal chance of occurring.
Biased Each outcome does not have an equal chance of occurring.
Certain 100% chance of an event happening: P (E ) = 1.
Impossible 0% chance of an event happening: P (E ) = 0.
Evens __
1
50% chance of an event happening: P (E ) = 0·5 or 50% or .
50/50 2
Likely Greater than 50% chance of an event happening: P (E ) > 0·5
Unlikely Less than 50% chance of an event happenning: P (E ) < 0·5
The The probability scale goes from 0 to 1.
probability The Probability Scale
scale
0 1
Probability can be written as a fraction, decimal or percentage.
Favourable
To calculate the probability of a particular event occurring.
outcome
Relative The likelihood of an event happening from carrying out an
frequency experiment or trial and recording the results.
Relative number of favourable outcomes (frequency)
_____________________________________
=
frequency total number of trials
Relative ___________________________________________
total number of times an event occurs
=
frequency total number of times an experiment is carried out
Note: Increasing the number of trials of an experiment leads
to better estimates of probability. When the number of trials
is big enough the relative frequency tends to the theoretical
probability.
Expected
Expected frequency = relative frequency × the number of trials
frequency
Theoretical The relative frequency approaches the theoretical probability
probability when there are a very large number of trials.
Theoretical ____________________________________
number of favourable outcomes that exist
= ,
probability total number of possible outcomes
provided that all outcomes are equally likely to happen.
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Points to note
Probability is the chance or likelihood that an event will happen.
The probability scale ranges from 0 to 1.
Probability can be written as a fraction, decimal or percentage.
More More
unlikely likely
50–50
Impossible Certain
chance
0 0·5 1
1–
0 1
2
0% 50% 100%
Example
From the probability scale shown, choose the words which best describe the
probability of each of the statements below:
Impossible Very Unlikely 50–50 Likely Very Certain
unlikely likely
(a) A pregnant woman will give birth to a baby boy.
(b) A rolled die will show a 6.
(c) It will rain in Ireland tomorrow.
(d) A student will do their Mathematics homework.
(e) Night will follow day.
(f) You are able to turn back time.
(g) You will pick a spade from a standard deck of cards.
Solution
(a) A woman can give birth to a baby boy or girl, so there is a 50–50 chance that she
will give birth to a baby boy.
(b) As there are six numbers on a die: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, there is a 1 in 6 chance that
the die will show a 6. So this event is possible, but very unlikely.
(c) There are approximately 225 days of rain in the wettest part of Ireland per year
____
225
(Valencia Island). So there is a chance of rain in Ireland tomorrow. So, this
365
event is likely to happen.
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(d) A student is very likely to do their Mathematics homework.
(e) Night always follows day. So, this event is certain to happen.
(f) It is not possible to turn back time. So, this event is impossible.
___
13 __ 1
(g) As there are 13 spades in a deck of cards, there is a = chance of picking a
52 4
spade. So this event is unlikely to happen.
Example
Match the letter with the probability.
Probability Letter
E G B A D C F
Certain
Solution Extremely likely
Probability Letter Likely
50–50 chance
Certain F
Extremely likely C Unlikely
Likely D Very unlikely
50–50 chance A Impossible
Unlikely B
Very unlikely G
Impossible E
How to calculate probabilities for equally likely
outcomes
Points to note
For equally likely outcomes:
number of favourable outcomes
Probability of an event, P (E ) = ____________________________
total number of possible outcomes
Probability of an event not happening = 1 – probability of an event happening
It is important to remember to always write your answer in its simplest form,
for example: ___
12 = __
4 .
15 5
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Example
A pencil case contains four red pens, six black pens and
two blue pens. A pen is selected at random from the pencil case.
(a) What is the probability of selecting a blue pen?
(b) What is the probability of selecting a red pen?
(c) What is the probability of not selecting a red pen?
Solution
___________________________ number of blue pens ___
number of favourable outomes __________________ 2 __ 1
(a) P(blue pen) =
=
= =
number of possible outcomes total number of pens 12 6
number of red pens ___4 __ 1
(b) P(red pen) = ___________________
= =
total number of pens 12 3
(c) Method 1
number of pens which are not red ___ 8 __ 2
P(not a red pen) = ______________________________
= =
total number of pens 12 3
Method 2
__
1 __ 2
P(not a red pen) = 1 − P(red pen) = 1 − =
3 3
Relative frequency (experimental probability)
Points to note
zzRelative frequency is also known as experimental probability as it is found
from carrying out an experiment.
zzRelative
frequency or experimental probability
number of favourable outcomes (frequency)
= ____________________________________
total number of trials
total number of times an event occurs
= _________________________________________
total number of times an experiment is carried out
zzRelative frequency can give an estimate of the actual probability. The more
trials, the more accurate it will be.
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Example
A bag contains red discs, blue discs and white discs. In an experiment, each student
in a class of 24 takes out a disc, records the colour and replaces it. This is repeated
ten times. The results from the class are recorded in the table below.
Colour Red Blue White Total
Frequency 123 78 39
Relative frequency
% of total (relative frequency × 100)
(a) In your opinion, why is the number of red discs selected greater than the
number of blue or white discs?
(b) Complete the table above.
(c) Use the results from the table to estimate the probability of getting each colour
when a disc is taken from the bag, and record your answers in the table below.
Colour Red Blue White Total
Probability
(d) What do you notice about the sum of the relative frequencies?
Solution
(a) It is likely that there are more red discs in the bag than blue or white. This
would explain why the red discs were selected more often than the others.
(b)
Colour Red Blue White Total
Frequency 123 78 39 240
____
123 ____
78 ____
39
Relative frequency = 0·5125 = 0·325 = 0·1625 1
240 240 240
% of total (relative
51·25 32·5 16·25 100
frequency × 100)
(c) Colour Red Blue White Total
Probability 0·5125 0·325 0·1625 1
(d) The sum of the relative frequencies is 1.
(SEC 2014)
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Example
Sean, Sarah and Tom toss a Euro coin. Sean threw 109 heads from 200 tosses. Sarah
threw 245 heads from 400 tosses. Tom threw 348 heads from 600 tosses. Sean, Sarah
and Tom think that the coin may be biased.
(a) Complete the table below.
Number of heads thrown Sean Sarah Tom
Frequency 109 245 348
Number of trials 200
Relative frequency
% of total (relative frequency × 100)
(b) What do you understand the word ‘biased’ to mean?
(c) Give a reason why they think that the coin may be biased.
Solution
(a) Number of heads thrown Sean Sarah Tom
Frequency 109 245 348
Number of trials 200 400 600
____
109 ____
245 ____
348
Relative frequency = 0·545 = 0·6125 = 0·58
200 400 600
% of total (relative frequency × 100) 54·5 61·25 58
(b) Bias occurs when each outcome does not have an equal chance of occuring.
(c) The coin may be biased as each player tosses more than 50% heads.
Using relative frequency to predict expected
frequency
Points to note
Expected frequency = relative frequency × the number of trials
Expected frequency is used to predict the frequency of an event happening for
larger numbers of trials, when the relative frequency can be calculated. It is
used in many situations, such as manufacturing and sporting events.
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Example
A soccer player has scored in 12 of the last 15
‘on target shots’ he has taken. How many of the next
50 ‘on target shots’ would he expect to score?
Solution
___
12 __ 4
Relative frequency of scoring = =
15 5
To find out how many ‘on target shots’ he would expect
to score from the next 50 ‘on target shots’, we need to
calculate the expected frequency.
Expected frequency = relative frequency × the number of trials
__
4
= × 50
5
= 40
He should score in 40 of his next 50 ‘on target shots’.
Relative frequency versus theoretical probability
Points to note
zzThe relative frequency approaches the theoretical probability when there
are a very large number of trials.
number of favourable outcomes that exist
________________________________
zzTheoretical probability = ,
total number of possible outcomes
provided all outcomes are equally likely
Example
A fair die is rolled 300 times. It lands on a 4 a total of 57 times.
(a) Calculate the relative frequency of rolling a 4.
(b) How many times would you expect this die to land on a 4,
if the die were rolled 6000 times?
(c) What is the theoretical probability of a 4 being rolled?
(d) In your opinion, why are the relative frequency and the
theoretical probability answers different?
(e) What could be changed to produce a relative frequency
that is closer to the theoretical probability?
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Solution
____
57
(a) Relative frequency of rolling a 4 = = 0·19
300
(b) Expected frequency = relative frequency × the number of trials
= 0·19 × 6000
= 1140
The die should land on a 4 a total of 1140 times from 6000 trials.
____________________________________
number of favourable outcomes that exist
(c) Theoretical probability = , so the
total number of possible outcomes
__
1 •
theoretical probability of a 4 being rolled = = 0·16.
6
(d) The relative frequency and the theoretical probability answers are different
because relative frequency is based on experimental data. In this example the
number of trials was small.
(e) Recall that the relative frequency approaches the theoretical probability when
there are a very large number of trials. So to produce a relative frequency that is
closer to the theoretical probability the number of trials carried out would need
to be increased.
The use of two-way tables and tree diagrams to
find probability
Example
A woman gave birth to non-identical twins. Assume that each child born has an equal
chance of being either a boy or a girl.
(a) List all the possible outcomes to
represent this situation.
(b) What is the probability that:
(i) both children are boys?
(ii) both children are girls?
(iii) one child is a boy and the
other is a girl?
Solution
(a) Method 1: List of outcomes
The possible outcomes can be written in pairs as:
(Boy, Boy), (Boy, Girl), (Girl, Boy) or (Girl, Girl).
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Method 2: A two-way table
2nd child
Boy Girl
1st child
Boy (Boy, Boy) (Boy, Girl)
Girl (Girl, Boy) (Girl, Girl)
Method 3: A tree diagram
Outcomes
1–
2 Boy (B, B)
Boy
1– Girl (B, G)
2
Start
1–
2 Boy (G, B)
Girl
1– Girl (G, G)
2
__
1 __
1 __ 1
(b) (i) P (Boy and Boy) = P(B × B) = × =
2 2 4
__
1 __1 __ 1
(ii) P (Girl and Girl) = P(G × G) = × =
2 2 4
__
2 __ 1
(iii) P (1 Boy and 1 Girl) = =
4 2
Exercise
Q1 (a) F or each of the events A, B, C, D and E, estimate its probability and
place the letter at the most appropriate position on the probability
scale.
Event Probability
A card is picked at random from a standard deck of playing
cards.
A = Ace of hearts is picked.
A fair coin is tossed.
B = a tail is the outcome for the toss.
A day is chosen at random from the list of the days of the week.
C = the day contains the letter a.
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Event Probability
A month is chosen at random from the list of months of the year.
D = the month contains the letter r.
A letter is picked at random from the word ENORMOUS.
E = the letter is W.
0 0·5 1
(b) Write down another event with a probability similar to that of B in the
scale above.
(c) Write down another event with a probability similar to that of C in the
scale above.
(d) Write down another event with a probability similar to that of E in the
scale above.
Q2 (a) The following terms can be used to describe the probability that an
event happens: Likely, Certain, Unlikely, Impossible, 50:50.
F or each event in the table below, use one of these terms to describe
the probability that it happens.
Event Probability
When a fair coin is tossed you get a head.
If you buy a lottery ticket for next Saturday’s draw, you will
win the Jackpot.
The 1st of January will be New Year’s Day.
(b) Four events, A, B, C and D, are listed below.
A: Y ou pick a red ball from a bag containing three black and seven red
balls.
B: You get a natural number less than 7 when you roll a regular six-
sided die.
C: You pick a red card from a standard deck of playing cards.
D: You pick a yellow ball from a bag containing four red balls and two
white balls.
rite each of the letters A, B, C and D into the correct box on the
W
probability scale below, to show the probability of each event.
0 0·5 1
(SEC 2014)
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Q3 Shirts in a clothes shop come in the following four sizes: Small (S), Medium (M),
Large (L) and Extra Large (XL). Kristina makes the following list, showing the
size of each of the shirts in the shop.
S S L M L L XL M XL
L L S M M M M L M
(a) Write down the total number of shirts in the shop.
(b) Use Kristina’s list to fill in the frequency table below.
Shirt size S M L XL
Frequency
Kristina picks one shirt at random.
(c) Find the probability that it is a large (L) shirt.
Kristina puts one of the large (L) shirts on display. She then picks another
shirt at random from those that are left.
(d) Find the probability that it is a small (S) shirt.
(SEC 2016)
Q4 The songs on Gavin’s phone are shown in the table below.
Singer Number of songs
Usher
Pharrell 15
Ed Sheeran 4
Hozier 3
Gavin has 30 songs on his phone, in total.
(a) Find how many songs by Usher are on Gavin’s phone.
Gavin plays a song at random on his phone.
(b) Find the probability that this song is by Hozier.
(c) Find the probability that this song is by Ed Sheeran or Pharrell.
Gavin plays a song by Ed Sheeran, and then plays a song by Hozier.
(d) In how many different ways can he do this? Remember that he has four
songs by Ed Sheeran and three songs by Hozier.
(SEC 2015)
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Q5 A hurling match is played between Team A and Team B.
A player on Team A, Fiachra, has the ball
and attempts to score. The probability of
Fiachra scoring a point is 0·6 and the
probability of him scoring a goal is 0·1.
(a) I s Fiachra more likely to score a
point or a goal?
(b) What is the probability that Fiachra will not score a point in this attempt?
A player on Team B, Peadar, has the ball and attempts to score. The
probability of Peadar scoring a point is 0·7 and the probability of him
scoring a goal is 0·2.
(c) Peadar is more likely to score than Fiachra. Give a reason why this is true.
(d) A spectator says, ‘Peadar will always score more than Fiachra in a game
between the two teams.’ Do you agree with the spectator?
Give a reason for your answer.
(e)
A penalty is awarded to Team B. The goalkeeper for Team A has saved
12 penalties out of 20 this season. What is the probability that the
goalkeeper will save the penalty based on his previous record?
(SEC 2013)
Q6 A group of 106 students returning from a day trip stopped at a food court
on the way home. When they got back on the bus, a student carried out
a survey to find out which food outlet they had eaten in. The results are
recorded in the table shown.
Burger outlet Sandwich outlet Chinese outlet
Boys 34 16 6
Girls 11 x 32
(a) If all students ate at one of the food outlets, find the value of x.
(b) What is the probability that the student chosen is a girl who ate at the
Chinese outlet?
(c) I f a student is chosen at random, what is the probability that the
student is a boy?
(d) If a student is chosen at random, what is the probability that the
student is a girl?
(e) I f a student is chosen at random, what is the probability that the
student ate in the burger outlet?
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Q7 In a survey, 1500 people were asked which national radio station they
normally listen to. The results of the survey are given in the table below.
No
Today Lyric
RTE 1 Newstalk 2FM national
FM FM
station
Frequency 375 195 120 45 165
Relative
_____
375
frequency
1500
(as a fraction)
Relative
frequency 0·08
(as a decimal)
(a) How many of the people surveyed do not listen to a national radio station?
(b) Complete the table above.
(c) Find the sum of the relative frequencies written as fractions.
(d) Find the sum of the relative frequencies written as decimals.
(e) J ackie wrote the relative frequencies as percentages. She found their
sum to be 80%. Do you think her calculations are correct? Give a reason
for your answer.
(f) D
enis looked at the data and said, ‘I can find out how many people in
the survey normally listen to local radio.’ Do you agree or disagree with
Denis? Explain your answer.
(SEC 2012)
Q8 A machine part manufacturer finds that 4 out of 360 parts are faulty.
(a) What is the relative frequency of manufacturing a faulty part?
(b) How many faulty parts would you expect to find if:
(i) 500 parts were tested?
(ii) 1350 parts were tested?
(iii) 20 000 parts were tested?
Q9 A card is chosen from a deck of cards and then replaced. Each student in a
class of 30 students selects a card and notes the card chosen. 17 students
chose a red card.
(a) Calculate the relative frequency of selecting a red card, correct to
two decimal places.
(b) What is the theoretical probability of a red card being selected?
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(c) I n your opinion, why are the relative frequency and the theoretical
probability answers different?
(d) What could be changed to produce a relative frequency that is closer to
the theoretical probability?
Q10 A game is played using the two spinners shown.
B A
4 2
C F
6 D E
The first spinner has three segments labelled 2, 4 and 6.
The arrow has the same chance of stopping at each number.
The second spinner has six segments labelled A, B, C, D, E and F.
The arrow has the same chance of stopping at each letter.
Two possible outcomes are (2, A) and (6, D).
(a) List all the possible outcomes in the table below.
2nd spinner
A B C D E F
2 (2, A)
1st spinner
6 (6, D)
(b) How many outcomes contain the letter E?
(c) What is the probability that the outcome contains the letter E?
(d) What is the probability that the outcome contains the number 6?
(e) What is the probability that the outcome contains E, or 6, or both?
(SEC 2014)
Q11 In a survey, 500 students were asked what sporting activities they had
participated in during the summer holidays. The results were as follows:
zz 250 played cricket (C)
zz 230 went swimming (S)
zz 125 played tennis (T)
zz 175 went swimming and played cricket
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zz 100 played cricket and tennis
zz 50 went swimming and played tennis
zz30 participated in all three sports.
(a) Represent the information on a Venn diagram.
(b) Calculate how many students did not participate in any of the three
sporting activities listed.
(c) W
hat is the probability that a student did not participate in any of
these activities?
(d) What is the probability that a student participated in at least one of
the activities listed?
(e) W
hat is the probability that a student participated in at least two of the
activities listed?
Q12 An archer shoots arrows at a bullseye. The probability that an arrow hits
the bullseye is 0·4. The archer shoots three arrows.
(a) Draw a tree diagram to represent this information.
(b) What is the probability that all arrows hit the bullseye?
(c) What is the probability that none of the arrows hit the bullseye?
(d) What is the probability that at least one arrow hits the bullseye?
Q13 The arrows represent the different routes that a skier can take when skiing
down a mountain. The circles on the diagram represent different points on
the routes.
(a) W
hen leaving any particular point on the mountain a skier
is equally likely to choose any of A
the available routes from that point.
Fill in the boxes in the diagram
B C
which represent the probability
that the skier will take that route. D
(b) (i) If the skier starts at
point A, in how many
different ways can the E F G
skier reach the point E?
(ii) If the skier starts at point A, find the probability that the skier will
reach the point E.
(SEC 2013)
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Q14 In a survey, 54 people were asked which political party they had voted for in
the last three elections. The results are as follows:
zz30 had voted for the Conservatives
zz22 had voted for the Liberals
zz22 had voted for the Republicans
zz12 had voted for the Conservatives and for the Liberals
zz9 had voted for the Liberals and for the Republicans
zz8 had voted for the Conservatives and for the Republicans
zz5 had voted for all three parties.
(a) Represent the information on a Venn diagram.
(b) If one person is chosen at random, what is the probability that the
person chosen did not vote in any of the three elections?
(c) If one person is chosen at random, what is the probability that the
person chosen voted for at least two different parties?
(d) If one person is chosen at random, what is the probability that the
person chosen voted for the same party in all three elections?
(SEC 2013)
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Statistics 1: Statistics Use, 15
Data Types and Sampling
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
� Key terminology and information associated with gathering and interpreting
statistical data
� The different types of statistical data
� The data handling cycle
� The key information needed when collecting statistical data.
What is statistics?
This revision chapter deals with the key information related to statistics, the
methods used to collect data and the different types of data.
Word(s) Meaning
Statistics Is about the collection, organisation, presentation and
interpretation of data.
Statistician A person who collects data and turns it into meaningful
information, which can be used to plan for the future.
Data Individual facts, statistics or items of information. Datum is the
singular of data. Strictly speaking, books and studies ought
to use ‘data are’ (i.e. plural), but many use ‘data is’, and this is
accepted terminology.
Univariate Univariate data looks at one item of data at a time from each
data topic, for example, height.
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Types of data: Categorical and numerical data
Points to note
zzWhen data is collected, it is generally organised as being either categorical
data or numerical data, as shown in the table.
Categorical/Qualitative data Numerical/Quantitative data
Data that can be described using Data that can be represented by
words only. numbers.
It can be ordered or unordered. It can be discrete or continuous.
zzThis data can then be organised further, as shown in the diagram below:
Data
Categorical Numerical
Ordinal Nominal Discrete Continuous
zzThe meaning and examples of each data type are provided in the table:
Suitable
Type of Data Definition Examples graphical
representation
Categorical Data that: zzPlaces in a race: zzBar chart
ordinal zzcan be described
1st, 2nd, 3rd, zzLine plot
using words only etc.
zzPie chart
zzMonths of the
zzcan be ordered
in some way year
zzDays of the week
zzGrades in an
exam
zzClothes sizes:
extra-small,
small, medium,
large, etc.
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Suitable
Type of Data Definition Examples graphical
representation
Categorical Data that: zzFavourite colour zzBar chart
nominal zzcan be described zzFilm genre zzLine plot
using words only zzAnimals zzPie chart
zzcannot be
zzFavourite food
ordered in some
way
Numerical Data that: zzFamily size zzBar chart
discrete zzcan be zzShoe size zzPie chart
represented by zzNumber of pens zzLine plot
numbers in your pencil zzStem-and-leaf
zzcan only have case plot
certain values zzShirt collar size
(finite values)
zzNumber of goals
scored
Numerical Data that: zzHeight zzHistogram
continuous zzcan be zzAge
represented by zzTime
numbers
zzTemperature
zzcan involve any
zzWeight
real number
(infinite values) zzArea
zzLength
Example
Classify each of the following data as categorical or numerical.
(a) The make of your family car (car manufacturer)
(b) Number of subjects you study in school
(c) Grades achieved in Junior Certificate
(d) Times taken to complete the 200 m men’s race in the Olympic Games
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Solution
(a) The make of your family car is categorical data. The answers are not numbers
and they cannot be ordered in any particular way.
(b) The number of subjects you study in school is numerical data. The answers are
numbers and they can only have certain values.
(c) Grades achieved in Junior Certificate are categorical data. The answers are not
numbers and they can be ordered in some way.
(d) Times taken to complete the 200 m men’s race in the Olympic Games is
numerical data. The answers are numbers and can have any real value.
Collecting data: Primary and secondary data
Points to note
zzData is collected for:
Ü Market research: To find out what customers like and dislike about
certain products available and to plan for future new products that
customers might like.
Ü Government research: The Census is carried out every five years to
plan for the infrastructure of schools, hospitals, housing, and carry out
age-profiling of the population to plan for future pension provision, etc.
zzData that is collected is divided into either primary data or secondary data,
as shown below.
Data type How it is collected Advantages Disadvantages
Primary Is collected by means of zzYou collect the zzTakes time
data is data a survey. data you need zzNeed the help of
collected by The different types of zzIt’s accurate other people
the person surveys are: zzEasy to zzCan be
who uses it.
1 Questionnaires understand expensive
2 Experimental study:
zzthe researcher
deliberately
influences events
and investigates
the effects of the
intervention
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Data type How it is collected Advantages Disadvantages
Examples:
zzLaboratory
experiment
zzClinical trial
3 Observational study:
zzthe researcher
collects
information but
does not influence
events
Example: Monitoring
behaviour
Secondary zzBooks zzCheap to collect zzIt may not be up
data is data zzMagazines zzDoesn’t take a
to date
collected lot of time zzMay not be
zzNewspapers
by another accurate
person zzInternet
zzMay not provide
zzTV
the information
zzCentral Statistics needed
Office (CSO) zzMay be biased
zzCensus at school
The data handling cycle
When carrying out a statistical investigation it is important that the steps carried
out can be repeated for every investigation. These steps are known as the data
handling cycle.
Points to note
The data handling cycle follows these steps:
Collect
Pose a
1 Pose a question question
the
data
2 Collect the data
Data
3 Analyse the data handling
cycle
4 Interpret the results
Interpret Analyse the
the results data
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Carrying out a survey: Collecting data
A common method of collecting data for a survey is to use a questionnaire.
A questionnaire is a set of questions designed to obtain data from individuals.
The four main methods of collecting data, including the advantages and
disadvantages of each type, are listed in the table.
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Face-to-face People are more likely It takes a long time and is
interview to answer. More difficult not random.
questions can be asked The interviewee is more
and explained if necessary. likely to lie.
Expensive.
Phone Almost everyone has Phone calls can be
interview a phone. expensive.
Questions can be It is difficult to get
explained. peopleʼs phone numbers.
It’s random. Calling people randomly
can annoy them.
Postal People might have more People may not return
questionnaire time to answer questions their questionnaires.
at home. Questions cannot be
Not expensive. explained.
May not be representative
of the population.
Online Saves time. Questions cannot be
questionnaire Very low cost. explained.
Easy to carry out. Only people who want to
answer will take part.
When designing a questionnaire, use the questions in the table below as a guide
to ensure the questionnaire is clear.
Question types Each question must: Possible answers
1 Yes/ No answers 1 Be easy to understand 1 Must include the most
2 Tick boxes 2 Cover every possible common answer
answer 2 Should not be neutral,
as people may choose
this option to complete a
questionnaire quickly
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Question types Each question must: Possible answers
3 Numbered 3 Be unbiased/ neutral 3 Should include an
responses Have a clear meaning ‘other’ option when
4 Word responses 4 Be relevant to the possible
5 Questions survey 4 May be scaled, so
which require a 5 Not lead a person to a person can rate
sentence to be the answer you want their feelings about a
written question
5 Can be rated, where the
person gets to rate/rank
the options given
Example
Write down the advantages and disadvantages of carrying out a face-to-face
interview.
Solution
Advantages Disadvantages
The person being interviewed is more Interviewing takes a lot of time.
likely to answer the questions than if
they were asked to post their responses
either online or via post.
The interviewer can ask more It may be more expensive than other
complicated questions. types of questionnaires.
The interviewer can explain what is The person being interviewed may not
meant by a question if needed. understand the meaning of a question.
An interviewer would be more The person being interviewed is more
consistent when recording information. likely to lie or not answer a question.
Reliability of data
When designing and conducting a survey or questionnaire it is important to
ensure that the information collected is not biased and is representative of the
entire population.
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Points to note
zzMore key information related to statistics
Word(s) Meaning
Population The entire group of people, animals or things about which we
want information.
Sample A subset of a population, which we actually collect information
from in order to draw conclusions about the whole population.
Census This is when every member of the population has data collected
from them.
Sample survey A survey based on a sample of people, rather than the entire
population.
Bias A sample is biased if individuals or groups from the population
are not represented in the sample.
Random sample Each member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected.
Biased samples
A sample is biased if individuals or groups from the population are not
represented in the sample. For example, if you were carrying out a survey to
estimate how many people visit a local tourist attraction, it would be unwise
to stand outside the local tourist attraction to get your data. This data
would produce a biased sample. To avoid bias, we can use simple random
sampling, which is the only type of sampling tested on the JCHL course.
Example
Students in a transition year class wish to carry out a survey of students to find out
which mobile phone provider they use. The school has 900 students and they wish to
survey 50 students.
(a) What is the population of the school?
(b) What is the sample?
(c) How can they avoid bias?
Solution
(a) The population is the 900 students in the school.
(b) The sample is the 50 students that they wish to survey.
(c) To avoid bias the members of the sample should be selected at random, using
simple random sampling.
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Exercise
Q1 Explain the meaning of the following words:
(a) Statistics (b) Data (c) Univariate data (d) Population
(e) Sample (f) Bias (g) Random sample (h) Categorical Data
(i) Numerical Data
Q2 Fill in the table giving a minimum of two examples for each data type.
Suitable
Type of data Definition Examples graphical
representation
Categorical
ordinal
Categorical
nominal
Numerical
discrete
Numerical
continuous
Q3 Complete the table shown for primary and secondary data. List a minimum
of one advantage and disadvantage for each.
Data type How it is Advantages Disadvantages
collected?
Primary data
Secondary data
Q4 What is the difference between an experimental study and an observational
study?
Q5 List one advantage and one disadvantage of the following methods of data
collection:
(a) Face-to-face interview (b) Telephone interview
(c) Postal questionnaire (d) Online questionnaire
Q6 What are the steps of the data handling cycle?
Q7 An Gardaí Síochána wants to know how Dublin inner city residents feel
about the police service. A questionnaire with several questions about
the police is prepared. A sample of 300 mailing addresses in inner city
areas is chosen, and a Garda is sent to each address to administer the
questionnaire to an adult living there.
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Identify the population, variables measured and the sample. In addition,
describe the potential bias.
(NCE-MSTL,Q2)
Q8 Eithne is going to survey post-primary Geography teachers in Ireland.
(a) Some of the questions in the survey are shown in the table below. Put
a tick () in the correct box to show what type of data each question
would give.
Question Numerical Numerical Categorical Categorical
continuous discrete nominal ordinal
How many Geography
classes do you teach
each week?
How much do you like
teaching Geography?
A lot A little Not at all
What subjects (other
than Geography) do
you teach?
Eithne is going to send her survey to some of the post-primary schools in
Ireland.
(b) Describe how Eithne could select a simple random sample from all the
post-primary schools in Ireland.
Eithne is considering sending her survey by email.
(c) State one advantage and one disadvantage of using email to collect data.
(SEC 2015)
Q9 A survey was conducted among third-year students. The answers to each
survey question can be classified as one of the data types shown in the
table below.
In each row in the table write a short question that you could include in a
survey and that will give the type of data stated.
Question Type of data
(a) Categorical data where the categories are not ordered
(b) Ordered categorical data
(c) Discrete numerical data
(d) Continuous numerical data
(SEC 2011)
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Statistics 2: Central Tendency 16
and Spread of Data
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
� The three measures of average/central tendency: Mean, mode and median
� How to calculate the three measures of central tendency from a list of
numbers or frequency tables
� The existence of outliers
� The two measures of spread: Range and interquartile range
� How to calculate the measures of spread from a list of numbers or frequency tables.
Measures of central tendency/averages
Points to note
zzThere are three measures of central tendency/averages on the JCHL course.
They are different ways of working out the average and these are called the
mean, mode and median.
Word(s) Meaning
Mean zzIs the most commonly used measure of central tendency
and is commonly known as the average.
zzIs found by adding (summing) all the values together and
dividing by the number of values in the data set.
___________________________
sum of the values in the data set
∴ Mean =
number of values in the data set
zzThe formula for the mean can be written as:
∑ x
___
m = n
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Word(s) Meaning
� ∑ is pronounced ‘sigma’ and means ‘the sum of’.
� ∑ x means to add up all the data values (x values).
� m is pronounced ‘mew’ and is the symbol for the mean.
� n is the number of values in the data set.
zzFrom a frequency distribution table, the mean can be
calculated using the formula:
∑ f x
____
m =
∑ f
� f is the frequency. Frequency is the number of times a
value occurs.
x is the data value or mid-interval value in a grouped
�
frequency table.
Mode zzThe data value that occurs most often in the set of data.
zzIt is possible for there to be more than one mode, or there
might be no mode at all.
zzIt is used when data is categorical.
Ranking Arranging the values of a set of data in order from the smallest
to the largest value.
Median zzThe middle data value when all the data has been ranked.
zzIs used when the data is numerical and there are extreme
values.
Outlier zzA data value that is much smaller or larger than the other
values in the data set.
zzOutliers can skew the mean.
zzNote that the mean and the median do not have to be data values of the
original data set given. There are advantages and disadvantages when
using the mean, mode or median as the central tendency/average.
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Central tendency/
Advantages Disadvantages
average
Mean zzUses all the data zzIncludes outlier values
zzCan be calculated zzMay not exist in the
easily data
zzYou don’t need to
order the data
Mode zzEasy to find zzSome data sets may
not have a mode
zzIs not affected by
outliers zzMore than one mode
may exist
zzThe only average
used for qualitative/
categorical nominal
data
zzThe value exists in the
data
Median zzIs not affected by zzData needs to be
outliers ranked
zzEasy to find when the zzCan be hard to
data is ordered calculate
zzWorks well with zzMay not exist in the
ordinal data data
Measures of spread
Point to note
Word(s) Meaning
Range The difference between the largest and the smallest value.
Range = largest value – smallest value
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Example
Identify (a) the mean, (b) mode, (c) median and (d) range from the data set:
20, 24, 27, 24, 26, 28, 27, 24, 22.
Solution
(a) The mean is found by adding (sum) all the values together and dividing by
the number of values in the data set.
__________________
sum of all the values
Mean =
number of values
_________________________________
20 + 24 + 27 + 24 + 26 + 28 + 27 + 24 + 22
=
9
____ 222 •
= = 24·6
9
•
So the mean = 24·6
(b) The mode is the data value that occurs most often in the set of data.
20, 24, 27, 24, 26, 28, 27, 24, 22
Since 24 appears the most times, it is the mode.
The mode = 24
(c) The median is the middle number when the data is ranked:
Rank the data: 20, 22, 24, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 28
Identify/find the middle number: 20, 22, 24, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 28
The median = 24
(d) The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest value.
Range = largest value – smallest value = 28 − 20 = 8.
Example
A data set consists of: 6, 12, 15, 20, 14, 8, 10, 18, 24, 12
Find the: (i) mean, (ii) mode, (iii) median and (iv) range
__________________
sum of all the values
(a) (i) Mean =
number of values
___________________________________
6 + 12 + 15 + 20 + 14 + 8 + 10 + 18 + 24 + 12 ____
139
=
= = 13.9
10 10
Note that the mean value is not a value of the data set.
(ii) The mode is the data value that occurs most often in the set of data.
Mode = 12
(iii) The median is the middle data value when all the data has been rarked.
6, 8, 10, 12, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24
Median = 13
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The median is the middle value: this is halfway between the 5th and 6th value.
The 5th value is 12 and the 6th value is 14.
______
12 + 14
Hence the median =
= 13.
2
(iv) The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest value.
Range = largest value – smallest value = 24 − 6 = 18.
Example
A group of 22 students in a Science class recorded the number of whole minutes spent
doing experiments during Monday’s class. The total amount of time spent was 1230
minutes.
(a) Find the mean number of minutes that each student spent doing experiments on
Monday.
(b) Two additional students joined the class and reported that respectively they
spent 48 minutes and 50 minutes doing experiments on Monday. Calculate the
new mean including these students.
Solution
__________________
sum of all the values _____ 1230
(a) Mean =
= = 55·91 minutes
number of values 22
The mean number of minutes is 55·91 minutes.
__________________
sum of all the values ____________
1230 + 48 + 50 _____
1328 •
(b) Mean = =
= = 55·3 minutes.
number of values 24 24
•
The new mean is 55·3 minutes.
Example
(a) The following five numbers have a median of 6 and a range of 9. They are
given in increasing order: 2, 2, x , 7, y. Find the value of x and the value of y.
(b) The following six numbers have a median of 15, a mean of 18, and a range
of 30. They are given in increasing order: a, 8, 14, b, 26, c. Find the value of a,
the value of b and the value of c.
(SEC 2016)
Solution
(a) To find the value of x and y, use the information given in the question
and solve.
zzThe median is 6 and is the middle data value when all the data has
been ranked.
As the data is already given in increasing order (ranked): 2, 2, x , 7, y
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Therefore, the median value is x = 6.
zzThe range is 9 and is the difference between the largest and the smallest
value.
Range = largest value – smallest value = y − 2 = 9
∴ y = 9 + 2 = 11.
(b) To find the values of a, b and c, use the information given in the question and solve.
zzThe median is 15 and is the middle data value when all the data has been
ranked.
As the data is already given in increasing order (ranked): a, 8, 14, b, 26, c
The median is halfway between 14 and b. Use algebra to find the value of b.
14 + b
_____
= 15 ⇒ 14 + b = 2(15) ⇒ b = 30 − 14 ª b = 16
2
As b = 16, the data set can now be written as: a, 8, 14, 16, 26, c
zzThe mean is 18.
__________________
sum of all the values a + 8 + 14 + 16 + 26 + c
___________________
Mean = = 18 ⇒ = 18
number of values 6
64 + a + c
________
∴
= 18 ⇒ 64 + a + c = 6(18) ⇒ a + c = 108 − 64
6
∴ a + c = 44. Label this as Equation (1).
zzThe range is 30.
Range = largest value – smallest value ⇒ c − a = 30
∴ −a + c = 30. Label this as Equation (2).
Solve using simultaneous equations. To eliminate a, add Equation (1) and
Equation (2).
a + c = 44 (1)
−a + c = 30
(2)
2c = 74 (3)
Divide Equation (3) by 2 ª c = 37
Calculate the value of a, by substituting c = 37 into Equation (1).
a + c = 44 ⇒ a + 37 = 44 ⇒ a = 44 − 37 ª a = 7
Therefore a = 7, b = 16 and c = 37.
Points to note
To find the mean from a frequency/grouped frequency table, follow these
steps in the in the order given:
Step 1 Find the mid-interval value of the grouped frequency if needed and
label this column x.
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Step 2 Multiply the frequencies by the corresponding mid-interval value, f x.
Step 3 Sum the product of the frequencies and the mid-interval values, Σ f x.
Step 4 Sum the frequencies, Σ f.
Step 5 Divide the sum of the products of the frequencies and the
observation/mid-interval values, Σ f x, by the sum of the
frequencies, Σ f.
Σ f x
Mean = m = ____
Σ f
Example
The frequency table shows the number of goals scored by a local football team in
each game.
Goals scored Frequency
1 3
2 9
3 4
4 7
5 2
(a) Find the: (i) mean, (ii) mode and (iii) median.
(b) Comment on your results.
Solution
∑ f x
____
(a) (i) To find the mean, use the formula: mean = m = .
∑ f
Goals scored Frequency Goals × Frequency Multiply the frequencies
x f f x by the corresponding
1 3 (1)(3) = 3 number of goals scored, f x
2 9 (2)(9) = 18
3 4 (3)(4) = 12
4 7 (4)(7) = 28 Sum of the product of
5 2 (5)(2) = 10 the frequencies and the
Σ f = 25 ∑ f x = 71 corresponding number of
goals scored, ∑ f x
Sum of the frequencies, ∑ f
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f x ______________________________
∑
____ (1)(3) + (2)(9) + (3)(4) + (4)(7) + (5)(2) ___
71
Mean = m = =
= = 2·84
∑ f 25 25
Therefore, the mean number of goals scored is 2·84.
(ii) The mode is the data value that occurs most often in the set of data.
The highest frequency is 9, so the mode = 2 goals.
Therefore, the modal number of goals scored is 2.
(iii) The median is the middle number when the data is ranked.
Method 1
Rank the data: 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5
Find the middle number: 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5
The median is the 13th data value = 3
Method 2
As the data is already ranked within the frequency table, we must find where
the 13th data value lies. It lies in the row highlighted yellow in the table in part
(a) The median number of goals scored is 3.
(b) The best central tendency/average to use in this case is the median
number of goals scored. It shows that in half the matches fewer than 3
goals were sco red and for the other half more than 3 goals were scored.
Example
The frequency table below shows the results from a Maths exam.
Maths percentage Frequency
0–10 0
10–20 1
20–30 2
30–40 2
40–50 3
50–60 6
60–70 7
70–80 4
80–90 3
90–100 2
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(a) Find the: (i) mean, (ii) mode and (iii) median.
(b) Comment on your results.
Solution
∑ f x
____
(a) (i) To find the mean use the formula: mean = m =
∑ f
Maths Frequency Mid-interval frequency × Multiply the
percentage f value mid-interval frequencies
x value by the
_____
0 + 10 ___
10 corresponding
0–10 0 = = 5 (0)(5) = 0
2 2 mid-interval
______10 + 20 ___ 30 value, f x
10–20 1 = = 15
(1)(15) = 15
2 2
______20 + 30 ___ 50
20–30 2 = = 25
(2)(25) = 50
2 2
______
30 + 40 ___ 70
30–40 2 = = 35
(2)(35) = 70
2 2
______
40 + 50 ___ 90
40–50 3 = = 45
(3)(45) = 135
2 2
50–60 6 55 (6)(55) = 330
60–70 7 65 (7)(65) = 455
70–80 4 75 (4)(75) = 300
80–90 3 85 (3)(85) = 255
90–100 2 95 (2)(95) = 190
Σ f = 30 ∑ f x = 1800
Sum of the product of the frequencies
Sum of the frequencies, ∑ f
and the mid-interval values, ∑ f x
∑ f x _____
____ 1800
Mean = m = = = 60
∑ f 30
Therefore, the mean Maths percentage achieved in the class is 60%.
(ii) The mode is the data value that occurs most often in the set of data.
The highest frequency is 7, so the modal percentage score in the Maths
test is 65%.
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(iii) T
he median is the middle number when the data is ranked. As the data is
already ranked within the frequency table, to find the median value we must
find where the 15th data value lies. It lies in the row highlighted yellow in the
table in part (a)(i). Therefore, the median Maths percentage is 65%.
(b) The best central tendency/average to use in this case is the median
percentage. It does not consider any outlier values (extreme values) and
shows that half the class scored less than 65% and over half the class scored
more than 65%. This value is also included in the data set. Note that the
median and mode are the same value for this data set.
Example
The table below shows the distances travelled by seven paper airplanes after they
were thrown.
Airplane A B C D E F G
Distance (cm) 188 200 250 30 380 330 302
(a) Find the median of the data.
(b) Find the mean of the data.
(c) Airplane D is thrown again and the distance it
travels is measured and recorded in place of
the original measurement. The median of the
data remains unchanged and the mean is now
equal to the median. How far did airplane D
travel the second time?
(d) What is the minimum distance that airplane D would need to have travelled for
the median to have changed?
(SEC 2011)
Solution
(a) The median is the middle number when the data is ranked.
Rank the data and identify the middle number: 30, 188, 200, 250, 302, 330, 380
The median is the 4th data value = 250.
So, the median distance travelled by the paper airplanes is 250 cm.
____________________
total distance travelled _______________________________
30 + 188 + 200 + 250 + 302 + 330 + 380
(b) Mean =
=
number of airplanes 7
_____
1680
=
7
= 240 cm
So, the mean distance travelled by the paper airplanes is 240 cm.
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(c) We are told that the new mean equals the median in part (a), so we know
that the new mean is 250 cm. We need to use algebra to solve this part of
the question.
Let x = distance travelled by airplane D the second time.
____________________ x + 188 + 200 + 250 + 302 + 330 + 380
total distance travelled ______________________________
Mean = =
= 250 cm
number of airplanes 7
x + 1650
_______
⇒
= 250 …multiply by 7
7
⇒ x + 1650 = 250(7)
…subtract 1650
⇒ x = 1750 − 1650 ⇒ x = 100
Airplane D travelled 100 cm the second time.
(d) For the median to have changed, Airplane D must travel further than the
median Airplane C. Therefore, Airplane D must travel greater then 250 cm, to
change the median.
Exercise
Q1 (a) Which measure of central tendency can have more than one answer?
(b) Which is the most common measure used for central tendency?
(c) Which measures of central tendency do not include outliers?
(d) Which two measures of spread are covered on the JCHL course?
(e) Explain each of the three measures of centre/central tendency on the
JCHL course.
(f) Give advantages and disadvantages of the three measures of centre.
(g) Explain each of the two measures of spread covered on the JCHL course.
Q2 A data set consists of: 102, 108, 107, 109, 108, 102, 110, 102
(a) Find the: (i) mean, (ii) mode, (iii) median, (iv) range, and
(v) interquartile range.
(b) Comment on the values found for the central tendency and the
measures of spread.
Q3 A data set consists of: 11, 4, 6, 8, 3, 10, 8, 10, 4, 12, 13
(a) Find the: (i) mean, (ii) mode, (iii) median, (iv) range, and
(v) interquartile range.
(b) Comment on the values found for the central tendency and the
measures of spread.
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Q4 There are ten students in a class. All ten of them sat a test. The table below
shows the mean mark, the median mark, and the range of the marks on the
test.
Results of the test Answers to part (b)
Mean mark 25·1
Median mark 24
Range of the marks 14
The highest mark got by a student on the test was 32.
(a) Use the range to find the lowest mark got by a student on the test.
An external examiner suggested that 2 be added onto each student’s mark.
(b) Find what the mean, the median, and the range would be in this case.
Fill your answers into the table above.
Bob says: ‘Whenever the median of a list of numbers is 24, then at least one
of the numbers in the list must be 24.’
(c) Give an example to show that Bob is not correct.
(SEC 2015)
Q5 The size, mean and range of four sets of data, A, B, C and D, are given in the table.
A B C D
Size (n) 12 50 50 500
Mean ( μ) 15 15 55 5
Range 40 50 22 15
Complete the sentences below by inserting the relevant letter in each space.
(a) On average, the data in set
are the largest numbers and the
data in set are the smallest numbers.
(b) The set that contains more numbers than any other is and the
set that contains fewer numbers than any other is .
(c) The set with the greatest total is .
(d) The data in set have the greatest difference between their
highest and lowest values.
Q6 (a) In four games, a soccer player scored 1, x, 4 and 3 goals. The mean
number of goals scored by the player per game was 2. Find the number
of goals scored in the second game, i.e. the value of x.
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(b) Over a period of one month, the owner of a factory recorded the
number of days that each of his 50 employees was absent from work.
The following table shows the results.
Number of days absent 0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of employees 7 9 11 12 7 4
(i) Find the mean number of days the employees were absent.
(ii) Write down the mode.
(iii) Find the median number of days the employees were absent.
(iv) Calculate the range of days the employees were absent.
(v) Which measure of centre is the most appropriate to use for this
data? Explain.
Q7 Katie conducted a survey to determine the ages of the pupils on her school
bus. Her results are shown below.
13 14 15 12 14 15
13 14 12 16 15 14
12 12 16 14 16 13
14 15 14 14 13 12
13 12 15 13 12 14
(a) Use this data to complete a frequency table.
(b) Using the frequency table, find:
(i) the mean age of the pupils on the bus
(ii) the modal age of the pupils
(iii) the median age of the pupils.
(c) Calculate the range.
Q8 The salaries, in €, of the different employees working in a call centre are
listed below.
22 000 16 500 38 000 26 500 15 000 21 000 15 500 46 000
42 000 9500 32 000 27 000 33 000 36 000 24 000 37 000
65 000 37 000 24 500 23 500 28 000 52 000 33 000 25 000
23 000
16 500 35 000 25 000 33 000 20 000 19 500 16 000
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(a) Use this data to complete the grouped frequency table below.
Salary (€1000s) 0–10 10–20 20–30 30–40 40–50 50–60 60–70
Number of
employees
[Note: 10–20 means €10 000 or more but less than €20 000, etc.]
(b) Using mid-interval values, find the mean salary of the employees.
(c) (i) Outline another method which could have been used to calculate
the mean salary.
(ii) Which method is more accurate? Explain your answer.
(SEC 2013)
Q9 (a) 8 is the mean of the five numbers 13, 6, 5, x and 7. Find the value of x.
(b) The weights, in kg, of 125 Junior Certificate students are given in the
following frequency table.
Weight in kg 40–45 45–50 50–55 55–60 60–65 65–70 70–75
Number of students
7 9 22 27 24 28 8
[Note: 40–45 means 40 or more but less than 45, etc.]
(i) Calculate the mean weight of the Junior Certificate students.
(ii) Find the modal weight of the students.
(iii) Find the median weight of the students.
(iv) Which measure of centre is the most appropriate to use for this
data? Explain.
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Statistics 3: Representation 17
and Interpretation of Statistics
Learning objectives
In this chapter, you will learn about:
� Representing statistical data graphically
� Describing statistical data graphically using measures of centre and spread
� How to create pie charts, bar charts, line plots, histograms with equal
intervals, stem-and-leaf plots and back-to-back stem-and-leaf plots
� Using appropriate graphical displays to compare data sets
� Using distributions to compare data.
Representing statistical data graphically
Representing statistical data graphically can be a much more useful way to
represent information than a table. For different types of statistical data, we can
use different graphical representations.
On the JCHL course, statistical data can be displayed graphically using:
zzpie charts
zzbar charts
zzline plots
zzhistograms with equal intervals
zzstem-and-leaf plots and back-to-back stem-and-leaf plots.
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Each graphical display is used for particular types of data as shown in the table below.
Categorical Numerical
Graphical representation Nominal Ordinal Discrete Continuous
Pie chart ü ü ü
Bar chart ü ü ü
Line/dot plot ü ü ü
Histogram with equal
ü ü
intervals
Stem-and-leaf plot ü ü
Back-to-back
ü ü
stem-and-leaf plot
Each graphical representation type is detailed later.
Describing statistical data graphically using
measures of centre and spread
A summary of the information learned in Statistics 2 is shown in the table.
Statistics summary
Statistics Used for continuous and Features and general
terminology discrete numerical data advice
Measures of Numerical: zzThe median is used
centre: zzThe median (Q ) is the middle
for data with outliers
2
zzmedian value from ordered data zzThe mean is used
zzmean zzThe mean is the sum of all
for data with a
the data values divided by the reasonably symmetric
zzmode
number of data values distribution* (where
there are no outliers)
Categorical:
zzThe mode is used for
zzThe mode is the data value(s)
categorical data
which occurs most frequently
Measures of Numerically:
spread: zzRange = maximum value –
zzrange minimum value
*distributions will be discussed start on the next page
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Representing statistical data using pie charts
Points to note
This table shows the key characteristics/information about pie charts.
Example of Features and Advantages/
Pie chart
chart advice disadvantages
Used for: Marriage zzInclude a title ü
zzcategorical zzEnsure labels zzUseful to
22%
data 33% are clear compare
zzdiscrete 23% zzAdd a key if
categories/
numerical 22%
necessary parts as a
data percentage
Urban ‘Yes’ zzAdd % or of the whole
Rural ‘Yes’
number labels
Urban ‘No’
Rural ‘No’ zzEnsure the
zzHard to draw
total adds up
accurately
to 100%
or the total zzNot useful
frequency for large
number of
zzEnsure the
categories
sectors add to
360°
To draw a pie chart, follow the steps below.
1 Find the total sum of the data frequencies.
2 To calculate the angle for each part of the data, divide the sum of
the frequencies by 360°.
3 To find the sector angle, multiply each individual frequency by the
value from step 2.
4 Check that the total sum of the angles adds to 360°. If it doesn’t,
check your calculations.
5 Draw the pie chart, using a compass, protractor and straight edge
or ruler. Check that you have included a chart title, noted the
frequencies or percentages on each sector, and given a key.
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Example
Clara asked all of the students in her school some questions about their eating
and exercise. One of Clara’s questions was:
How healthy is your diet? Tick one box.
Very healthy
Fairly healthy
Not very healthy
Very unhealthy
She drew a pie chart to show her results. Her results, and the size of each angle in
the pie chart, are shown in the table below.
Very Fairly Not very Very
Category
healthy healthy healthy unhealthy
Number of students 150 170
Size of angle
96° 90°
(degrees)
(a) Find the probability that a student chosen at random from those surveyed
ticked ‘Very healthy’ or ‘Fairly healthy’.
(b) Complete the table above. Note: 90° in the pie chart represents 150 students.
(c) Complete the table below to show one question in each case that Clara could
ask that would generate each type of data. Each question should be about
eating or exercise. One is already filled in.
Type of
Question
Data
Numerical
continuous
Numerical
discrete
How healthy is your diet? Tick one box.
Categorical Very healthy Fairly healthy Not very healthy Very unhealthy
ordinal
Categorical
nominal
(d) Clara is worried that the students in her school are not a representative
sample of all of the students in Ireland. Explain why it is important to have
a representative sample when doing statistical research.
(SEC 2017)
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Solution
(a) The probability that a student chosen at random from those surveyed ticked ‘Very
healthy’ or ‘Fairly healthy’ can be calculated by adding the size of the angle for
both categories and dividing it by 360° (the total number of degrees in a circle).
_______
96 + 90 ____186 ___ 31
P(a student ticked ‘Very healthy’ or ‘Fairly healthy’) =
= =
360 360 60
(b) To complete the table, it is necessary to calculate the number of students
represented by each degree (1°) of the pie chart and the angle which
represents 1 student.
Step 1 Calculate the number of students represented by each category
of the pie chart.
We know that: 90° = 150 students
____
150 __ 5
∴ 1° = = students
90 3
__
5
The total number of students surveyed = 360 × = 600 students
3
__
5
The number of ‘Very healthy’ students = 96 × = 160 students
3
The number of ‘Very unhealthy’ students = 600 − 160 − 150 − 170 = 120 students
Step 2 Calculate the size of the unknown angles in the pie chart.
We know that: 150 students = 90°
∴ 1 student = ____ = 0·6°
90°
150
The size of the angle for ‘Not very healthy’ students = 170 × 0·6° = 102°
The size of the angle for ‘Very unhealthy’ students = 120 × 0·6° = 72°
Very Fairly Not very Very
Category
healthy healthy healthy unhealthy
Number of
160 150 170 120
students
Size of angle
96° 90° 102° 72°
(degrees)
Step 3 Finally, check that the total sum of the angles adds to 360° and the
total number of students adds to 600.
Number of students = 160 + 150 + 170 + 120 = 600 ü
Total sum of the angles = 96° + 90° + 102° + 72° = 360° ü
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(c) Note: The sample answers given in the table are not the only ones possible;
you can provide any similar question, if it is suitable for the type of data.
Type of
Question
Data
Numerical
How much water do you drink each day?
continuous
Numerical
How many press-ups can you do in 30 seconds?
discrete
How healthy is your diet? Tick one box.
Categorical
Very healthy Fairly healthy Not very healthy Very unhealthy
ordinal
Categorical
What do you prefer, pizza or salad?
nominal
(d) It is important to have a representative sample when doing statistical research:
zzto ensure that the results are not biased
zzso that the results will apply to the whole population, and not just the
sample
zzor any other valid explanation.
Representing statistical data using bar charts
Points to note
zz Abar chart is made up of rectangular bars called columns with
lengths proportional to the frequencies they represent.
zz The bars can be plotted vertically or horizontally. Horizontal bar
charts are used when the category names are long.
zz A bar chart will have two axes:
� One axis of the chart shows the specific categories being compared.
� The other axis represents discrete values that represent the
values of the data.
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The table below shows key characteristics and information about bar charts.
Features and Advantages/
Bar graphs Example of chart
advice disadvantages
Used for: Vertical bar chart zzInclude a ü
zzcategorical
45
40 title
35 zzUsed
zzSeparate
Frequency
30
data 25
20
for data
15
10 columns
zz discrete
5
0 comparison
A W B F C S
zzColumns
ungrouped Type of transport
A = Automobile F = Boat/Ferry
must be
numerical W = Walk C = Cycle
B = Bus S = Skateboard
of equal zzCan be
data
Horizontal bar chart width misleading
separated if scale does
Type of transport
S
C
F by equal not begin
B
W gaps at 0
zzInclude
A
0 1020 30 40 50
zzNot useful
Frequency axes labels if there are
A = Automobile F = Boat/Ferry
W = Walk C = Cycle zzShow units too many
B = Bus S = Skateboard if used variables
zzInclude key
if necessary
Example
Students in a third-year class were investigating how the number of jelly beans in a
box varies for three different brands of jelly beans. Each student counted the number
of jelly beans in a box of brand A, B and C. The results are recorded in the tables below.
Brand A Brand B Brand C
23 25 25 26 26 26 26 17 22 22 24 24 25 25 25 25 25 26 26 26 26
27 27 27 27 28 29 29 25 25 26 26 26 26 26 26 27 27 27 28 28 28
29 30 30 31 31 31 32 26 27 27 27 27 28 29 28 28 28 28 28 28 29
32 32 33 34 35 35 39 29 29 29 29 29 30 30 29 29 30 30 31 32 32
(a) Display the data in a way that allows you to describe and compare the data for
each brand.
(b) If you were to buy a box of jelly beans, which brand would you buy? Give a
reason for your answer. In your explanation, you should refer to the mean
number of jelly beans per box, and the range or spread of the number of jelly
beans per box for each brand.
(SEC 2012/2014)
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Solution
(a) Organise the data in a frequency table as shown.
Number of jelly beans 17 22 23 24 25 26 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Brand A 0 0 1 0 2 2 0 0 0 2 1 1 1
Brand B 1 2 0 2 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0
Brand C 0 0 0 0 3 2 2 2 1 0 0 0 0
hen represent the information on a bar chart as shown below, on three separate
T
bar charts or on a dot plot.
6
5
Brand A
Brand B
4
Brand C
Frequency
0
17 22 23 24 25 26 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Number of jelly beans
____
276
(b) It is best to buy Brand C. For Brand C, the mean number of jelly beans is = 27·6
10
jelly beans, compared with a mean of 24·5 jelly beans for Brand B and 29·1 for
Brand A. The reason for not picking Brand A, even though it has a greater mean,
is because Brand C has a range of 6 (31–25) unlike Brand A (35–23) and Brand
B (29–17), which both have a range of 12, double that of Brand C. This means
there is a greater difference in the number of jelly beans between the biggest
and smallest packages. When buying jelly beans, you would want a consistent
number of jelly beans in any brand package; so choose Brand C.
Representing statistical data using line/dot plots
Points to note
zzA line or dot plot is made up of dots or x’s plotted on a graph.
zzEach dot (or x) represents a unit frequency and they are stacked in a
column above a category.
zzThe height of the column represents the frequency of the category.
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The table below shows the key characteristics and information about line
and dot plots.
Line/dot plots Features and Advantages/
Example of chart
general advice disadvantages
Used for: zzUse dots ü
zzcategorical or x’s to zzQuick
and
A W B F C
A = Automobile F = Boat/Ferry
S represent for small
discrete W = Walk C = Cycle each unit quantities
B = Bus S = Skateboard
numerical zzInclude a zzNo need for
data title and frequency
zz plotting axes labels axis
frequency zzEnsure the zzOrdered
counts horizontal so shows
within scale is shape and
a small accurate spread of
number of distribution
categories
zzNeed to
count for
exact total
Example
The dot plot shows the number of mobile phones ×
owned by each family on a street. × ×
(a) How many households on the street are × × ×
in the sample? × × ×
(b) What is the mode of the data?
× × × ×
(c) What is the range?
× × × × × × × × ×
Solution 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of mobile phones per household
(a) The number of households surveyed
in the sample is 22.
(b) The mode of the data is the number of mobile phones that occurs most often,
so mode = 2.
(c) The range = maximum value – minimum value = 8 − 0 = 8.
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Representing statistical data using histograms
Points to note
zz A histogram is made up of rectangular bars called columns with
lengths proportional to the frequencies they represent.
zzA histogram will have two axes:
� One
axis of the chart shows the specific numerical data being
compared.
� The other axis represents discrete values (frequency) of the data.
zz Visually
a histogram differs from a bar chart as its columns touch and
there are no gaps.
The table below details the key characteristics and information about
histograms.
Features and Advantages/
Histograms Example of chart
general advice disadvantages
Used for 25
zzColumns ü
ungrouped 20
touch
zzShows
Frequency
15
discrete zz Category
data
10
shape and
5 labels are in spread of
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 the middle of distribution
Hours slept
each column
for discrete
ungrouped zzSmall data
data sets only
Used for 35
30
zz Category ü
grouped 25 labels
Frequency
20
zzUseful when
continuous 15 are at the
numerical
10
5 beginning of data has a
data
0
130 150 170 190 each column large range
Height (cm)
for grouped zzShows
data shape and
spread of
distribution
zzLoss of
individual
data values
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Example
The phase 9 CensusAtSchool questionnaire contained the question ‘Approximately
how long do you spend on social networking sites each week?’ The histogram below
illustrates the answers given by 100 students, randomly selected from those who
completed the survey.
34
32
30
28
26
24
Number of students
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Number of hours
(a) Use the data from the histogram to complete the frequency table below. Note
that 2–4, for example, means 2 hours or more but less than 4 hours.
Number of
0–2 2–4 4–6 6–8 8–10 10–12 12–14 14–16 16–18 18–20 20–22
hours
Number of
students
(b) What is the modal interval?
(c) Taking mid-interval values, find the mean amount of time spent on social
networking sites.
(d) John is conducting a survey on computer usage by students at his school.
His questionnaire asks the same question. He plans to carry out his survey by
asking the question to twenty first-year boys on the Monday after the mid-term
break. Give some reasons why the results from John’s question might not be as
representative as those in the histogram.
(SEC 2012/2014)
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Solution
(a) Number of
0–2 2–4 4–6 6–8 8–10 10–12 12–14 14–16 16–18 18–20 20–22
hours
Number of
11 31 18 13 11 3 1 1 6 1 4
students
(b) The modal interval is the interval with the highest frequency. 2–4 has the highest
frequency with a value of 31. So the modal number of hours per week that
students use social networking sites is more than 2 hours and less than 4 hours.
(c) Taking mid-interval values the frequency table becomes:
Number of hours
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 Total
mid-interval (x)
Number of
11 31 18 13 11 3 1 1 6 1 4 ∑ f = 100
Students ( f )
f (x) 11 93 90 91 99 33 13 15 102 19 84 ∑ f (x) = 650
__________________ ∑ f (x) ____
sum of all the values ______ 650
Mean = =
= = 6·5
number of values ∑ f 100
(d) The results from John’s question might not be as representative as those in
the histogram because John is asking first years, who are less likely to be using
social networking sites. Also, John surveyed only boys, and thus his survey will
be further biased. He is also asking right after the mid-term break, when social
networking site usage is generally higher.
Representing statistical data using stem-and-
leaf plots
Points to note
zz Before drawing a stem-and-leaf plot all data must be ranked (ordered
numerically).
zz A stem-and-leaf plot is made up of stems and leaves plotted on a graph.
zz Each leaf represents the last digit of each data value.
zz Each stem represents the digit(s) prior to the last digit of each data value.
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The table below gives the key characteristics and information about
stem-and-leaf plots.
Stem-and- Features Advantages/
Example of chart
leaf plots and advice disadvantages
Used for The age of a sample of zzOrdered ü
discrete and 20 people data
zzQuick to draw
continuous zz Include a
numerical 1 6 7 9 zzShows
2 0 1 3 4 6 8 9 title
data. shape and
3 3 4 4 5 8 zzInclude a spread
4 2 6 key
zzUseful
5 0 7 zzAll stems
6 3 display to
in the identify
Key: 1|6 = 16 years range median (and
must be quartiles)
included
even if
there is no zzData must
leaf first be
ordered
Example
The ages of 18 people who bought a local newspaper called the Liffey Champion are
recorded below:
71 34 15 35 46 63 23 57 26
24 47 58 50 19 42 38 62 83
(a) Represent the data on a stem-and-leaf plot.
(b) How many people under the age of 30 bought the Liffey Champion?
(c) Find the median age of the 18 people.
(d) The next person who buys the Liffey Champion is 58 years of age. Put a tick ()
in the box that describes how this will affect the range. Give a reason for your
answer.
Range will decrease Range will increase Range will stay the same
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Solution
(a) The data given is represented (b) The highlighted cells show the number of
on the stem-and-leaf plot. people under 30 who bought the newspaper.
1 5 9 1 5 9
2 3 4 6 2 3 4 6
3 4 5 8 3 4 5 8
4 2 6 7 4 2 6 7
5 0 7 8 5 0 7 8
6 2 3 6 2 3
7 1 7 1
8 3 8 3
Key : 1|5 = 15 years
Key : 1|5 = 15 years
Therefore, the number of people < 30 years = 5.
(c) To find the median age, rank/order the ages and find the middle number(s).
As the data contains an even number of people, take the average (mean) of
the two middle numbers.
Ages (ordered): 15, 19, 23, 24, 26, 34, 35, 38, 42, 46, 47, 50, 57, 58, 62, 63, 71, 83
______
42 + 46 ___ 88
⇒ Median = = = 44 years.
2 2
(d) If the next person who buys the Liffey Champion is 58 years of age, then the
range will remain the same as 58 lies within the existing range of the data.
Range will decrease Range will increase Range will stay the same
ü
zz Range (original) = maximum – minimum = 83 – 15 = 68 years.
zz Range (revised) = 83 – 15 = 68 years.
The range remains the same.
Representing statistical data using back-to-back
stem-and-leaf plots
Points to note
zzBack-to-back stem-and-leaf plots are used to compare two sets of data
graphically.
zzThe centre of a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot contains the stem.
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zzThe leaves representing one data set extend to the right, and leaves
representing the other data set extend to the left.
The table below provides key characteristics about back-to-back
stem-and-leaf plots.
Back-to-back
Features Advantages/
stem-and- Example of chart
and advice disadvantages
leaf plots
Used for Money carried by students zzAs for ü
discrete and Boys Girls stem-
zzOrdered
continuous 7 0
and-leaf
numerical plots so shows
data.
1 1 1 shape and
146 2 268 zzNeed to spread of
458 3 3446689 always distribution
122289 4 436
read
zzUseful for
leaves
3479 5 4
from the comparison
258 6
stem out
13 7
zzData must
first be
ordered
Example
The ages of the Academy Award winners for best male actor and best female actor
(at the time they won the award) from 1992 to 2011 are as follows:
Male
54 52 37 38 32 45 60 46 40 36 47 29 43 37 38 45 50 48 60 50
actor
Female
42 29 33 36 45 49 39 26 25 33 35 35 28 30 29 61 32 33 45 29
actor
(a) Represent the data on a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
(b) State one similarity and one difference that can be observed between the ages
of the male and female winners.
(c) Mary says, ‘The female winners were younger than the male winners.’
Investigate this statement in relation to:
(i) the mean age of the male winners and mean age of the female winners;
(ii) the median age of the male winners and the median age of the female
winners.
(SEC 2012)
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Solution
(a) Male actors Female actors
9 2 5 6 8 9 9 9
8 8 7 7 6 2 3 0 2 3 3 3 5 5 6 9
8 7 6 5 5 3 0 4 2 5 5 9
4 2 0 0 5
0 0 6 1
Key : 2|5 is 25 years old
(b) Similarities between the ages of Differences between the ages of
the male and the female actors the male and the female actors
They have the same shape Outlier in female winners
(are right-skewed)
No one over 61 No female in her 50s
No one won under the age of 25 The female winners are younger
Their ranges are similar
(c) (i) To check Maryʼs statement, find the mean age of both the male and
female winners.
Male mean age
_____________________________________________________________________
29 + 32 + 36 + 37 + 37 + 38 + 38 + 40 + 43 + 45 + 45 + 46 + 47 + 48 + 50 + 50 + 52 + 54 + 60 + 60
=
____ 887 20
= = 44·35.
20
The mean male age is 44·35 years old.
Female mean age
______________________________________________________________________
42 + 29 + 33 + 36 + 45 + 49 + 39 + 26 + 25 + 33 + 35 + 35 + 28 + 30 + 29 + 61 + 32 + 33 + 45 + 29
=
____
714 20
= = 35·7
20
The mean female age is 35·7 years old.
The mean age of female winners is lower, so the statement is true for mean age.
(ii) To check if Mary’s statement is true in relation to the median, find the
median age of both the male and female winners.
Rank/order the ages and find the middle number.
Male 29 32 36 37 37 38 38 40 43 45 45 46 47 48 50 50 52 54 60 60
Female 25 26 28 29 29 29 30 32 33 33 33 35 35 36 39 42 45 45 49 61
(45 + 45)
________ (33 + 33)
________
� Male median age = = 45 � Female median age = = 33
2 2
The median age of female winners is lower, so the statement is true for median age.
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Exercise
Q1 60 students were asked how they travelled to school. The following table is
a summary of the results.
Type of transport Public transport Car Bicycle Walk
Number of people 22 14 13 11
(a) Display the data on a pie chart, showing clearly how the size of each
angle is calculated.
(b) Why is this an appropriate method to display this data?
(c) What percentage of students travel to school by public transport?
Give your answer correct to the nearest whole number.
Q2 The pie chart shows how Mary spends her time over a typical 24-hour period.
School 90°
Sleeping
120°
Homework
45°
Leisure
Meals
75°
Copy and complete the following table in your answer book.
Activity Sleeping School Homework Meals Leisure
Number of hours
(SEC 2012)
Q3 In total 7150 second level school students from 216 schools completed
the 2011/2012 phase 11 CensusAtSchool questionnaire. The questionnaire
contained a question relating to where students keep their mobile phones
while sleeping.
Phone location while sleeping – Phone location while sleeping –
Female Male
In another Other
room Other In another
2% room 3%
8%
10%
Under my Under my In my
pillow In my pillow bedroom
35% bedroom 23% 64%
55%
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(a) Given that this question was answered by 4171 girls and 2979 boys,
calculate how many female students kept their mobile phones under
their pillows.
(b) Calculate the overall percentage of students who kept their mobile
phones under their pillows.
(c) A new pie chart is to be drawn showing the mobile phone location for
all students. Calculate the measure of the angle that would represent
the students who kept their mobile phones under their pillows.
(SEC 2013)
Q4 The diagram shows the number of new cars sold in a garage in one year.
350
300
250
Number of cars sold
200
150
100
50
0
January–March April–June July–September October–December
Months
(a) How many new cars were sold in the months April–June?
In the months October–December, there were exactly half as many new cars sold
as in April–June.
(b) How many new cars were sold in October–December?
(c) Draw the bar for October–December on the diagram.
(d) In which quarter were most new cars sold? Put a tick () in the correct box.
January– April–June July– October–
March September December
(e) Calculate the total number of new cars sold in the year.
(f) Calculate the average (mean) number of new cars sold per month in
the year. Give your answer correct to one decimal place.
(SEC 2015)
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Q5 The results from a recent Science test are recorded in the table below:
Grade A B C D E F
Number of students
4 9 12 3 1 1
(a) How many students sat the class test?
(b) Represent the information graphically in a bar chart.
(c) What was the modal grade?
(d) What percentage of students got a grade C or above?
Q6 At a Garda checkpoint, the speed of 100 vehicles passing was recorded. The
following were the results. Note that 20–40, for example, means 20 or more
but less than 40.
Speed in km/hr 0–20 20–40 40–60 60–80 80–100
Number of cars
8 24 40 18 10
(a) Using mid-interval values, calculate the mean speed of the 100 vehicles.
(b) Display the above data on a histogram.
Q7 The weights, in kg, of 125 Junior Certificate students are given in the
following frequency table. Note that 40–50, for example, means 40 or more
but less than 50.
Weight in kg 40–45 45–50 50–55 55–60 60–65 65–70 70–75
Number of students
3 13 22 27 30 22 8
(a) Using mid-interval values, calculate the mean weight of the Junior
Certificate students.
(b) Display the above data on a histogram.
Q8 A professional golfer plays 50 rounds of golf over a season. The following
were the number of shots taken in each round:
69 66 70 70 71 70 68 71 76 72
69 74 75 73 77 70 73 74 66 74
69 74 74 70 75 73 69 76 80 72
73 69 79 72 69 74 79 73 77 72
69 67 70 69 68 70 70 71 68 66
(a) Complete the following frequency table. Note that 66–69, for example,
means 66 or more but less than 69.
Number of shots per round 66–69 69–72 72–75 75–81
Number of rounds
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(b) Using mid-interval values, calculate the mean number of shots per
round, giving your answer correct to the nearest whole number.
(c) Draw a histogram to represent this information.
(SEC 2008)
Q9 A class of 30 students were asked to write down their favourite colour. The
results are shown in the table.
Colour Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Pink Black
Number of
4 2 3 5 7 6 3
students
(a) Draw a dot plot to represent this information.
(b) What is the modal colour?
Q10 In a survey a number of people were asked the question: ‘How many phone
calls do you make on average each day?’ The results are shown in the
following dot plot.
×
× ×
× × × ×
× × × × × × ×
× × × × × × × ×
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of phone calls made on average each day
(a) How many people were surveyed?
(b) What is the mean number of calls made per day?
(c) What is the median number of calls made per day?
Q11 Data showing the ages of all people who attended a local council meeting is
shown in the stem-and-leaf plot.
1 8 8 9
2 1 3 5
3 4 7
4 4 4 5 6 8
5 6 7 9 9
6 8 8 9
Key : 1|8 = 18 years
(a) How many people attended the meeting?
(b) What is the range of ages of the people who attended the meeting?
(c) What is the median age of the people who attended the meeting?
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Q12 A group of students was asked how many text messages each had sent the
previous day. The results were:
14 32 6 17 19 15 3 35 42 25
9 28 34 18 40 11 16 28 31 7
(a) How many students were in the group?
(b) Represent the data on a stem-and-leaf plot.
(c) Find the mode of the data.
(d) Find the mean of the data.
(e) What percentage of students sent more than 30 texts?
(SEC 2013)
Q13 The ages of the 30 people who took part in an aerobics class are as follows:
18 24 32 37 9 13 22 41 51 49
15 42 37 58 48 53 27 54 42 24
33 48 56 17 61 37 63 45 20 39
The ages of the 30 people who took part in a swimming class are as follows:
16 22 29 7 36 45 12 38 52 13
33 41 24 35 51 8 47 22 14 24
42 62 15 24 23 31 53 36 48 18
(a) Represent this data on a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
Aerobics class Swimming class
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Key :
(b) Use your diagram to identify the median in each case.
(c) What other measure of central tendency could have been used when
examining this data?
(d) Based on the data make one observation about the ages of the two
groups.
(SEC 2013)
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18 Geometry 1: Theorems,
Axioms and Corollaries
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn:
Key terminology
All axioms, theorems and corollaries on the Junior Certificate course.
Key terminology associated with geometry
Key Terminology
Words Meaning
Axiom An axiom is a statement accepted without proof.
A theorem is a statement which can be proved from the
Theorem
axioms by logical argument.
The converse of a statement is the reverse order of the
given statement. For example:
Statement: If a shape has three straight sides, then the
Converse
shape is a triangle.
Converse statement: If a shape is a triangle, then it is a
shape with three straight sides.
A corollary is a statement which can be made following a
Corollary
given theorem.
A proof involves writing well-structured, logical steps that
Proof use axioms and previously proved theorems to arrive at a
conclusion about a statement.
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Collinear If three or more points lie on the same line, they are collinear.
Congruent Two triangles are congruent if all the sides and angles of one
triangle are equal to the corresponding sides and angles of the
ó other triangle.
Implies Implies means that there is a logical link from one statement
ª to the next statement.
Axioms
Axioms Statement Diagram
Axiom 1 Two points axiom A
There is exactly one line through B
any two given points on a plane.
Axiom 2 Ruler axiom
The distance between any two
given points has the following
properties:
1 The distance |AB| is never A
C
negative. B
2 |AB| = |BA|.
3 If C lies on AB, between A
and B, then |AB| = |AC| + |CB|.
4 Given any ray from A, and B
given any real number k ≥ 0, |k| = |AB|
there is a unique point B on the
A
ray whose distance from A is k.
Axiom 3 Protractor axiom
The number of degrees in any
given angle has these properties:
1 A straight angle has 180°.
2 Given a ray [AB, and a
number d between 0 and
180, there is exactly one
A d° B
ray from A on each side of
d°
the line AB that makes an
(ordinary) angle having d
degrees with the ray [AB.
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3 If D is a point inside an angle B
∠BAC, then:
|∠BAC| = |∠BAD| + |∠DAC|
From the diagram we can state
A x° D
|∠BAD| = x° y°
|∠DAC| = y°
∴ |∠BAC| = x° + y° C
Axiom 4 Congruent triangles
Two triangles are congruent if they
satisfy any one of the following
statements:
zz SSS (Side, Side, Side) – all 1 (SSS)
three sides in both triangles
are equal. S
S
zzASA (Angle, Side, Angle) – two 2 (ASA)
angles and one side in both
A
triangles are equal.
S A
zzSAS (Side, Angle, Side) – two 3 (SAS)
sides and one angle in both
A S
triangles are equal.
S
zzRHS (Right angle, Hypotenuse, 4 (RHS)
other Side) – right angle,
hypotenuse and any other side
in both triangles are equal. S H
Axiom 5 Axiom of parallels
l
Given any line l and a point P, there
is exactly one line through P that is
parallel to l.
P
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Theorems
Points to note
zzYou must be very familiar with all the theorems stated below as you
need to be able to apply them when solving geometry based questions
in Chapter 7 Geometry 2: Applications of Theorems, Axioms and
Corollaries.
Theorem 1 Vertically opposite angles B E
Vertically opposite angles are
equal in measure. A
D C
∠BAD = ∠ EAC
Theorem 2 Isosceles triangles A
1 In an isosceles triangle
the angles opposite the
equal sides are equal.
2 Conversely, if two angles
are equal, then the
triangle is isosceles.
B C
∠ABC = ∠ACB
|BA| = |AC|
Theorem 3 Alternate angles
Suppose that A and D are on B
A
opposite sides of the line BC.
1 If |∠ABC| = |∠BCD|, then
AB||CD. In other words,
if a transversal makes D
C
equal alternate angles on
two lines, then the lines
are parallel.
Remember
A transversal is a line that passes through two lines in the same plane at
two different points.
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2 Conversely, if AB||CD,
then |∠ ABC| = |∠ BCD|. A
B
In other words, if two
lines are parallel, then
any transversal will make
equal alternate angles D
C
with them.
Theorem 4 Angles in a triangle
A
The angles in any triangle add
to 180°.
This can be expressed as:
A° + B° + C ° = 180°
B C
Theorem 5 Corresponding angles
Two lines are parallel if and
only if for any transversal, *
corresponding angles are
equal.
*
Theorem 6 Exterior angle
B
Each exterior angle of a
triangle is equal to the sum of
the interior opposite angles.
This can be expressed as: A D
A° + B° = D°
Theorem 7 Not covered on the Junior
and Certificate course
Theorem 8
Theorem 9 Parallelograms A B
In a parallelogram, opposite
sides are equal, and opposite
angles are equal.
D C
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Theorem 10 Diagonals of a parallelogram A B
The diagonals of a
M
parallelogram bisect one
another.
D C
Theorem 11 Transversals
D A
If three parallel lines cut off
equal segments on some
transversal line, then they will B
E
cut off equal segments on any
other transversal.
F C
Theorem 12 Proportional sides A
Let ∆ABC be a triangle. If a line t
l is parallel to BC and cuts [AB]
in the ratio s:t, then it also cuts l
[AC] in the same ratio. s
B C
Theorem 13 Similar triangles A
If two triangles ∆ABC and
∆A′B′C′ are similar, then their B' C' A'
sides are proportional, in
|AB| _____ |BC| _____ |CA|
order: _____ =
= B C B' C'
|A′B′| |B′C′| |C′A′|
OR
|A′B′| _____
_____ |B′C′| _____|C′A′|
=
=
|AB| |BC| |CA|
Theorem 14 Pythagoras, Theorem
In a right-angled triangle the
square of the hypotenuse is
c2
equal to the sum of the squares
of the other two sides. a2 a c
b
Theorem 15 Converse to Pythagoras
If the square of one side of a
b2
triangle is equal to the sum of
the squares of the other two
sides, then the angle opposite a2 + b2 = c2
the first side is a right angle.
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Theorem 19 Circle theorem B
The angle at the centre of a x
circle standing on a given arc is
twice the angle at any point of
the circle standing on the same O
arc. 2x
C
A
Corollaries
Corollary 1 A diagonal divides a A B
parallelogram into two
congruent triangles.
∆ABD ≡ ∆CDB
D C
Remember
Note: ó means congruent.
Corollary 2 All angles at points of a circle, A
standing on the same arc, are B
X
equal, (and conversely). X
|∠CAD| = |∠CBD|
O
Corollary 3 Each angle in a semi-circle is a
right angle. B
|∠ABC| = 90° A
Corollary 4 If the angle standing on a
chord [AC] at some point of O
the circle is a right-angle, then C
[AC] is a diameter.
|∠ABC| = 90°
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Corollary 5 If ABCD is a cyclic B
quadrilateral, then opposite ∠2
angles sum to 180°, (and
conversely). A ∠1 ∠3 C
|∠1| + |∠3| = 180° O
|∠2| + |∠4| = 180°
Note: A cyclic quadrilateral
∠4
is any quadrilateral inside a
circle which has all vertices D
touching the circle.
Exercise
Q1 The diagram shows the triangle RST inscribed in the circle k. The line segment
[RS] is a diameter of the circle. Gavin says: ‘The size of the angle W must be 90°.’
T
W
X
R S
State one result on your course (a theorem or a corollary) that shows that
Gavin is correct.
Q2 Prove that the angles in any triangle add to 180°.
Q3 Define each of the following terms:
1 Axiom 2 Theorem 3 Corollary
Q4 Prove that exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the interior
opposite angles.
Q5 Define each of the following terms:
1 Proof 2 Collinear 3 Congruent
Q6 Prove that in a parallelogram, opposite sides are equal, and opposite
angles are equal.
Q7 Prove that in a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is the
sum of the squares of the other two sides.
Q8 Prove that the angle at the centre of a circle standing on a given arc is twice
the angle at any point of the circle standing on the same arc.
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19 Geometry 2: Applications
of Theorems, Axioms and
Corollaries
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will study:
How to apply theorems, axioms and corollaries to:
zzSolve for missing angles
zzSolve for missing sides
zzProve given statements.
Key notes
zzIt is essential to be extremely familiar with all theorems, axioms and
corollaries covered in Chapter 6 to be able to answer application-based
problems.
zzIt is important to note that there can be more than one method of
solving geometric-based problems.
Using theorems, axioms and corollaries to solve
for missing angles
Example
Find the measure of the angles 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 and give reasons for your answers.
∠6
∠4 ∠3
∠1 55° ∠5
∠2
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Solution
| ∠1 |= 55° … (Base angles of an isosceles triangle)
⇒ | ∠2 |= 180° − (55° + 55°) = 70°
| ∠3 |= 55° … (Vertically opposite angles)
| ∠4 |= 180° − 55° = 125° … (Straight line)
| ∠5 |= | ∠4 |= 125° … (Vertically opposite angles)
| ∠6 |+ | ∠3 |+ 90° = 180°
| ∠6 |= 180° − (55° + 90°) = 35°
Example
In the parallelogram ABCD, | ∠ ABC | = 114° and | ∠CAD |= 47°.
Find | ∠CAB |.
D C
47° 114°
A B
(SEC 2004)
Solution
| ∠ABC |= | ∠ADC |= 114° … (Opposite angles in a parallelogram)
| ∠DAB |+ | ∠DCB |= 360° − 2(114°) = 132°
But | ∠DAB |= | ∠DCB | … (Opposite angles in a parallelogram)
____
132
∴ | ∠DAB |= = 66°
2
| ∠CAB |= | ∠DAB |− | ∠DAC |
∴ | ∠CAB |= 66° − 47° = 19°
Example
A
[ AB ] is a diameter of the circle, C is the centre
of the circle and | AD |= | BD |.
Find | ∠CAD |.
C D
B
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Solution
From the diagram:
| ∠ADB |= 90° … (Angle in a semi-circle)
| ∠BAD |= | ∠ABD | … (Because ΔABD is an isosceles triangle)
| ∠BAD |+ | ∠ABD |= 90° … (Angles in a triangle add up to 180°)
| ∠BAD |= | ∠CAD |
⇒ | ∠CAD |= 45°
Example
In the given diagram m p. Find | ∠BAC | and | ∠AED |.
A
B
109° E
m
44°
D
p
Solution
From the diagram:
| ∠ABC |= 180° − 109° = 71° … (Straight line)
| ∠CDE |= | ∠ACB |= 44° … (Corresponding angles)
| ∠BAC |= 180° − (71° + 44°) = 65° … (Sum of the angles in a triangle)
| ∠AED |= | ∠ABC |= 71° … (Corresponding angles)
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Example
[AB] is a diameter of the circle of centre O. C and D are points on the circle.
[AB] and [CD] intersect at K and | ∠CDB |= 38°.
Find | ∠ABC |.
A
O D
38°
C K
Solution
From the diagram:
| ∠CDB |= | ∠CAB |= 38° … (Angles standing on the same arc)
| ∠ACB |= 90° … (Angle in a semi-circle)
| ∠ABC |+ | ∠CAB |+ | ∠ACB |= 180° … (Sum of the angles in a triangle)
| ∠ABC |+ 38° + 90° = 180°
| ∠ABC |= 180° − (38° + 90°)
∴ | ∠ABC |= 52°
Using theorems, axioms and corollaries to
solve for missing sides
Example
Given that transversals RT and PQ
cut three parallel lines which are the R
same distance apart from one x–4
another, find the value of x such
that | RT |+ | PQ |= 30. P
T
3x + 7
Q
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Solution
Given that transversals RT and PQ cut three parallel lines which are the same
distance apart, we can fill in the missing segments.
x–4
x–4 P
T
3x + 7
Q
3x + 7
From the diagram:
| RT |= x − 4 + x − 4
| RT |= 2x − 8
| PQ |= 3x + 7 + 3x + 7
| PQ |= 6x + 14
Given that | RT |+ | PQ |= 30, we can rewrite this equation and solve for x:
2x − 8 + 6x + 14 = 30
8x + 6 = 30
8x = 30 − 6
8x = 24
___
8x ___ 24
=
8 8
∴x=3
Example
The two triangles shown are similar. Find the value of x.
6
25 15
x
(SEC 2013)
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Solution
Identifying corresponding sides to solve for the unknown side:
6
25 15
x
__x ___ 25
=
6 15
Multiply both sides by 6 to solve for x.
( ) ( )
x
__
6
___
25
6 = 6
15
____
150
⇒ x = = 10
15
Example
In the triangle PQR, [ XY ] is parallel to [ QR ]. | PQ |= 14 cm, | QR |= 21 cm and | PX |= 10 cm.
Find | XY |.
P
X Y
Q R
Solution
Since [ XY ] is parallel to [ QR ]:
| XY | _____
_____ | PX |
=
… (Corresponding sides in similar triangles)
| QR | | PQ |
Fill in known values and solve for the required side:
| XY | ___
____ 10
=
21 14
___
10
| XY |= 21 ×
14
∴ | XY |= 15 cm
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Example
A circle, centre C, has a chord [ AB ] of length 8. D is a point on [ AB ] and [CD] is
perpendicular to [ AB ] and | CD |= 3. Find the length of a diameter of the circle.
C B
A
(SEC 2004)
Solution
∆ ABC is an isosceles triangle as | AC |= | CB |because they are both radii
of the circle. [CD] bisects [AB] which means | AD |= | DB |= 4.
Using Pythagoras’ Theorem: C B
| AC | = | AD | + | CD |
2 2 2
3
| AC |2 = (4)2 + (3)2 4
| AC |2 = 16 + 9 = 25 D
___
25 = 5
| AC |= √
4
The diameter of the circle is twice the radius.
∴ Diameter = 2| AC |= 2(5) = 10 A
Example
A surveyor wants to calculate the distance across a lake. The lake is surrounded by
woods. Three paths have been constructed to provide access to the lake from a road
AC as shown in the diagram. The lengths of the paths from the road to the lake are
as follows. D
| AE |= 120 m.
| BE |= 80 m.
| CD |= 200 m. E
(a) Explain how these measurements can
be used to find | ED |.
(b) Calculate | ED |, the distance across
A B C
the lake.
(SEC 2014)
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Solution
(a) The two triangles ∆ AEB and ∆ ADC are similar since they have the same three
angles (they are ‘equiangular’). This means that the corresponding sides are
proportional to one another. Therefore:
| CD |
| AD | _____
_____
=
,
| AE | | BE |
which can be solved for | AD |.
Then, from the diagram: | ED |= | AD |− | AE |.
(b) From part (a), we can insert the given information into the equation and solve
for the missing side.
| AD | ____
_____ 200
=
120 80
Multiply both sides by 120 and solve for | AD |.
120
_____
120( | | ) ( )
AD ____
200
= 120
80
| AD |= 120 ____
200
( )
80
∴ | AD |= 300
| ED |= | AD |− | AE |
∴ | ED |= 300 − 120 = 180 m
Using theorems, axioms and corollaries to prove
a given statement
Example
ABCD is a parallelogram. AE and CF are A D
perpendicular to BD as shown. F
Prove the triangles ABE and CDF are congruent.
E
Solution
B C
In triangles ABE and CDF:
| ∠BEA |= | ∠DFC |= 90° … (Given in the question)
| ∠ABE |= | ∠CDF | … (Alternate angles)
| AB |= | DC | … (Opposite sides of a parallelogram)
∴ The triangles ABE and DCF are congruent as ASA holds true.
Q.E.D.
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Example
Prove that x + y + z = 360°.
z°
x°
y°
(SEC 2012)
Solution
Label the angles inside the triangle.
z°
b°
a°
x° c°
y°
We can state that:
b° + c° = x° … (Exterior angle of a triangle)
a° + b° = y° … (Exterior angle of a triangle)
a° + c° = z° … (Exterior angle of a triangle)
Adding the three equations gives:
2a° + 2b° + 2c° = x° + y° + z°
2(a° + b° + c°) = x° + y° + z°
But a° + b° + c° = 180° … (Sum of the angles of a triangle)
Therefore:
2(180°) = x° + y° + z°
360° = x° + y° + z°
Q.E.D.
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Example
A, B, C and D are four points on a circle as shown. A
[ AD ] bisects ∠BAC. P is the point of intersection
of AD and BC.
(a) Show that ∆ ADB and ∆ APC are similar.
(b) Show that | AC |·| BD | = | AD |·| PC |.
C
Solution P
B
(a) To show that ∆ ADB and ∆ APC are similar,
we can show that the two triangles have the
same angles (equiangular). D
Label the angles in ∆ ADB and ∆ APC.
(SEC 2014)
A
∠1 ∠4
∠5 ∠6 C
∠3 P
B
∠2
D
From the labelled diagram:
| ∠1 |= | ∠4 |
… (Given that [AD] bisects ∠BAC)
| ∠2 |= | ∠6 |
… (Both angles standing on the same arc AB)
But | ∠1 |+ | ∠2 |+ | ∠3 |= 180° = | ∠4 |+ | ∠5 |+ | ∠6 |
⇒ | ∠3 |= | ∠5 |
Therefore ∆ ADB and ∆ APC are similar triangles or equiangular triangles.
(b) Since the two triangles are similar, corresponding sides must be in proportion
to one another. Therefore:
| AC | _____
_____ | PC |
=
| AD | | BD |
Multiplying both sides by | AD |·| BD |and simplifying:
| AC | _____
| PC |
( | AD |·| BD | )_____
=
| AD | | BD |
( | AD |·| BD | )
∴ | BD |·| AC |= | AD |·| PC |
Q.E.D.
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Example
The triangle ABC is an isosceles triangle, A
with |AB| = |AC| and ∠CDB = ∠BEC = 90°.
The line segments [ EC ] and [ BD ] intersect at F.
(a) Prove | ∠DBC |= | ∠ECB |.
(b) Prove | EF |= | FD |. E D
F
Solution
(a) Consider triangles BCD and CBE.
A B C (SEC 2009)
E D
F
B C
| ∠ BCD |= | ∠CBE |
… (Triangle ABC is isosceles)
| ∠CDB |= | ∠BEC |
… (Given information)
∴ | ∠DBC |= | ∠ECB | … (Third pair of angles must be equal)
(b) Consider triangles BEF and CDF.
A
E D
F
B C
| ∠EFB |= | ∠DFC |
… (Vertically opposite angles)
| ∠BEF |= | ∠CDF |= 90°
… (Given information)
∴ | ∠EBF |= | ∠DCF | … (Third pair of angles must be equal)
From part (a):
In ΔBCF, | ∠FBC |= | ∠FCB |
∴ | BF |= | CF |
Hence ΔBEF is congruent to ΔCDF … (ASA)
∴ | EF |= | FD | … (Corresponding sides)
Q.E.D.
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Exercise
Q1 The diagram below shows a parallelogram and one exterior angle.
Find the value of a and the value of b.
3a° 5b°
150°
(SEC 2012)
Q2 If l1, l2 and l3 are parallel lines, find the measure of the angles a, b and g.
40°
l1
a
l2
b
115° g
l3
(SEC 2013)
Q3 P, Q, R and S are points on a circle with centre O. ∠PRS = 32°, as shown.
R
32°
Q
O
P
S
(a) Find | ∠SOP |.
(b) Find | ∠SQP |.
(SEC 2014)
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Q4 In the triangle ABC, [ DE ] is parallel to [CB], |AD| = 4 cm, |AC| = 14 cm and
| AE |= 5 cm. Find | EB |.
B
A 4 D C
14
(SEC 2010)
Q5 A, B, C and D are points on a circle, as shown below. [ AC ] and [ BD ] are
diameters of the circle. Prove that ABCD is a rectangle.
D
C
(SEC 2014)
Q6 If l1l2, find the sizes of the angles a, b and g in the following diagram.
γ
73°
β
α
α 60°
l1
l2
(SEC 2013)
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Q7 The points A, B, C and D are shown on the diagram.
They are all on the circle k.
| AB |= | AD |and | BC |= | DC |, as shown.
The sizes of some of the angles are marked.
(a) Calculate the value of x.
(b) Calculate the value of y. Show all of your working.
k
A 100°
x° C
y°
B
(SEC 2016)
Q8 AB is parallel to CD. BC and AD intersect at the point E.
(a) Prove that the triangles ABE and CDE are equiangular.
(b) Given that | AB |= 12 cm, | BE |= 8 cm and | CD |= 7 cm, find | EC |correct
to one decimal place.
D
B
8 cm
7 cm
E
12 cm C
A
(SEC 2011)
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20 Geometry 3: Constructions
Learning objectives
In this chapter, you will study each of the following constructions:
1 Bisector of a given angle, using only a compass and straight edge
2 Perpendicular bisector of a segment, using only a compass and straight edge
3 Line perpendicular to a given line l, passing through a given point not on l
4 Line perpendicular to a given line l, passing through a given point on l
5 Line parallel to a given line, through a given point
6 Division of a line segment into three equal segments, without measuring it
7 Division of a line segment into any number of equal segments, without measuring it
8 Line segment of a given length on a given ray
9 Angle of a given number of degrees with a given ray as one arm
10 Triangle, given lengths of three sides
11 Triangle, given a side, angle and side (SAS) data
12 Triangle, given an angle, a side and an angle (ASA) data
13 Right-angled triangle, given the length of the hypotenuse and one other side
14 Right-angled triangle, given one side and one of the acute angles
15 Rectangle, given side lengths
Equipment you will need
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Constructions
Points to note
1 When performing constructions, always:
zz make sure all construction markings are visible
zzmake sure to label all points of the constructions
zzmake sure to label all measurements given in the constructions.
2 Note that all constructions can be found on the Project Maths website,
www.projectmaths.ie.
3 Note that not all constructions are drawn to scale in this chapter.
Construction 1
Bisector of a given angle, using only a compass and
straight edge
Example
Construct the bisector of the angle A
at the vertex labelled B, using only a
compass and straight edge.
Solution
B C
Step 1 Position your compass at B and draw A
an arc which crosses [AB] and [BC ].
B C
A
Step 2 Position your compass at each of the points
of intersection and draw two arcs (same
distance set for both arcs) that intersect.
B C
A
Step 3 Draw a line from B through the
point of intersection. This is the
bisector of the given angle.
B C
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Construction 2
Perpendicular bisector of a segment, using only a compass
and straight edge
Example
Construct the perpendicular bisector of P Q
the given line segment [PQ], using
only a compass and straight edge.
Solution
Step 1 Position your compass at P, set the
radius to be more than half of the
distance between P and Q, and draw two arcs, P Q
one either side of the given line segment.
Step 2 Position your compass at Q, and using
the same radius as in Step 1, draw two more P Q
arcs on either side of [PQ], which intersect
with the first two.
Step 3 Draw a line through the two points
of intersection. This line is the P Q
perpendicular bisector of the given line
segment.
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Construction 3
Line perpendicular to a given line, passing through a
given point not on the line
Example
Construct a line perpendicular to the given C
line AB, passing through the given point C
that is not on the line.
A B
Solution
Step 1 Position your compass at C, draw C
an arc of a circle that intersects the
given line segment [AB] at two points.
A D E B
Label the points D and E.
Step 2 Position your compass at D and C
draw an arc below the line which
is over half the distance to E.
A D E B
Step 3 Position your compass at E, C
with the same radius as in Step 2,
and draw an arc to intersect the
A D E B
arc just drawn. Label the
intersection point P.
P
Step 4 Draw a line through P and C. This C
line is perpendicular to the given
line AB.
A D E B
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Construction 4
Line perpendicular to a given line, passing through a
given point on the given line
Example
Construct a line perpendicular to the A B
P
given line segment [AB], passing
through the given point P which is
on the line segment.
Solution
Step 1 Set your compass equal to |AP|. A B
P C
Position your compass at P and
draw an arc intersecting the line.
Label this point C.
Step 2 Position your compass at A
and with a radius set greater
than the length |AP|, draw an
arc above the line. A B
P C
Step 3 Position your compass at C
and with the same radius as
in Step 2, draw an arc which
intersects the arc just drawn. A B
P C
Step 4 Draw a line through the point D
of intersection of the arcs
and the given point P. This line
is perpendicular to the line and
passes through the given point P. A B
P C
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Construction 5
Line parallel to a given line, through a given point
Example
Construct a line parallel to the given line AB, R
through the given point R.
A B
Solution R
Step 1 Mark off any two points on the
line AB. Label them C and D.
A C D B
R
Step 2 Position your compass at R with radius
length |CD|, draw an arc above the
given line AB.
A C D B
R
Step 3 Position your compass at D with
radius length |RC|, and draw an arc
to intersect the first arc.
A C D B
Step 4 Draw a line through R and the R
point of intersection of the two
arcs. This line is parallel to the
given line AB.
A C D B
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Construction 6
Division of a line segment into three equal segments,
without measuring it
Example
Divide the given line segment [AB] into
three equal segments, without measuring it. A B
Solution
Step 1 Draw a line through A at an acute angle to [AB].
A B
E
Step 2 On this line, use a compass with a set radius
to mark off three segments of equal length. D
Label the points of intersection C, D and E. C
A B
Step 3 Join the point E to point B. E
D
C
A B
Step 4 Draw two more lines from the points of E
intersection on [AE] parallel to [EB] to
D
meet [AB]. Label this points of intersection
F and G. [AB] is now divided into three equal parts. C
A B
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Construction 7
Division of a line segment into any number of equal
segments, without measuring it
Example
Divide the given line segment [AB] into five
equal segments, without measuring it. A B
Solution
Step 1 Draw a line through A at an acute
angle to [AB].
A B
Step 2 On this line, use a compass with a G
set radius to mark off five segments F
of equal length. Label the points of E
intersection C, D, E, F and G. D
C
A B
Step 3 Join the point G to point B. G
F
E
D
C
A B
Step 4 Draw four more lines from the G
points of intersection on [AG] F
parallel to [GB] to meet [AB]. E
Label these points of intersection D
H, I, J and K. [AB] is now divided C
into five equal parts.
A B
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Construction 8
Line segment of a given length on a given ray
Example
Construct a line segment of length 5 cm A B
on the given ray [AB.
Solution
Step 1 Using a ruler, draw a line C D
segment 5 cm long. Label 5 cm
it [CD].
A B
Step 2 Use the 5 cm line segment to C D
set your compass to a radius 5 cm
of 5 cm. Place your compass
at A, draw an arc intersecting
the ray [AB. Label this point E.
A 5 cm E B
Then the line segment [AE] is
5 cm long.
Construction 9
Angle of a given number of degrees with a given ray as
one arm
Example
Construct a 40° angle BAC A B
using the given line segment [AB].
Solution
Step 1 Place the centre of the C
protractor at the point A.
Starting from the 0° mark
at B, mark the position A B
of 40° as point C.
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Step 2 Draw a ray from point A through
point C. This forms an angle of 40°.
40°
A B
Construction 10
Triangle, given lengths of three sides
Example
Construct a triangle with sides 7 cm, 9 cm and 4 cm.
Solution
Step 1 Using the longest side as the base, A 9 cm B
draw a straight line 9 cm long.
Label one end A and the other B.
Step 2 Set the compass to a radius of 7 cm.
Place the compass point at the
point A and draw an arc above the A 9 cm B
line segment.
Step 3 Set the compass to a radius of 4 cm.
Place the compass point at the
point B and draw an arc above the A 9 cm B
line segment which intersects with
the first arc drawn.
Step 4 Draw straight lines from A and B to 7 cm 4 cm
the point of intersection. This is the
required triangle. A 9 cm B
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Construction 11
Triangle, given side, angle, side (SAS)
Example
Construct a triangle ABC, where |AB| = 9 cm, |AC| = 7 cm and | ∠BAC| = 40°.
Solution
Step 1 Using the longest side as the A B
9 cm
base, draw a line 9 cm long
and label one end A and the
other end B.
Step 2 Use a protractor to draw
an angle of 40° at point A.
A 9 cm B
Step 3 Mark off a length of 7 cm on C
this line and label it C.
7 cm
40°
A 9 cm B
Step 4 Join end points to form C
the required triangle.
7 cm
40°
A 9 cm B
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Construction 12
Triangle, given angle, side, angle (ASA)
Example
Construct a triangle ABC, where |AB| = 8 cm, | ∠ABC| = 30° and | ∠BAC| = 100°.
Solution
Step 1 Draw a line 8 cm long and label
A 8 cm B
one end A and the other end B.
Step 2 Use a protractor to draw the
angle 30° at point B and draw
the angle 100° at point A.
A 8 cm B
Step 3 Label the point of intersection
of these two arms C. The
C
triangle ABC is the required
triangle.
100° 30°
A 8 cm B
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Construction 13
Right-angled triangle, given the length of the
hypotenuse and one other side
Example
Construct a triangle ABC, where | ∠CAB| = 90o, |AC| = 4 cm and |BC| = 7 cm.
Solution
Step 1 Using the shortest side as the
A 4 cm C
base, draw a line 4 cm long.
Label one end A and the other end C.
Step 2 Use a protractor to draw
the angle 90° at point A.
A 4 cm C
Step 3 Position your compass at C B
and with a distance of 7 cm set,
draw an arc cutting the vertical
line. Label the point of
intersection B.
A 4 cm C
Step 4 Draw a line joining C to B. B
The triangle ABC is the
required triangle.
7 cm
A 4 cm C
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Construction 14
Right-angled triangle, given one side and one of the
acute angles
Example
Construct a triangle ABC, where | ∠ABC| = 30o, | ∠BAC| = 90o and |AB| = 8 cm.
Solution
Step 1 Draw a line 8 cm long and label A B
8 cm
one end A and the other end B.
Step 2 Use a protractor to draw a
90° angle at point A. Then
use the protractor to draw
a 30° angle at point B.
A 8 cm B
Step 3 Label the point of
intersection of these two
C
arms C. The triangle ABC
is the required triangle.
90° 30°
A 8 cm B
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Construction 15
Rectangle, given side lengths
Example
Construct the rectangle ABCD given that |AB| = 5 cm and |BC| = 7 cm.
Solution
Step 1 Using the longest side as the
base, draw a line 7 cm long
and label one end B and the B 7 cm C
other end C.
Step 2 Use a protractor to draw
a 90° angle at point B and
at point C.
B 7 cm C
Step 3 With the compass set to a radius
of 5 cm, draw an arc from point B A D
which cuts the perpendicular arm.
Label this point of intersection A.
Repeat this process at point C, 5 cm 5 cm
also with a radius of 5 cm. Label
the point of intersection of the arc
and the perpendicular arm as D. B 7 cm C
Step 4 Draw a line joining A to D.
A 7 cm D
This completes the required
rectangle ABCD.
5 cm 5 cm
B 7 cm C
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Exercise
Q1 (a) Construct a line segment [AB] where |AB| = 6 cm and place a point C
anywhere on this line segment.
(b) Construct a line perpendicular to the line segment [AB], passing
through the point C on [AB].
Q2 (a) Construct a line segment [XY] where |XY| = 10 cm.
(b) Construct the perpendicular bisector of the line [XY], using only a
compass and straight edge.
Q3 (a) Construct a line segment [ST] where |ST| = 12 cm.
(b) Divide the line segment [ST] into five equal segments, without
measuring it.
Q4 Construct the rectangle CDEF given that |CD| = 4 cm and |DE| = 6 cm.
Q5 (a) Construct a line segment [PQ] where |PQ| = 8 cm and place a point R
anywhere above the line segment.
(b) Construct a line parallel to the line segment, through the point R.
Q6 (a) Construct a line segment [AB] where |AB| = 7 cm.
(b) Construct a 60° angle on the line segment [AB].
(c) Construct the bisector of the 60° angle, using only a compass and
straight edge.
Q7 (a) Construct a triangle of sides 6 cm, 7 cm and 10 cm.
(b) Construct a triangle ABC where |AB| = 10 cm, |AC| = 5 cm and | ∠BAC| = 50°.
(c) Construct a triangle PQR where |PQ| = 8 cm, | ∠RPQ| = 40°
and | ∠PQR| = 80°.
Construct a line segment [AB] where |AB| = 8 cm and place a point P
Q8 (a)
anywhere above the line segment.
(b) Construct a line perpendicular to the given line segment [AB], passing
through the point P.
Q9 Construct a triangle ABC where |∠ABC | = 90o , | ∠BAC| = 55o and |AB| = 7 cm.
Q10 (a) Construct a line segment [ST ] where |ST | = 12 cm.
(b) Divide the given line segment into three equal segments, without
measuring it.
Q11 Construct a triangle PQR, where | ∠QPR| = 90o , |PQ| = 4 cm and |QR| = 7 cm.
Q12 (a) Construct a ray [AB.
(b) Construct a line segment of length 3 cm on the ray [AB.
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21 Coordinate Geometry of
the Line
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
� The coordinate plane
� The distance between two points
� The midpoint between two points
� The slope of a line
� The equation of a line
� Parallel and perpendicular lines.
The coordinate plane
The coordinate plane is a two-dimensional y
surface which has two axes, the horizontal 5
2nd Quadrant 1st Quadrant
axis called the x-axis and the vertical Coordinates in the 4 Coordinates in the
axis called the y-axis. In this chapter form (–x, y)
3
form (x, y)
we use the coordinate plane to plot F H
2
points in the form (x, y) and show how (–3, 2) (3, 2)
the coordinates can be used to draw lines. 1
0
The coordinate plane can be –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
divided into four quadrants, –1
as shown in the figure. G I
–2
(–3, –2) (3, –2)
–3
3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant
Note that the quadrants Coordinates in the –4 Coordinates in the
are labelled in an form (–x, –y) –5 form (x, –y)
anticlockwise direction.
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Distance between two given points
The distance between two points can also be referred to as the length of a given
line segment. The formula is derived by forming a right-angled triangle and
applying Pythagoras’ Theorem.
y
S(x2, y2)
y2 – y1
R(x1, y1) x2 – x1 T
Let:
|RT | = x2 − x1
|ST | = y2 − y1
Now Pythagoras’ Theorem can be applied to find |RS|.
|RS|2= |RT |2+ |ST |2
Hence, ________________
by taking the square root of both sides of the equation:
|RS| = √ (x2 − x 1 )2 +
( y2 − y 1 )2
Point to note
The length of the line segment |AB| given A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2)
________________
(
can be found using the formula |AB| = √ x2− x1)2+ ( y2− y1)2 .
*In the Formulae and Tables booklet.
y
B(x2, y2)
y 2 – y1
A(x1, y1) x2 – x1
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Example
Given the points A(4, −4) and B( −1, 8), find |AB|.
Solution
Label one of the points (x1 , y1) and the other point (x2 , y2).
(x1, y1) (x2, y2 )
⇔
⇔
⇔
⇔
(4, −4) (−1, 8)
Substitute this information into the distance formula and simplify.
_________________
|AB| = √ (x2 − x1)2 +
_________________ ( y2− y1 )2
=√ (−1 − 4)2 +
__________ (8 − (−4))2
(−5)2 + (12)2
= √_______ ____
= √ 25 + 144 169 = 13
=√
Hence |AB| = 13.
The midpoint between two given points
The midpoint between two points can also be referred to as the midpoint of a
line segment. It is the halfway point between the given points.
Point to note
The midpoint P of the line segment |RS|, given the points R(x1, y1) and
______
S (x2, y2), can be found using the formula P =
2
, (
x 1+ x2______
y1+ y2
2
. )
*In the Formulae and Tables booklet.
y
R(x1, y1)
(x1 + x2 , y1 + y2
P ––––––
2
––––––
2 )
midpoint
S(x2, y2)
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Example
Find the midpoint between S(7, −2) and T(−11, 8).
Solution
Label one of the points (x1 , y1) and the other point (x2 , y2).
(x1, y1 ) (x2, y2 )
⇔
⇔
⇔
⇔
(7, −2) (−11, 8)
Substitute this information into the midpoint formula and simplify.
(
______
Midpoint = ,
2 )
y1 + y2
x1 + x 2 ______
2
= (
7 + (−11)
________ _______
2
, )
(−2) + 8
2
(
___
−4 __ 6
)
= ,
2 2
= ( −2, 3 )
The slope of a line
The slope of a line represents the steepness of the line. Another way of thinking
about the slope is that it represents the rate of change of one variable with
respect to another variable. A line may be:
zzpositive sloping;
zzhorizontal or vertical;
zznegative sloping.
Positive sloping
y
When the value of x increases and
the value of y increases,
the graph slants upward.
(Positive slope.)
O x
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Horizontal y
Slope is undefined.
When the value of x increases and the value
of y remains constant, the graph will be a
horizontal line. (The slope equals zero.) Slope is equal to 0.
Vertical
When the value of y increases and
the value of x remains constant,
the graph will be a vertical line. O x
(The slope is undefined.)
Remember
A vertical line has undefined slope
because all points on the line have
the same x-coordinates. Due to this
fact, when we calculate the slope
y 2 − y 1 y
_____
using the formula m = x 2− x 1 it will
always produce a denominator of 0,
which makes the slope undefined.
Negative sloping
When the value of x increases and the
value of y decreases, the graph slants
downward. (Negative slope.) O x
Calculating the value of the slope
Points to note
___
rise
zzThe slope is denoted by m, which is calculated by m = run , where ‘rise’
means the increase in ‘height’ or the
y
increase in y, and ‘run’ means the B(x2, y2)
increase in ‘length’ or the increase in x.
y 2 – y1
zzThe slope, m, of the line which passes
through the points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) A(x1, y1) x2 – x1
y 2− y1
_____
is given by the formula m = x − x .
1
2
x
*In the Formulae and Tables booklet.
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Example
Find the slope of the line PQ given P(−6, 3) and Q(4, 7).
Solution
Label one of the points (x1 , y1) and the other point (x2 , y2).
(x1, y1 ) (x2 , y2 )
⇔
⇔
⇔
⇔
(−6, 3) (4, 7)
Substitute this information into the slope formula and simplify.
y2 − y1
______
m = x − x
2 1
_______
7−3
=
4 − (−6)
___4 __ 2
= =
10 5
The equation of a line
The equation of a line is an algebraic equation that describes a given line.
There are three forms of equation which can be used to describe a line:
zzy = mx + c
zzy − y1 = m(x − x 1 )
zzax + by + c = 0
The equation of a line in the form y = mx + c
In this equation:
y
zzm represents the slope 7 Equation of a line
of the line, in the form
6 y = mx + c
zzc represents the y-intercept 5
slope = m
(i.e. where the line crosses 4 y2 – y1
the y-axis), and 3
(0, c) x2 – x1
zzx and y are the coordinates 2
of any point on the line. 1
0
This formula is given in the
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
Formulae and Tables booklet. –1
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Example
Given the graph of the line AB, find the equation of the line AB.
y
6
5
4
B
3
2
1
0
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
A
–3
Solution
From the graph, A is at (0, −2) and B is at (2, 4).
Set (x1 , y1) and (x2 , y2 ) as follows:
(x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 )
⇔
⇔
⇔
⇔
(0, −2) (2, 4)
First find the slope, m.
y2− y1
______
m = x − x
2 1
4 − (−2)
_______
=
2−0
__
6
=
2
=3
From the given diagram, the y-intercept is point A, (0, −2).
Now substitute the slope and the y-intercept point into the formula y = mx + c.
y = mx + c
= 3x + (−2)
⇒ y = 3x − 2
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Example
The coordinate diagram y
represents the lines Equation
5
l1 l2 y = 2x + 3
l1 , l2 , l3 and l4 . The table 4
to the right contains 3 y = −x − 2
the equation of each line. l4 l3
2 y = −x + 2
Match each of the lines to
1 y = 3x − 1
its correct equation. 0
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
–3
Solution y
5
From the graph, relevant ‘run’ and l1 l2
rise
4
‘rise’ figures can be measured and = –2 rise
the y-intercepts noted. Then in each 3 =3
l4 run = 2 l3
case the values for m and c can be 2
rise run = 1
substituted into the equation y = mx + c 1
= –2
to obtain the equation of the line. 0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
run = 2 –1
rise
= 2 –2
–3
run = 1
The line l 1 : The line l2 :
____
rise ___ −2 ____
rise __ 2
Slope m = run = = −1 Slope m = run = = 2
2 1
y-intercept = (0, 2) y-intercept = (0, 3)
Substituting into the equation Substituting into the equation
of a line in the form y = mx + c of a line in the form y = mx + c
⇒ l1: y = −x + 2 ⇒ l2: y = 2x + 3
The line l3 : The line l4 :
____
rise __ 3 ____
rise ___ −2
Slope m = run = = 3 Slope m = run = = −1
1 2
y-intercept = (0, −1) y-intercept = (0, −2)
Substituting into the equation Substituting into the equation
of a line in the form y = mx + c of a line in the form y = mx + c
⇒ l3 : y = 3x − 1 ⇒ l4: y = −x − 2
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The equation of a line in the form y − y 1 = m(x − x 1 )
In this equation, m represents the slope of y
Equation of a line
the line, (x1 , y1) is a point on the line 7 in the form
and x, y are the coordinates of any other 6 y – y1 = m(x – x1)
Q (x1, y1)
point on the line. 5
slope = m
4 y2 – y1
This formula is given in the
Formulae and Tables booklet. 3
x2 – x1
2
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
1
0
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
To form the equation of a given line, we need –1
two pieces of information about the line:
1 the slope, m
2 the coordinates of a point on the line, (x1 , y1 ).
Then the value for the slope and the point coordinates can be substituted into
the formula y − y1 = m(x − x 1 ), and the result simplified.
Example
Given the points A(2, −3) and B(5, −2), find the equation of the line AB.
Solution
(x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 )
⇔
⇔
⇔
⇔
A(2, −3) B(5, −2)
We need two pieces of information about the line: (1) its slope, m, and
(2) the coordinates of a point on the line.
y2 − y 1
______
1 m = x − x
2 1
(−2) − (−3) ______
_________ −2 + 3 __ 1
=
= =
5−2 3 3
2 A point on the line = A(2, −3)
Substitute the value for the slope and the point coordinates into the formula
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) and simplify.
__
1
y − (−3) = (x − 2)
3
3( y + 3) = (x − 2)
3y + 9 = x − 2
− x + 3y + 9 + 2 = 0
−x + 3y + 11 = 0
or
x − 3y − 11 = 0
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The equation of a line in the form ax + by + c = 0
In this form of the equation of a line, a, b and c ∈ . The slope of the line, m, can
be found by rearranging the equation ax + by + c = 0 to make y the subject of the
equation in the form y = mx + c.
ax + by + c = 0
by = −ax − c
__a c
__
y = − x −
b b a
__
The coefficient of x is the slope of the line. So m = − .
b
Example
The table below gives the equations of three lines and the slope of each line.
Match each of the equations with its corresponding slope.
Line 1 1
__
Slope (mA) = −
2x + 3y + 6 = 0 3
Line 2 2
__
Slope (mB) = −
−3x + 2y − 6 = 0 3
Line 3 3
__
Slope (mC) =
x + 3y + 2 = 0 2
Solution
To find the slope, we can rearrange the equation ax + by + c = 0 to make y the subject
of the equation in the form y = mx + c.
Line 1 Line 2 Line 3
2x + 3y + 6 = 0 −3x + 2y − 6 = 0 x + 3y + 2 = 0
3y = −2x − 6 2y = 3x + 6 3y = −x − 2
3y ___
___ −2 6
__ 2y __
___ 3 6
__
3y ___
___ −1 2
__
= x − = x + = x −
3 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3
2
__ 3
__ 1
__ 2
__
y = − x − 2 y = x + 3 y = − x −
3 2 3 3
2
__ 3
__ 1
__
∴ Slope (mB) = − ∴ Slope (mC) = ∴ Slope (mA) = −
3 2 3
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Points to note
The three forms of equation which we use to describe a line are:
1 The equation of a line in the form y = mx + c, where
m represents the slope,
c represents the y-intercept,
(x, y) are the coordinates of any point on the line.
2 The equation of a line in the form y − y1 = m(x − x 1 ), where
m represents the slope,
(x1, y1) is a point on the line.
(x, y) are the coordinates of any point on the line.
3 The equation of a line in the form ax + by + c = 0, where
a
a, b & c ∈ and the slope = − __
b
How to verify if a point is on a line
To verify if a point is on a line, substitute the coordinates of the given point into
the equation of the line and if it satisfies the equation then it is on the line.
Example
Investigate whether or not the point (2, 3) is on either of the given lines s and t.
s : 2x + y − 6 = 0
t : y = 2x − 5
Solution
Line s
Substitute the point (2, 3) into the equation for line s.
s : 2x + y − 6 = 0
2(2) + (3) − 6 = 1 ≠ 0
Therefore, the point (2, 3) is not on the line.
Line t
Substitute the point (2, 3) into the equation for line t.
t : y = 2x − 5 = 2(2) − 1 = 3
Therefore, the point (2, 3) is on the line.
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Parallel lines
Points to note
If two lines are parallel to each other, then their slopes are equal.
m1 = m2 y
To form the equation of a line L1 L2
parallel to a given line, we can
follow these steps:
slope (m1)
Step 1: Identify the slope of the slope (m2)
given line.
As the lines are parallel,
their slopes are equal. x
Step 2: To form the equation of
the parallel line we need two pieces of information:
1 the slope, m
2 the coordinates of a point on the line, (x1 , y1 )
Substitute the slope and the point into the formula y − y1 = m(x − x 1 ).
Example
Find the equation of the line p which is parallel to q : 3x + y − 2 = 0 and contains the
point (1, −2).
Solution
Step 1: To find the slope of q, we can rearrange the equation ax + by + c = 0 to make
y the subject of the equation in the form y = mx + c.
q : 3x + y − 2 = 0
q : y = −3x + 2
∴ Slope (mq) = −3
___
−a ___ −3
Alternatively find the slope by finding the value of = = −3
b 1
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Step 2: As p || q, slope mp= slope m
q= −3
A point on line p is given as (1, −2).
Now substitute the slope and the point into the formula y − y 1= m(x − x 1 ).
(x1 , y1 )
⇔
⇔
(1, −2)
p : y − y1 = m(x − x1)
y − (−2) = −3(x − 1)
y + 2 = −3x + 3
y + 3x + 2 − 3 = 0
p : y + 3x − 1 = 0
or
p : −y − 3x + 1 = 0
Perpendicular lines
Points to note
If two lines are perpendicular to each other, when their slopes are
multiplied together the answer will always be –1.
m1 × m2 = −1. y
To form the equation of a line
slope (m1)
perpendicular to a given line, L2
we can follow these steps: slope (m2)
Step 1 : Identify the slope of the
given line.
L1
Step 2 : To find the slope of the
perpendicular line, just x
turn the known slope
upside down and change its sign.
Step 3 : To form the equation of the perpendicular line we need two
pieces of information:
1 the slope, m
2 the coordinates of a point on the line, (x1, y1).
Substitute the value of the slope and the point coordinates into the
formula y − y1 = m(x − x1)
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Quick rule
To find the slope of the perpendicular line, just turn the known slope upside
down and change its sign. Here are some examples.
Slope (m1) Parallel lines (m2) Perpendicular lines (m2)
m1 = m2 m1 × m2 = −1
__2 __
2 __5
−
5 5 2
__1
2 2 −
2
__1
−2 −2
2
__
2 __
2 __5
− −
5 5 2
Example
Find the equation of the line a which is perpendicular to b : 2x − 4y − 8 = 0 and
contains the point (−2, 7).
Solution
Step 1: To find the slope of b, we can rearrange the equation ax + by + c = 0
to make y the subject of the equation in the form y = mx + c.
b : 2x − 4y − 8 = 0
b : −4y = −2x + 8
−4y ___
____ −2 ___
8
b : = x +
−4 −4 −4
__
1
b : y = x − 2
2
__
1
∴ Slope (mb) =
2
___
−a ___ −2 __ 1
Alternatively find the slope by finding the value of = =
b −4 2
Step 2: To find the slope of the perpendicular line, just turn the known slope upside
down and change its sign.
Slope (mb) Perpendicular lines (ma)
mb × ma = −1
__1
−2
2
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Step 3: To form the equation of the perpendicular line we need two pieces of
information:
1 a = −2.
the slope of a: as a ⊥ b, m
2 a point on the line is given as (−2, 7).
ow substitute the slope and the point into the formula y − y 1 = m(x − x 1 ).
N
(x1 , y1)
⇔
⇔
(−2, 7)
a : y − y1 = m(x − x 1 )
y − 7 = −2(x − (−2))
y − 7 = − 2x − 4
y + 2x − 7 + 4 = 0
a : y + 2x − 3 = 0
or
a : − y − 2x + 3 = 0
Points of intersection
A line may intersect with the x-axis, the y-axis, or with another line.
Points to note
Points of intersection of a given line with the x-axis and y-axis
y
6
5
4 Point of
intersection
3
y-intercepts
2
1
0
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1
x-intercepts
zzThe line intersects the x-axis at the coordinate (x, 0)
zzThe line intersect the y-axis at the coordinate (0, y)
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Point of intersection of two given lines
Points to note
To find the point of intersection of two given lines, generally follow either
of the two methods below.
Method 1
Step 1: Draw an accurate graph representing both lines.
Step 2: From the graph, read the point of intersection.
Method 2
Given two equations with two unknown variables we use the
simultaneous equations method to solve for the two unknown variables
which represent the point of intersection.
Example
Two lines are given by 3x − 6y − 24 = 0 and 2x + 4y − 8 = 0.
(a) Find the point of intersection of the two lines using the graphical method.
(b) Verify your answer using algebra.
Solution
(a) Find the points where the lines intersect the axes.
Line 3x − 6y − 24 = 0
Let x = 0 and find the Let y = 0 and find the
corresponding y value. corresponding x value.
Point is written as Point is written as
(x, y) = (0, y value). (x, y) = (x value, 0).
3x − 6y − 24 = 0 3x − 6y − 24 = 0
3(0) − 6y − 24 = 0 3x − 6(0) − 24 = 0
−6y − 24 = 0 3x − 24 = 0
−6y = 24 3x = 24
−6y ___
____ 24 ___
3x ___ 24
= =
−6 −6 3 3
∴ y = −4 ∴x=8
Therefore the line intersects the y-axis Therefore the line intersects the
at (0, − 4). x-axis at (8, 0).
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Line 2x + 4y − 8 = 0
Let x = 0 and find the Let y = 0 and find the
corresponding y value. corresponding x value.
Point is written as Point is written as
(x, y) = (0, y value). (x, y) = (x value, 0).
2x + 4y − 8 = 0 2x + 4y − 8 = 0
2(0) + 4y − 8 = 0 2x + 4(0) − 8 = 0
4y − 8 = 0 2x − 8 = 0
4y = 8 2x = 8
___4y __ 8 ___2x __ 8
= =
4 4 2 2
∴y=2 ∴x=4
Therefore the line intersects the y-axis Therefore the line intersects the
at (0, 2). x-axis at (4, 0).
sing these four points, the two lines can be drawn and their point of intersection
U
determined. By visual inspection, the point is (6, –1).
y
3
2
1
0
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
–1
(6,–1)
–2
Point of
–3 intersection
–4
–5
(b) 3x − 6y − 24 = 0 (1)
2x + 4y − 8 = 0 (2)
Multiply (1) by 2 and (2) by –3 and add the results to eliminate x.
2 × (1) ⇒ 6x − 12y − 48 = 0
(−3) × (2) ⇒ −6x − 12y + 24 = 0
−24y − 24 = 0
−24y = 24
∴ y = −1
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Substitute y = –1 into (1) to find x.
3x − 6y − 24 = 0
3x − 6(−1) − 24 = 0
3x + 6 − 24 = 0
3x − 18 = 0
3x = 18
___
18
x = = 6
3
Therefore, the point of intersection is ( 6, −1 ).
Exercise
Q1 Given the points A(−2, 3) and B(7, −5):
(a) plot the points A and B,
(b) find |AB|, and
(c) find the midpoint of [AB].
Q2 Given the points X(2, −4) and Y(6, 8):
(a) find the slope of the line XY, and
(b) find the equation of the line XY.
Q3 (a) The coordinate diagram represents Equation
the lines l 1 , l2 and l3 , and the table y = 2x + 3
contains the equation of each line. 2y = −x + 8
Match each of the lines to its correct
equation. y = −x − 2
y
l1 6
l2 l3
5
4
3
2
1
0
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
–1
–2
–3
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(b) Identify the line with the greatest slope. Explain your answer.
(c) Identify which two lines are perpendicular to each other. Explain your
answer.
Q4 (a) T
he table below gives the equations of three lines and the slope of each
line. Match the correct equation with its corresponding slope.
Line 1
Slope (mA) = −2
−x + 2y − 3 = 0
Line 2
Slope (mB) = 3
4x + 2y − 3 = 0
Line 3 1
__
Slope (mC) =
−6x + 2y + 3 = 0 2
(b) State whether each statement below is true or false.
(i) The point (−1, 4) is on the line y = 3x + 7.
(ii) The point (−3, 3) is not on the line −3x − y − 6 = 0.
(iii) The point (0, −2) is on the line x + 4y = 10.
Q5 Given the points A(2, 2), B(−2, −2) and C(4, −4):
(a) plot the points A, B and C,
(b) find the lengths of |AB|, |AC| and |BC|, and
(c) hence, or otherwise, identify whether the triangle ∆ABC is:
zzequilateral, zzisosceles, or zzscalene.
Q6 (a) a : −5x − 10y − 5 = 0
b : 4x − 2y − 8 = 0
I nvestigate whether the two given lines are perpendicular to each
other. Explain your answer.
(b) p : x − 3y + 12 = 0
q : x + 3y − 12 = 0
Investigate whether the two given lines are parallel to each other.
Explain your answer.
(c) Find the point of intersection between the following two lines, using
algebra.
s : 61 − 6y = 5x t : 3y + 2x = 25
Q7 A(2, 3), B(10, 4), C(12, 9), and D(4, 8) are four points.
(a) Plot the points on a coordinate plane and join them to form the
quadrilateral ABCD.
(b) Verify that one pair of opposite sides of ABCD are equal in length.
(c) By finding E and F, the midpoints of [AC] and [BD] respectively,
verify that the diagonals of ABCD bisect each other.
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Q8 The equation of the line l is 5 + y − 2x = 0.
(a) Using algebra, find the co-ordinates of the x-intercept and y-intercept
of the line l.
(b) Find the slope of the line l.
The line j goes through the point (11, 6) and is perpendicular to the line l.
(c) (i) Write down the slope of the line j.
(ii) Find the equation of the line j.
(SEC 2015)
Q9 The table below gives the equations of
Line 1 y = 3x − 6
six lines.
Line 2 y = 3x + 12
(a) Which line has the greatest slope?
Give a reason for your answer. Line 3 y = 5x + 20
(b) Which lines are parallel? Give a reason Line 4
y=x−7
for your answer.
Line 5 y = −2x + 4
(c) Draw a sketch of Line 1.
Line 6 y = 4x − 16
(d) The diagram given represents one
of the given lines. Which line does it represent?
1
0
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
(e) The table shows some values of x and y for the equation of one of the
lines. Which line,s equation do they satisfy?
x 7 9 10
y 12 20 24
(f) There is one value of x which will give the same value of y for Line 4 as it
will for Line 6. Find, using algebra, this value of x and the corresponding
value of y.
(g) Verify your answer to (f) above.
(SEC 2012)
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22 Transformation Geometry
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
� How to recognise images of points and objects under:
Translations
Central symmetry
Axial symmetry
Rotation
� How to locate axes of symmetry and centres of symmetry in simple objects.
Transformations
In geometry, a transformation is just a way to change the position of a figure or
shape. A transformation never changes the size of a shape.
The four types of transformation which we will focus on for the Junior Certificate
course are shown below.
1 Translations 2 Axial symmetry
3 Central symmetry 4 Rotation
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Point to note
In each of these transformations the position of each figure or shape
changes but the size remains the same.
How to label a transformation
The original object generally has each point or vertex labelled with a capital
letter. Then a little dash is used to indicate each new point or vertex (corner)
of the image. For example, in the diagram, ABC is the object and A′B′C′ is the
image of ABC under axial symmetry of the y-axis.
A A'
C C'
B B'
Translations
When an object undergoes a translation it is simply moved to a new position.
This movement can be described in terms of how far horizontally and vertically
it has moved.
Points to note
1 The direction is indicated by an 5 Each point is moved the same
arrow on a line segment. distance for the new image.
2 The distance is indicated by the 6 The new image remains the
length of the line segment. same size and the same way up.
→
3 A translation is denoted by AB. → B
AB
4 Each point on the object is A Q'
moved in the same direction for Q T' R'
the new image. T R
S'
S
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Example
G
A B
H
D C
F E
→
Describe the translation GH
(a) in the given diagram.
→
Copy and draw the image of the object under the translation GH.
(b)
Solution
→
(a) The translation GH
moves every point 4 units to the right and 2 units down.
(b) So the points A, B, C, D, E and F all move in this direction and this distance.
4 units to the right
G I
A B 2 units
down
C H
D A' B'
F E
D' C'
F' E'
Example
Identify the correct image of the object shown under the given translation.
Object
Image 1
Image 2 Image 3
Image 4
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Solution
Under the given translation of 2 units down and 3 units to the right, the correct
image is Image 2.
Object 2 units
down
Image 1
3 units
to the right
2 units
down
Image 2 Image 3
3 units
to the right
Image 4
Central symmetry
Central symmetry is the reflection of an object through a given point where the
image is the same distance on the other side of the given point.
Points to note
1 All points are projected through y
4
the point that the central
symmetry is constructed about. 3
2
2 The image points are the
1
same distance from the point 0
that central symmetry is –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
constructed about as the object
points. –2
–3
3 The image is always upside
–4
down and back to front compared
to the object.
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Example
Copy the triangle and construct the image of the triangle under
central symmetry through the origin.
y
5
4
3
2
1
0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
Solution y
5
Note the typical features of central B C 4
symmetry shown by this solution: 3
zzAll points are projected through 2
the origin. A 1
0
zzThe image points are the same –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2A' 3 4 5 x
–1
distance from the origin.
–2
zzThe image is always upside down
–3
and back to front compared to –4
the object. C' B'
–5
Example
Identify the correct image of the Image 1
object shown under central symmetry Image 4
Image 2
through the point A.
Point A
Image 3
Object
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Solution
The image of the object given under Image 1
central symmetry in the point A, Image 4
Image 2
is Image 2, as shown in the diagram.
Note: we only needed to find two
image points to identify the image
of the object. Point A
Image 3
Object
Axial symmetry
Axial symmetry is a reflection which flips the object over a line when compared
to the image. This image is also called a mirror image.
Points to note
1 The new image stays the same 4 A reflection can be thought of
size as the object. as ‘flipping’ an object over the
2 The points of the new image line of reflection.
are the same distance from
the axis as the object points.
3 The new image is a mirror
image of the object.
Axial symmetry across the x-axis
y The x values stay the same
4 and the y values change sign.
B 3 ABC → A′B′C′
A
2 (x, y) → (x, −y)
C
1 A(−3, 2) → A ′(−3, −2)
0 B(−1, 3) → B ′(−1, −3)
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–1 C(2, 1) → C ′(2, −1)
C'
–2
A'
–3
B'
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Axial symmetry across the y-axis
y The y values stay the same
6 and the x values change sign.
A A' ABC → A′B′C′
5
B 4 B' (x, y) → (−x, y)
3 A(−2, 5) → A ′(2, 5)
2 B(−4, 4) → B ′(4, 4)
1 C(−1, 1) → C ′(1, 1)
C C'
0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
Example
Draw the image of the given triangle under axial symmetry in the given axis.
C
axis
E D
Solution
C
axis
E D
D' C'
E'
Note the typical features of axial symmetry shown by this solution:
1 All points are projected perpendicularly over the line of axis given.
2 The image points are the same distance from the given axis.
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Rotations
A rotation is a transformation that turns an object about a fixed point called the
centre of rotation. The object and its rotation are the same shape and size, but
the object and image may be turned in different directions.
Clockwise rotation Anti-clockwise rotation
Points to note
1 The image remains the same y
size as the object. 5
F G 4 F'
2 The points of the image
are the same distance from 3
the point of rotation as the 2
H H' G'
object points. 1
0 α = 90°
3 The image rotates clockwise –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
or anti-clockwise but doesn’t
change the size or shape of
the object.
Example
Copy the coordinate diagram y
and construct the image of the given 5
object by a 90° clockwise rotation 4
about the origin. 3
2
1
0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
S –1
–2
–3
T –4
–5
U
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Solution
y
T' 5
4
3
S'
2
1
U' 0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
S –1
–2
–3
T –4
–5
U
Note the typical features of rotation shown by this solution:
1 The points of the image are the same distance from the origin (point of
rotation) as the object points.
2 The image is rotated 90° clockwise about the origin.
Example
A, B and C are images of the object given under a set transformation. For each image
state if the transformation is central symmetry, axial symmetry or a 90° rotation.
Object A B C
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Solution
Object A B C
Central symmetry 90° rotation Axial symmetry
Central symmetry Axial symmetry 90° rotation
90° rotation Axial symmetry Central symmetry
How to locate axes of symmetry and centres of
symmetry in simple shapes
Axes of symmetry
An axis of symmetry is a line that divides the object or image into two
symmetrical parts in such a way that the image on one side of the line is the
mirror image of the image on the other side of the line. Some examples are
shown in the table below.
Image with no axes Image with 1 axis of Image with 2 axes of Image with 4 axes of
of symmetry symmetry symmetry symmetry
When the shape is folded in half along the axis of symmetry, then the two
halves will match up exactly.
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Example
Copy each of the shapes given and draw in all axes of symmetry on each shape.
(a) (b) (c)
Solution
(a) (b) (c)
Note that a shape may have one, two, or more axes of symmetry, or of course none at all.
Centre of symmetry
The centre of symmetry is a point, within an object or image, such that when the
image is rotated 180° about this point, the image will be identical to the image in
its original position.
Test for centre of symmetry
To check if an object or image has a centre of symmetry:
1 Pick the point which you think is the centre of symmetry.
2 Rotate the image clockwise or anti-clockwise about the point by 180°.
3 If the image is exactly the same after rotation, then the object has a centre
of symmetry.
Example of an image with a centre of symmetry
Original position Position of the
of the card card after rotation
of 180°
A A When the Ace of diamonds
is rotated 180°, the resulting
image is identical to the image
before rotation.
Therefore the Ace of diamonds
has a centre of symmetry.
A A
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Example of an image with NO centre of symmetry
Original position Position of the
of the card card after rotation
of 180°
A A When the Ace of hearts is
rotated 180°, the resulting
image is not identical to the
image before rotation.
Therefore the Ace of hearts
does not have a centre of
A A symmetry.
Example
Identify which of the following images has a centre of symmetry.
6 7 9 10
6 7 9 10
Solution
6 7 9 10
6 7 9 10
1. Pick the point which you think is the centre of symmetry.
2. Rotate the image clockwise or anti-clockwise about the point by 180° degrees.
3. If the image is exactly the same after rotation, then the object has a centre of symmetry.
6 7 9 10
6 7 9 10
The image is not The image is not The image is The image is not
identical to the identical to the identical to the identical to the
object before object before object before object before
rotation. Therefore rotation. Therefore rotation. Therefore rotation. Therefore
the six of spades the seven of diamonds the nine of diamonds the ten of spades
does not have a does not have a does have a centre does not have a
centre of symmetry. centre of symmetry. of symmetry. centre of symmetry.
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Exercise
→
Q1 (a) Describe the translation AB
in the given diagram.
→
(b) Copy and draw the image of the object under the translation AB
.
A
C G
D
E F
Q2 Identify the correct image of the object shown under the given translation.
H
Object
Image 3 I
Image 2
Image 1
Q3 Copy the object and construct the image of the object under central
symmetry in the origin.
y
5
4 A F
3 E D
Object
2 B C
1
0
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
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Q4 Draw the image of the capital letter F under axial symmetry in the axis shown.
Axis
A Object B
D E
C
Q5 Identify the correct image of the object shown under central symmetry in
the point H.
Image 2
Image 1
Object
Image 3
Q6 (a) Copy the coordinate diagram (b) Copy the coordinate diagram
and construct the image of the and construct the image of the
given object by a rotation of 180° given object by a rotation of
clockwise about the origin. 90° in an anticlockwise motion
about the origin.
y y y A y A
5 5 5 5
C C4 4 4 4 D D
3 3 3 3
2 B2 B 2 2
1 1 1 1
A A0 0 0 0 C C
–5–1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –4 –3
0 1–2 2–1 3 0 41 52x 3 4–55–4 –5–1
x –3 –2 –4 –3
0 1–2 2–1 3 0 41 52x 3 4 5 x
–1 –1 –1 B –1 B
–2 –2 –2 –2
–3 –3 –3 –3
–4 –4 –4 –4
–5 –5 –5 –5
Q7 State the number of axes of symmetry for each shape given. Bear in mind
that a shape does not necessarily have an axis of symmetry.
(a) (b) (c)
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(d) (e) (f)
Q8 Each of the three figures labelled A, B and C are an image of the figure shown
in the box on the left under a transformation. For each of A, B and C, state
what the transformation is (translation, central symmetry, axial symmetry
or rotation) and, in the case of a rotation, state the angle.
A B C
(SEC 2007)
Q9 The coordinate diagram below shows the lines n, p, r and s.
s y p r n
Complete the following sentences. Write one of the letters n, p, r or s in each box.
(a) You can use a translation to map the line onto the line .
(b) You can use an axial symmetry in the y-axis to map the line onto
the line .
(c) The line is mapped onto itself under central symmetry in the
point (0, 0).
(SEC 2015)
Q10 Each of the three figures labelled A, B and C shown below is the image
of the figure X under a transformation. For each of A, B and C, state what
the transformation is (translation, central symmetry, axial symmetry or
rotation) and in the case of a rotation, state the angle.
X A B C
(SEC 2009)
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Functions 1 23
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
zzThe definition of a function
zzHow to identify a function
zzHow to solve function-based problems algebraically
zzHow to solve function-based problems, given the graph of a function.
Functions
One way of illustrating the concept of a function is the function machine.
We input something into the function machine, a rule is applied, and then
we get an output.
Function
→ Rule applied to →
Input Output
each input
Key Terminology
Word Meaning Example
Function A function is a special Input/Domain
relationship where a set
of inputs relates directly Function
to a set of outputs. f(x) = 2x
name
In particular, each input
corresponds only to one Output/Range
output.
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Word Meaning Example
Arrow Functions can be Input/Domain Output/Range
diagram or represented graphically
mapping on an arrow diagram. 3 6
diagram 5 10
Each input value
7 14
is mapped onto its
9 18
corresponding output
22
value.
Input/ The number that goes Domain = {3, 5, 7, 9}
Domain into the function is the
input value, also known
as the x value. The set of
input values is called the
domain.
Output/ The output or range is the Range = {6, 10, 14, 18}
Range resulting values from the
function that correspond to
each input value. These are
also known as the y values.
Couples A couple refers to the The function as a set of couples:
pairing of an input value { ( 3, 6 ), ( 5, 10 ), ( 7, 14 ), ( 9, 18 ) }
and its corresponding
output value as (x, y) for
a given function.
Codomain The codomain is the set Codomain = {6, 10, 14, 18, 22}
of all possible outputs for
the given function.
Function Functions can be written f (x) = 2x or f : x → 2x or y = 2x
notation in three different ways.
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Example
The arrow diagram represents the function g (x) = x2 − 2.
(a) List the set of elements in the domain. Input/Domain Output/Range
(b) List the set of elements in the range. 2
2
(c) List the set of elements in the codomain. –2
7
(d) Write the function as a set of couples. 3
8
–3
Solution
(a) The set of elements in the domain = { −3, −2, 2, 3 }.
(b) The set of elements in the range = { 2, 7 }.
(c) The set of elements in the codomain = { 2, 7, 8 }.
(d) The function as a set of couples = { ( 2, 2 ), ( −2, 2 ), ( 3, 7 ), ( −3, 7 ) }.
How to identify a function
Not all relationships represented on arrow diagrams are functions. A relationship
is a function only if each input value has one and only one output value.
Arrow diagram Function or not?
A Input/Domain Output/Range This is not a representation
of a function as one of the
input values has two different
corresponding outputs.
B Input/Domain Output/Range This is a representation of a
function as each input has one
and only one corresponding
output.
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C Input/Domain Output/Range This is not a representation of
a function as one of the input
values has no corresponding
output.
D Input/Domain Output/Range This is not a representation
of a function as one of the
input values has two different
corresponding outputs,
and one input value has no
corresponding output.
Solving function problems algebraically
When solving different function problems, we use the same techniques as we
use in algebra. Therefore it is important that you have successfully completed
Chapters 3 to 10 of this book first.
Example
Given that the arrow diagram represents the Input/Domain Output/Range
function h such that h : x → 6x − 4, x ∈,
find the values of a and b. 1 2
5 a
8 44
Solution b 62
To solve for a, given the input value of 5:
h : x → 6x − 4
h(x) = 6x − 4 Substitute x = 5 into the given function and solve.
h(5) = 6(5) − 4
h(5) = 30 − 4 = 26
∴ a = 26
To solve for b, given an output value of 62:
h : x → 6x − 4
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Solve using the rules of algebra:
h(b) = 6b − 4 = 62
6b = 62 + 4
6b = 66
___
6b ___66
=
6 6
b = 11
∴ b = 11
Example
The function g is defined as g : x → 4x − 2, x ∈ N.
(a) Find the value of g(3). (b) Find the value of x given that g(x) = 30.
Solution
(a) To find the value of g(3): (b) To find the value of x given that
g : x → 4x − 2 g(x) = 30 using the rules of algebra:
g(x) = 4x − 2 g(x) = 4x − 2 = 30
g(3) = 4(3) − 2 Substitute x = 3 into the 4x = 30 + 2
given function and solve. 4x = 32
g(3) = 12 − 2 = 10 x = 8
Example
If f (x) = x2 + 5, find the value of each of the following:
(a) f (2) (b) f (−3)
Express each of the following in terms of p.
(c) f ( p) (d) f ( p + 2)
Solution
(a) f (2) = ( 2 )2 + 5 Substitute x = 2 into (b) f (−3) = ( −3 )2 + 5 Substitute x = −3 into
the given function and the given function and
solve. solve.
f (2) = 4 + 5 = 9 f (−3) = 9 + 5 = 14
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(c) f ( p) = ( p )2 + 5 Substitute x = p into (d) Substitute x = p + 2 into the given function
the given function and simplify.
and simplify. f ( p + 2) = ( p + 2 )2 + 5
f ( p) = p + 5
2
= ( p + 2 )( p + 2 )+ 5
= p( p + 2 )+ 2( p + 2 )+ 5
= p2+ 2p + 2p + 4 + 5
= p2+ 4p + 9
Example
Let the functions g(x) and h(x) be defined as:
g : x → x2 + 2x − 4
h : x → 3x − 2
Find the value of x if g(x) = h(x).
Solution
g(x) = h(x) At the point of intersection the equations are equal.
x2 + 2x − 4 = 3x − 2
x2− x − 2 = 0 Factorise and solve for x.
( x − 2 )( x + 1 )= 0
∴ x = 2 or x = −1
Graphical representation of functions
Sometimes we are given the graphical representation of a function and asked to
solve a number of different types of questions.
Linear functions y
The y-intercept.
Linear functions are in the Solve f(0) = y.
form f (x) = ax + b, where a, b ∈ R.
A straight line on a graph
represents a linear function.
x
The x-intercept.
Solve f(x) = 0.
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Example Typical questions asked
Graph of the function f (x) = 2x + 4 1 Find the value of the
y y-intercept.
5 Solution
y intercept
4 Find the value of y such that
3 f (0) = y.
∴y=4
2
2 Find the value of the
1
x-intercept.
0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x Solution
–1 Find the value of x such that
x intercept
–2 f (x) = 0.
∴ x = −2
Quadratic functions
Quadratic functions are in the form f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c ∈ R.
A ∪-shaped or ∩-shaped curve on a graph represents a quadratic function.
Positive quadratic function Negative quadratic function
(•-shaped curve) (§-shaped curve)
f (x) = x2 − x − 2 f (x) = −x2 + x + 2
y y
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
–2 –1 0 1 2 x –2 –1 0 1 2 x
–1 –1
–2 –2
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Example Typical questions asked
Graph of the function f (x) = x 2 − 2x − 3 1 Find the values of the
y x-intercepts,
1 or:
0 Find the roots of the function.
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x Solution
–1 Find the values of x such that
The x-intercepts. f (x) = 0.
–2 Solve f(x) = 0. f (x) = x 2 − 2x − 3 = 0
–3 x2 − 2x − 3 = 0 Factorise.
The y-intercept. ( x − 3 )( x + 1 )= 0
–4 Solve f(0) = y. ∴ x = 3 or x = −1
The points of intersection
with the x-axis are ( −1, 0 )and
( 3, 0 ).
2 Find the value of the
y-intercept.
Solution
Find the value of y such that
f (0) = y.
f (x) = x 2 − 2x − 3
f (0) = ( 0 )2 − 2( 0 )− 3
f (0) = −3
The point of intersection with
the y-axis is ( 0, −3 ).
Graph of the function f (x) = x 2 + 2x − 4 1 Find the values of x such that
y f (x) = −3.
1 Solution
–2·4 0 0·4
Draw a horizontal line at the
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x
given value of f (x) = y.
–1
Where this line meets the
–2
curve, draw perpendicular
–3 lines to the x-axis to find the
corresponding y values.
–4
At f (x) = −3, the line intersects
–5
the curve at x = −2·4 and x = 0·4.
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Graph of the function f (x) = x 2 − 2x − 3 1 Find the values of f (−2).
y
(–2, 5) 5 Solution
Find the value of y such that
x = −2.
Draw a vertical line from
3 x = −2 until it meets
–2 x the curve. Then draw a
horizontal line until it
–3 meets the y-axis to find
(3, –3)
the corresponding y value.
f (−2) = 5
2 Find the value of f (3).
Solution
Find the value of y such that
x = 3.
Draw a vertical line from
x = 3 until it meets the curve.
Then, draw a horizontal line
until it meets the y-axis to
find the corresponding
y value. f (3) = −3
Graph of the function f (x) = x 2 − 2x − 1 1 What is value of the
y minimum point of the
function f (x) = x 2 − 2x − 1?
Solution
1 Draw a vertical line from the
x x-axis to the minimum point
on the curve. Then draw a
–2
horizontal line to the y-axis
Minimum value Minimum point to find the corresponding
y = –2 (1, –2) y value.
The minimum point is ( 1, −2 ).
2 What is the minimum value of
the function?
Solution
Draw a horizontal line to
the y-axis from the minimum
point on the curve.
Minimum value is y = −2.
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Graph of the function f (x) = −x2 − 2x + 3 1 What is the maximum point of
the function f (x) = −x2 − 2x + 3?
Maximum point y
(–1, 4) Solution
4 Draw a vertical line from the
Maximum value
y=4 x-axis to the maximum point
on the curve. Then draw a
horizontal line to the y-axis to
find the corresponding y value.
–1 x Maximum point is ( −1, 4 ).
2 What is the maximum value of
the function?
Solution
Draw a horizontal line to the
y-axis from the maximum
point on the curve.
Maximum value is y = 4.
Graph of the function f (x) = −x2 − 2x + 3 1 Write down the equation of
y the axis of symmetry of the
Axis of
symmetry function.
Solution
Draw a vertical line through
the maximum or minimum
point of the function.
The equation of the axis of
x symmetry is x = −1.
x = –1
y 1 Explain why this graph is not a
representation of a function.
Recall:
x zzA relationship is a function,
if each input value has one
and only one output value.
zzInput value = x-coordinate.
Output value = y-coordinate.
This graph does not represent a
function, as we can see that some
of the x-coordinates correspond
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Example
The function h is defined as f (x) = x2 + 3x − 2, x ∈ R. y
Use the graph to answer each of the following: 5
(a) Find the values of x such that f (x) = −3. 4
(b) Estimate the value of f (−2). 3
(c) What are the roots of the function? 2
(d) Estimate the minimum point of the function. 1
0
(e) Write down the equation of the axis of –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x
symmetry of the function. –1
–2
–3
–4
Solution
From the graph: y
Axis of 4
(a) To find the values of x, draw a horizontal symmetry
line at the given value of f (x) = −3. 3
Where this line meets the function, 2
draw perpendicular lines to the x-axis
to find the corresponding y values. 1
–2·6 –0·4
0
At f (x) = −3, the line intersects the
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x
curve at x = −2·6 and x = −0·4.
–1
(b) ‘Estimate the value of’ f (−2) means
‘Find the value of y such that x = −2’. –2
f(x) = –3
Draw a vertical line from x = −2 until it –3
meets the curve. Then draw a horizontal
–4
line until it meets the y-axis to find the
corresponding y value. f (−2) = −4
(c) ‘What are the roots of the function?’ means solve f (x) = x2+ 3x − 2 = 0.
The graph cuts the x-axis at x = −3·5 and x = 0·5.
(d) To estimate the minimum point of the function, draw a vertical line
from the x-axis to the minimum point on the curve. Then draw a
horizontal line to the y-axis to the corresponding y value.
Minimum point = ( −1·5, −4·2 )
(e) Draw a vertical line through the maximum or minimum point of the function.
The equation of the axis of symmetry of the graph is x = −1·5.
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Example
Let f be the function f (x) = x2 − 3x − 4 and h be the f(x) y
function h(x) = −x − 1 as shown on the graph.
h(x)
Find the coordinates of A, B, C and D on the graph.
B C x
Solution
A represents the y-intercept of the
function f (x) = x 2 − 3x − 4.
D
To find the value of the y-intercept, find the value A
of y such that f (0) = y:
f (x) = x2 − 3x − 4
f (0) = ( 0 )2 − 3( 0 )− 4
f (0) = −4
The point of intersection with the y-axis (A) is (0, −4).
B and C represent the roots or x-intercepts of the function f (x) = x2− 3x − 4.
Find the values of x such that f (x) = 0:
f (x) = x2 − 3x − 4 = 0
x 2 − 3x − 4 = 0 Factorise.
( x − 4 )( x + 1 )= 0
∴ x = 4 or x = −1
The points of intersection with the x-axis are C( 4, 0 )and B( −1, 0 ).
D represents one of the points of intersection of the two functions.
f (x) = h(x)
x 2 − 3x − 4 = −x − 1
x 2− 2x − 3 = 0
( x − 3 )( x + 1 )= 0
∴ x = 3 or x = −1
Now substitute x = 3 and x = −1 into f (x) or h(x) to solve for y.
h(x) = −x − 1
h(3) = −3 − 1 = −4
h(x) = −x − 1
h(−1) = −(−1) − 1 = 0
The points of intersection f (x) = h(x) are D( 3, −4 )and B( −1, 0 ).
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Example
Part of the graph of the function y = x2 + ax + b y
where a, b ∈Z is shown.
The points R(2, 3) and S(–5, –4) R(2, 3)
are on the curve.
x
(a) Use the given points to form two
equations in a and b. S(–5, –4)
(b) Solve your equations to find the value of a
and the value of b.
(c) Write down the coordinates of the point
where the curve crosses the y-axis.
(d) Find the points where the curve crosses the x-axis.
Give your answers correct to one decimal place.
(SEC 2015)
Solution
(a) Form two equations in a and b using the points given.
Given R(2, 3) satisfies Given S(−5, −4) satisfies
the equation y = x2 + ax + b, the equation y = x2 + ax + b,
substitute the point R into substitute the point S into
the equation: the equation:
y = x2 + ax + b y = x2 + ax + b
3 = (2)2+ a(2) + b −4 = (−5)2 + a(−5) + b
3 = 4 + 2a + b −4 = 25 − 5a + b
2a + b = −1 (1) 5a − b = 29 (2)
(b) Given two equations with two unknown variables, we use the simultaneous
equations method to solve for the two unknown variables a and b.
Add the two equations together to solve for one of the unknown variables.
2a + b = −1 (1)
+ 5a − b = 29 (2)
7a = 28
___
28
a = = 4
7
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Substitute a = 4 into Equation (1) or (2) to find the other unknown variable.
Using Equation (1):
2a + b = −1
2(4) + b = −1
8 + b = −1
b = −1 − 8
b = −9
Therefore the function is y = x2 + 4x − 9.
(c) The curve crosses the y-axis when x = 0.
y = x2 + 4x − 9
y = (0)2+ 4(0) − 9
y = −9
Therefore the coordinates of the point where the curve crosses the y-axis = (0, −9).
(d) The curve crosses the x-axis when y = 0.
y = x2 + 4x − 9
0 = x2+ 4x − 9
x2+ 4x − 9 = 0
Using the quadratic formula:
_______
−b ± √ b2 − 4ac
_____________
x =
Substitute a = 1, b = 4 and c = −9 into
2a
the quadratic formula.
____________
−(4) ± √ (4)2 − 4(1)(−9)
__________________
⇒ x =
2(1)
______
−4 ± √ 16 + 36
____________
⇒ x =
6___ ___
___ ___
52
−4 + √
________ −4 − √ 52
________
⇒ x = or x = Simplify √ 52 = 2√ 13 using a calculator.
2 2
___ ___
−4 + 2√ 13
_________ −4 − 2√ 13
__________
⇒ x = or x =
2 2
⇒ x = 1·6055... or x = −5·6055...
Therefore the curve crosses the x-axis at x = 1·6 and x = −5·6, correct to one
decimal place.
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Exercise
Q1 For each of the arrow diagrams B Input/Domain
Output/Range
given, state:
(a) The domain
(b) The codomain
(c) The range
(d) The set of couples for the
given function. C Input/Domain
Output/Range
A Input/Domain Output/Range
22
3
43
5
13
8
7
15
10
D Input/Domain Output/Range
B Input/Domain Output/Range
1 1
2 4
3 9
4 16 Q3 Given the arrow diagram
represents the function h such
C Input/Domain Output/Range that h : x → 10 − 2x, x ∈, find the
values of a and b.
–1 Input/Domain Output/Range
1
1
16 3 4
–4
8 11 a
4
15 –20
b 24
Q2 State whether or not each of
the following arrow diagrams Q4 Given the function f (x) = 5x + 7:
represents a function. Give a
(a) Find the value of each of the
reason for each answer.
following.
A Input/Domain Output/Range
(i) f (5) (ii) f (−5)
(b) Express each of the following
in terms of q.
(i) f (q) (ii) f (q − 4)
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Q5 The function h is defined as Q7 The diagram represents part of
h : x → 2x − 4, x ∈R. the function f (x) = −x2 + ax + b,
(a) Find the value of each of the x ∈ R and a, b ∈ Z.
following. y
(1, 6)
(i) h(−2) (ii) h(6) (iii) h(12)
(b) Find the value of x for each of
(3, 4)
the following given that:
(i) h(x) = 2 (ii) h(x) = −14
(iii) h(x) = −3
Q6 The function f is defined as
f (x) = −x2 + x + 6, x ∈R. x
y
6 Find the value of a and the
5 value of b.
4 Q8 The diagram shows part of the
3 graph of the function
f : x £→ x2− 2x − 8, x ∈ Z.
2
y
1
0
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2 A B x
Use the graph to answer each of
the following:
(a) Find the value(s) of x such
C
that f (x) = 4.
(b) Estimate the value of f (1).
The graph intersects the x-axis at
A and B, and the y-axis at C.
(c) What are the roots of the
function? Find the coordinates of A, B and C.
(d) Estimate the maximum point
Q9 Give a reason why the graph below
of the function. does not represent a function of x.
(e) Write down the equation of
the axis of symmetry of the
function.
(SEC 2015)
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Functions 2 24
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
� How to graph linear, quadratic and exponential functions
� How to solve questions based on the constructed graph
� How to transform linear, quadratic and exponential graphs.
Graphing linear, quadratic and exponential functions
Linear graphs
Linear functions are in the form f (x) = ax + b, where a, b ∈ℤ, x ∈ℝ.
Link
RW Book 2 Chapter 9 Coordinate Geometry of the Line
Graphical representations of linear functions always form a straight line.
If a > 0, then the graph is increasing. For example: the function f (x) = x + 2,
in the domain −4 ≤ x ≤ 4 as shown below.
y
5
4
3
The y-intercept.
The x-intercept. 2 Solve f(0).
Solve f(x) = 0.
1
0
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
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If a < 0, then the graph is decreasing. For example: the function f (x) = −x + 2,
in the domain −4 ≤ x ≤ 4 is shown below.
y
5
4
3
The x-intercept.
The y-intercept. Solve f(x) = 0.
2
Solve f(0).
1
0
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
Top Tip
When graphing a linear function, we need a minimum of two points that
satisfy the function.
We can find these points using either of these two methods:
Method 1
Solve for:
1 (0, y ) by setting x = 0, to find y = f (0).
This means let x = 0 and find the corresponding y value by
substituting into the given function.
2 (x, 0) by setting y = f (x) = 0 and solve for x.
This means let y = 0 and find the corresponding x value by
substituting into the given function.
Note: We could use any two points that satisfy the graphed function.
Method 2
1 Set up a table with the following headings and complete for the given
domain.
Domain Function Range Coordinates
x f (x) = ax + b y (x, y)
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Note: you can use the table mode on your calculator to check all values.
2 Plot these points on an x–y graph in the given domain.
3 Draw in the line joining these points (extending the line in both
directions).
Example
(a) Graph the functions f : x → −2 x + 7 and g : x → x − 2 using the same axes
and scale, in the domain −1 ≤ x ≤ 6.
(b) From your graph, estimate each of the following:
(i) g(4)
(ii) f (x) = 3
(iii) Estimate the value of x such that f (x) = g (x).
Solution
(a) We need a minimum of two points that satisfy the function f : x → −2x + 7.
Using Method 1:
1 Solve for (0, y) by setting x = 0, 2 Solve for (x, 0) by setting
to find y = f (0). y = f (x) = 0 and solve for x.
f : x → −2x + 7 f (x) = −2x + 7 = 0
f (x) = −2x + 7 −2x + 7 = 0
f (0) = −2(0) + 7 −2x = −7
f (0) = 7 x = 3·5
Therefore, the 1st coordinate Therefore, the 2nd coordinate
is (0, 7). is (3·5, 0).
The function g : x → x − 2 using Method 2:
1 Create a table and complete for the given domain.
Domain g(x) = x − 2 Range Coordinates
−1 (−1) − 2 −3 (−1, −3)
0 (0) − 2 −2 (0, −2)
1 (1) − 2 −1 (1, −1)
2 (2) − 2 0 (2, 0)
3 (3) − 2 1 (3, 1)
4 (4) − 2 2 (4, 2)
5 (5) − 2 3 (5, 3)
6 (6) − 2 4 (6, 4)
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2 Plot these points on an x–y graph for the given domain.
3
Draw in the line joining these points (extending the line in both directions).
y
10
8
f(x)
6
g(x)
4
2
0
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–2
–4
(b) y
10
8
f(x)
6
g(x)
4 f(2) = 3
2 R g(4) = 2
0
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–2
–4
(i) g (4) means find the value of y when x = 4.
g (4) = 2
(ii) f (x) = 3 means find where the function cuts the line y = 3.
f (2) = 3
(iii) f (x) = g(x) means find the point of intersection, R, of the two functions.
R is (3, 1).
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Quadratic graphs
Quadratic functions are in the form f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c, where a, b, c ∈ ℤ, x ∈ ℝ.
Graphical representations of quadratic functions
If a > 0, the graph will always have a minimum point, so it will be ∪-shaped.
For example, the graph of the function f (x) = x 2 − 4x − 5 in the domain −3 ≤ x ≤ 6
is shown below.
y
10
8 The x-intercepts.
Solve f(x) = 0.
6
4
2
(–1, 0) 0 (5, 0)
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–2
–4
(0, –5)
–6
–8
The y-intercept.
(2, –9)
Solve f(0). Minimum point
If a < 0, the graph will always have a maximum point, so it will be ∩-shaped.
For example, the graph of the function f (x) = −x2 − 4x + 5, in the domain −6 ≤ x ≤ 3
is shown below.
y
12
Maximum point
10 The y-intercept.
Solve f(0).
(–2, 9) 8
6
(0, 5)
4
2
(–5, 0) 0 (1, 0)
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–2
The x-intercepts. –4
Solve f(x) = 0. –6
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Top Tip
When graphing a quadratic function, we generally follow these steps:
1 Set up a table using the following headings and complete for the
given domain.
Domain Function Range Coordinates
x f (x) = ax2 + bx + c y (x, y)
2 Plot these points on an x–y graph (use an appropriate scale).
3 Draw in the curve by joining these points (extending the curve in
both directions).
Example
The function h is defined as h : x → x2 − 2x − 3.
(a) Draw a graph of the function in the domain −2 ≤ x ≤ 4.
(b) From your graph, estimate:
(i) The values of x for which h(x) = 3
(ii) The value of h(2)
(iii) The coordinates of the minimum point of the function
(iv) The values of the roots of the function
(v) The values of x such that h(x) > 0
(vi) The values of x such that h(x) < 0.
Solution
(a) y
Domain h(x) = x 2 − 2x − 3 Range Coordinates 6
−2 (−2)2 − 2(−2) − 3 5 (−2, 5) 5
4
−1 (−1)2 − 2(−1) − 3 0 (−1, 0)
3
0 (0)2 − 2(0) − 3 −3 (0, −3) 2
1
1 (1)2 − 2(1) − 3 −4 (1, −4) 0
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
2 (2)2 − 2(2) − 3 −3 (2, −3)
–2
3 (3)2 − 2(3) − 3 0 (3, 0) –3
–4
4 (4)2 − 2(4) − 3 5 (4, 5)
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(b) (i) h (x) = 3 means where the graph y
cuts the line y = 3. 6
∴ h(x) = 3 at x = −1·7 and x = 3·7.
5
h(2) means find the value of y
(ii) 4
when x = 2. y=3
3
h(2) = −3
(iii) The minimum point of the 2
function is the lowest point of 1
the graph, which is (1, −4). (–1·7, 0) 0 (3·7, 0)
(iv) The roots of the function are –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
where the function cuts the –1
x-axis at h(x) = 0. –2
The roots of the function are h(2) = –3
–3
x = −1 and x = 3.
–4
h(x) > 0 means the values of x
(v) (1, –4)
where the function is above the
x-axis (i.e. when y is greater than 0).
x < −1 or x > 3, which can also be written as −1 > x > 3.
(vi) h(x) < 0 means the values of x where the function is below the x-axis.
x > −1 or x < 3, which can also be written as −1 < x < 3.
Using graphs to solve inequalities
The graph of f (x) = x2 − 2x − 8, in the domain −6 ≤ x ≤ 10 is shown.
1 Find the values of f (x) > 0. y
f (x) > 0 means where the graph
6
is above the x-axis (illustrated by f(x) > 0 f(x) > 0
4
the green shaded areas). 2
This is when x < −2 or x > 4, which
(–2, 0) 0 (4, 0)
can also be written as −2 > x > 4. –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 x
–2
2 Find the values of f (x) < 0. f(x) < 0
–4
f (x) < 0 means where the graph is
–6
below the x-axis (illustrated by the
pink shaded area). –8
This is when x > −2 or x < 4, which
–10
can also be written as −2 < x < 4.
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The graphs of f (x) = x 2 − 2x − 8 and g(x) = −2x − 4 are shown below.
1 f (x) > g(x) means the values of x where y
f (x) is greater than g(x), as illustrated by f(x)
6
the green shaded areas of the graph. 4 f(x) > g(x)
This occurs when x < −2 or x > 2,
g(x)
2
which can also be written as −2 > x > 2. (–2, 0) 0 (4, 0)
2 f (x) < g(x) means the values of x where –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 x
–2
f (x) is less than g(x), as illustrated by
the pink shaded area of the graph. –4
f(x) > g(x)
This occurs when x > −2 or x < 2,
–6
which can also be written as −2 < x < 2. –8 (2, –8)
–10
f(x) < g(x)
Example
Let f be the function f : x → 2x + 3 and g be the function g : x → −x2 + 2x + 7.
(a) Using the same axes and scale, draw the graph of f and the graph of g,
for −2 ≤ x ≤ 4, x ∈ℝ.
(b) Use your graphs to estimate:
(i) the maximum point of g(x)
(ii) the values of x such that f (x) = g(x)
(iii) the values of x such that g(x) > f (x).
Solution
(a) We need a minimum of two points that satisfy the function f : x → 2x + 3.
Solve for (0, y) by setting x = 0, Solve for (x, 0) by setting y = f (x) = 0
to find y = f (0). and solve for x.
f : x → 2x + 3 f : x → 2x + 3
f (x) = 2x + 3 f (x) = 2x + 3 = 0
f (0) = 2(0) + 3 2x + 3 = 0
f (0) = 3 2x = −3
First point = (0, 3)
−3
___
x = = −1·5
2
Second point = (−1·5, 0)
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Set up a table for the function g(x) = −x2 + 2 x + 7:
y
Domain g(x) = −x 2 + 2x + 7 Range Coordinates 9 f(x)
−2 −(−2)2 + 2(−2) + 7 −1 (−2, −1) 8
7
−1 −(−1)2 + 2(−1) + 7 4 (−1, 4)
6
0 −(0)2 + 2(0) + 7 7 (0, 7) 5
4
1 −(1)2 + 2(1) + 7 8 (1, 8) 3
g(x) 2
2 −(2)2 + 2(2) + 7 7 (2, 7) 1
0
3 −(3)2 + 2(3) + 7 4 (3, 4) –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
4 −(4)2 + 2(4) + 7 −1 (4, −1) –2
(b) y (i) The maximum point of g(x) is (1, 8).
f(x)
9 f (x) = g(x) means find the points of
(ii)
(1, 8)
8 intersection of the two functions.
7 g(x) > f(x) The points of intersection are
(−2, −1) and (2, 7).
6
g(x) g(x) > f (x) means find the values
(iii)
5 of x where f (x) is less than g (x)
4 (illustrated by the pink shaded
area of the graph).
3
Answer: −2 < x < 2
2
1
0
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
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Exponential graphs
Exponential functions
An exponential function is a function whose value is a constant raised to the
power of x.
On the Junior Certificate course we will focus on exponential functions in the
form f (x) = a(2x) or f (x) = a(3x), where a ∈ℕ, x ∈ℝ.
Exponential graphs
For exponential functions on the Junior Certificate course, an exponential
graph will always:
y
1 Pass through the point (0, a)
2 Stay above the x-axis
3 Have an upward slope.
(0, a)
Top Tip
When graphing an exponential function, we generally follow these steps:
1 Set up and complete a table, solving the function f (x ) = a(2x ) or
f (x) = a(3x ) , for a given domain / values of x.
Domain Function Range Coordinates
x f (x) = a(2x ) or y (x, y)
f (x) = a(3x )
2 Plot these points on an x–y graph (use an appropriate scale).
3 Draw in the curve joining these points (extending the curve in both
directions, making sure not to go below the x-axis).
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Example
Draw a graph of the function p(x) = 2x, in the domain −3 < x < 3.
Solution
Set up and complete a table in the given domain.
y
Domain f (x) = 2x Range Coordinates
8
−3 2−3
__
1
8 ( ) __
1
−3,
8
7
( )
__ 1 __
1 6
−2 2−2 −2,
4 4 5
−1 2−1
__1
2 ( ) __
1
−1,
2
4
3
0 20 1 (0, 1)
2
1 21 2 (1, 2) 1
0
2 22 4 (2, 4) –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
3 23 8 (3, 8)
Transformations of linear, quadratic and
exponential graphs
Transformations involve taking a parent function (original function) and moving
it in some way to produce a new image.
Transformations of a linear function
Linear functions are in the form f (x) = ax + b, where a, b ∈ℤ, x ∈ℝ.
Vertical shift
The new function will shift up or down the graph depending on its y-intercept
and it will be parallel to the original linear function.
The function will:
1 Shift vertically up if the constant is positive.
In general, if y = f (x), then y = f (x) + n, where n ∈ℝ, means the function
y = f (x) will move vertically up by n units.
2 Shift vertically down if the constant is a negative.
In general, if y = f (x), then y = f (x) − n, where n ∈ℝ, means the function
y = f (x) will move vertically down by n units.
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Example
Copy the graph of the function y = f (x) in the y
6
domain −4 < x < 4, and on the same graph
sketch the following translations: 5
4
(a) f (x) + 4 (b) f (x) − 3 f(x)
3
2
1
0
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
–3
Solution
(a) The function y = f (x) will move vertically y
up by 4 units and it will be parallel to 6
the original function. 5
(b) The function y = f (x) will move vertically 4
f(x)
down by 3 units and it will be parallel 3
f(x) + 4 f(x) – 3
to the original function. 2
1
0
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
–3
Transformations of a quadratic function
Quadratic functions are in the form f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c ∈ℤ, x ∈ℝ.
Vertical shift
When we add or subtract a constant to a quadratic function, the graph will
remain the same shape but will:
1 Shift up if the constant is positive.
In general, if y = f (x), then y = f (x) + n, where n ∈ℝ, means the function
y = f (x) will move vertically up by n units.
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2 Shift down if the constant is a negative.
In general, if y = f (x), then y = f (x) − n, where n ∈ℝ, means the function
y = f (x) will move vertically down by n units.
Example
Copy the graph of the function y = f ( x), y
in the domain −3 < x < 4 and on the same 3
graph sketch the following translations:
2
(a) f (x) + 5 1
(b) f (x) − 2 0
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2 f(x)
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
Solution
(a) Sketch f (x) + 5, means the function y
y = f (x) will move vertically up 3
by 5 units and will remain
2
the same shape.
1 f(x) + 5
(b) Sketch f (x) − 2, means the function
0
y = f (x) will move vertically down
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
by 2 units and will remain the
–1
same shape.
–2
f(x)
–3
–4
f(x) – 2
–5
–6
–7
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Horizontal shift
When we add or subtract a constant to the input of a quadratic function,
the graph will remain the same shape but will:
1 Shift to the left, if the constant is positive.
In general, if y = f (x), then y = f (x + n), where n ∈ℝ, means the function
y = f (x) will move horizontally to the left by n units.
2 Shift to the right, if the constant is a negative.
In general, if y = f (x), then y = f (x − n), where n ∈ℝ, means the function
y = f (x) will move horizontally to the right by n units.
Example
Copy the graph of the function y = f (x) and on the same graph sketch the following
translations: y
(a) f (x + 3) 2
(b) f (x − 2) 1
0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
f(x)
–3
Solution
(a) The function y = f (x) will move y
horizontally to the left by 2
3 units. 1
(b) The function y = f (x) will 0
move horizontally to the –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
right by 2 units. –1
–2
f(x + 3) f(x) f(x – 2)
–3
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Exercise
Q1 (a) Graph the functions f : x → 4x + 8 and g : x → −x − 2 using the same axes
and scale, in the domain −1 ≤ x ≤ 6.
(b) From your graphs, estimate each of the following:
(i) The values of g such that g(x) = 2
(ii) f (−4)
(iii) The value of x, such that f (x) = g(x).
Q2 Let h be the function h : x → −x + 3, and g be the function g : x → − x2 + 4x + 3.
(a) Using the same axes and scale, draw the graph of h and the graph of g,
for −2 ≤ x ≤ 6, x ∈ℝ.
(b) Use your graph to estimate:
(i) the maximum point of g(x)
(ii) the values of x such that h(x) = g(x)
(iii) the values of x such that h(x) ≤ g(x).
Q3 Draw a graph of the function q(x) = 2(3x), in the domain −2 ≤ x ≤ 1, x ∈ℝ.
Q4 Copy the graph of the function y
y = g(x) in the domain −3 < x < 4, and 12
on the same graph sketch the following 10
translations: 8
(a) g(x) − 5 g(x)
6
(b) g(x) + 3 4
2
0
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–2
Q5 Copy the graph of the function y = q(x) y
in the domain −3 < x < 3, and on the same 8
graph sketch the following translations: 6
(a) q(x) − 4 4
q(x)
(b) q(x) + 4 2
0
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–2
–4
–6
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Q6 Copy the graph of the y
function y = f (x), and on 2
the same graph sketch
1
the following translations: 0
(a) f (x − 3) –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
(b) f (x + 2) –1
–2
f(x)
–3
Q7 (a) Let f be the function f : x → 5x − 4, and g be the function g: x → 3x + 1.
Using the same axes and scale, draw the graph of f and the graph of g,
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 3, x ∈ℝ.
(b) From your graphs, write down the coordinates of the point of
intersection of the two lines.
Q8 Let f be the function f (x) = 2x2 + x − 15.
(a) Draw the graph of f for −4 ≤ x ≤ 3, x ∈ℝ.
(b) Use your graph to find the minimum value of f (x).
(c) Use your graph to find the range of values of x for which f (x) ≥ 0.
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Patterns 25
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
� Patterns and number sequences
� How to recognise linear, quadratic and exponential patterns
� How to represent patterns using tables, diagrams and graphs
� How to generate arithmetic expressions from repeating patterns
� How to generate formulae from patterns or terms in a sequence.
Patterns
Point to note
A pattern is a set of objects, numbers, letters, shapes, pictures, symbols or
diagrams which repeat in a set way.
Example
Complete the following patterns:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d) Mary, Paul, Peter, Sean, Mary, , Peter,
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Solution
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d) Mary, Paul, Peter, Sean, Mary, Paul, Peter, Sean
Example
A four-shape repeating pattern is shown below:
(a) If the pattern continued, what would the 12th shape be?
(b) If the pattern continued, what would the 130th shape be?
(c) If the pattern continued, what would the 53rd shape be?
(d) If the pattern continued, what would the 963rd shape be?
Solution
The pattern repeats every 4th shape, so the pattern shape is found from the remainder:
Remainder Shape 12
___
(a) = 3. There is no remainder, so the shape is .
4
1
__ 130 2
____ __
4 (b) = 32 . The shape is .
4 4
2
__ 53
___ 1
__
(c) = 13 . The shape is .
4 4 4
963
____ 3
__
3
__ (d) = 240 . The shape is .
4 4
4
Link
0 Chapter 1: Number
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Example
In a number pyramid we add the two
numbers in the lower blocks to find
the number in the block above.
Complete the number pyramid by filling
in the empty spaces.
54
Solution
Start from the bottom row of blocks 27 16
and work up to the top of the pyramid.
13 14 13 3 16
175 97 + 78 = 175
97 78 54 + 43 = 97 and 43 + 35 = 78
54 43 35 27 + 16 = 43 and 16 + 19 = 35
27 27 16 19 14 + 13 = 27 and 3 + 16 = 19
13 14 13 3 16 Link
Chapter 1: Number
Number sequences
Points to note
A number sequence is a pattern of numbers given in a definite order and
connected by some rule.
A linear/arithmetic sequence is a sequence where:
zzeach term after the first term is found by adding or subtracting a constant
zzthe first difference is a constant value, d. The value of d is found from:
Any term − previous term = Tn − Tn − 1
=d
general term can be found using the formula: Tn = a + (n − 1)d
zzthe
(given in the Formulae and Tables booklet), where: Tn = nth term,
a = first term, n = term number and d = common difference.
Example: 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16…
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A quadratic sequence is a sequence where:
zzthe nth term contains n
2as the highest power
zzthe general form is Tn = an2 + bn + c, where a, b, c ∈ ℝ
zzthesecond difference is a constant value
second difference
zzthe value of a is: a = ______________
.
2
Example: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36…
An exponential sequence is a sequence where:
zzthe nth term contains n as the highest power, e.g. a n
zzthe general form is Tn = ar n − 1, where a, r, n ∈ ℝ
zzeachconsecutive term can be found by multiplying the previous term by
a constant.
Example: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64…
Note: The Junior Certificate course only examines doubling and trebling
exponential sequences.
Example
(a) Complete the following number sequences:
(i) 103, 93, 83, , 63, , , 33
(ii) 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, , 27,
(iii) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, , 64, , 256
(iv) 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, , 13, 21,
(v) 1, 4, 9, 16, , 36, 49, , 81
(vi) 1, 3, __, 27, 81, , 729
(b) Hence, state whether each sequence is linear, quadratic, exponential or none
of these.
Solution
(a) (i) 103, 93, 83, 73, 63, 53, 43, 33 Starting with 103, subtract 10 to get the
next number.
(ii) 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30 Starting with 3, add 3 to get the next
number.
(iii) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 Starting with 1, multiply by 2 to get the
next number.
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(iv) 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,
13, 21, 34 Add the two previous numbers together
to get the next number.
(v) 1, 4, 9, 16, 25,
36, 49, 64, 81 Square each consecutive natural number
to get the terms in the sequence.
(vi) 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729 Starting with 1, multiply by 3 to get the
next number.
(b) Sequences (i) and (ii) are linear or arithmetic sequences, as we add or subtract
the same number each time.
Sequences (iii) and (vi) are exponential sequences, as we multiply each consecutive
term by 2 and 3, respectively. Sequence (iii) is 2n − 1
and sequence (vi) is 3 n − 1
.
Sequence (iv) is neither linear, quadratic nor exponential. The numbers in this
sequence are called the Fibonacci numbers and they are found by adding the
two previous numbers together to get the next one.
Link
Sequence (v) is a quadratic sequence, as each
term is found by squaring each natural number. Chapter 1: Number
Chapter 14: Functions 2
Example
List the first three terms of each sequence:
1
__
(a) Tn = 3n − 1 Tn= n2 + 2n − 5
(b) Tn= (3n)
(c)
2
Solution
1
(a) Tn = 3n − 1 (b) Tn = n 2 + 2n − 5 (c) Tn = __
(3n )
2
n = 1 ⇒ T1 = 3(1) − 1
n = 1 ⇒ T1 = (1)2 + 2(1) − 5 1
n = 1 ⇒ T1 = __
(31)
⇒ T1 = 3 − 1
⇒ T1 = 1 + 2 − 5 2
⇒ T1 = 2 ⇒ T1 = −2 3
⇒ T1 = __
2
n = 2 ⇒ T2 = 3(2) − 1 n = 2 ⇒ T2 = (2)2 + 2(2) − 5
1
⇒ T2 = 6 − 1 ⇒ T2 = 4 + 4 − 5 n = 2 ⇒ T2 = __
(32)
2
⇒ T2 = 5 ⇒ T2 = 3 9
⇒ T2 = __
n = 3 ⇒ T3 = 3(3) − 1 n = 3 ⇒ T3 = (3) + 2(3) − 5
2 2
1
⇒T 3 = 9 − 1 ⇒ T3= 9 + 6 − 5 n = 3 ⇒ T3 = __
(33)
2
⇒ T3 = 8 ⇒ T3 = 10
27
Answer: 2, 5, 8 Answer: −2, 3, 10
⇒ T3 = ___
2
3 9 27
Link Answer: __
, __
2 2 2
, ___
Chapter 3: Algebra 1
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How to recognise and represent linear, quadratic
and exponential patterns
Points to note
To recognise linear, quadratic and exponential patterns using differencing:
Pattern type How to recognise this pattern type
Linear First difference is constant.
Quadratic Second difference is constant.
Exponential Each consecutive term is multiplied by a common factor.
Example
Fiona finds the volumes of five different cylinders. Each has a height of K centimetres.
(a) Complete the table to show the volume of each of the five cylinders.
Give each answer in terms of π and K.
Radius of cylinder Height of cylinder Volume of cylinder
(cm) (cm) (cm3)
1 K
2 K
3 K 9πK
4 K
5 K
(b) Is the sequence of volumes in the table linear, quadratic, exponential, or none
of these? Justify your answer fully.
(SEC 2016)
Solution
(a) The formula for the volume of a cylinder is given in the Formulae and Tables
booklet as V = π r2 h.
Radius of cylinder Height of cylinder Volume of cylinder
(cm) (cm) (cm3)
1 K 1πK
2 K 4πK
3 K 9πK
4 K 16πK
5 K 25πK
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(b) Radius of Height of Volume of First Second
cylinder cylinder cylinder difference difference
(cm) (cm) (cm3)
1 K 1πK
2 K 4πK 3πK
3 K 9πK 5πK 2πK
4 K 16πK 7πK 2πK
5 K 25πK 9πK 2πK
The sequence of volumes of the cylinder:
zzis not linear as the first difference is not constant
zzis quadratic as the second difference is constant
zzis not exponential as each consecutive term is not multipled by a constant,
thus each term in the sequence cannot be written in the form an .
Link
RW2 Chapter 13: Applied Measure
Point to note
A question on patterns was examined in both Papers 1 and 2 in 2016.
How to recognise linear, quadratic or
exponential patterns from a graph
If a pattern is:
zzlinear, the graph will be a straight line.
zzquadratic, the graph will be a curve/parabola. It will either be ‘∪-shaped’
or ‘∩-shaped’ and will be symmetrical about the maximum/minimum
turning point.
y
zzexponential, then the graph will be a
curve where the slope will begin less Quadratic
steep and get increasingly steeper as function
the value of x increases, or the slope
will start off steep and get less steep
as the value of x increases.
Linear
Each sequence type is shown on the graph. Exponential function
function
x
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Example
Three experiments on temperature are
done in the science lab. Pupils record 35
Graph 1
and plot the temperature of each
Temperature in °C
30
experiment each hour, for five hours.
25
In experiment A, the temperature
20
doubles every hour. In experiment B,
the temperature increases by 2° 15 Graph 2
every hour. In experiment C, the 10
Graph 3
temperature increases by 3° each 5
hour for three hours and then 0
remains constant. Identify each 1 2 3 4 5
Time in hours
experiment by its number.
Experiment Graph
A
B
C
Solution
zzIn experiment A, the temperature doubles every hour. This indicates that the
pattern is exponential. The exponential graph is Graph 1.
zzIn experiment B, the temperature increases by 2° every hour. This indicates that
the pattern is linear. The linear graph is Graph 3.
zzIn experiment C, the temperature increases by 3° each hour for three hours and
then remains constant. This indicates that the pattern is linear for three hours
and then the temperature remains constant (the same). The graph which is
linear for the first three hours and then stops increasing (flattens) thereafter is
Graph 2.
Experiment Graph
A 1
B 3
C 2
(SEC 2012)
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Generating formulae from repeating patterns
Example
The following patterns are made of toothpicks.
(a) Draw pattern 4.
L ook at the pattern of the toothpicks.
(b) How many extra toothpicks do you add each time?
(c) Complete this sentence: ‘One rule for the number of toothpicks in a pattern
is to start with 4 and add toothpicks for every additional term.’
(d) How many toothpicks will there be in pattern 6?
(e) How many toothpicks will there be in pattern 10?
(f) How many toothpicks will there be in pattern 100?
(g) Can you give a rule for the number of toothpicks if you are given
any pattern number?
(h) What is the pattern in symbols? Let m = number of toothpicks and
n = the pattern number.
(i) Copy and complete this table:
Toothpicks
Pattern number
Number Pattern
1
2
3
4
Any number
50
200
(j) Sarah suggested that another rule for the toothpicks is: ‘3 times the number of
the pattern and add 1.’ Verify this for the first four patterns. Is it true?
(k) Peter used 34 toothpicks to make a pattern. Find the number of the pattern.
Solution
(a) Pattern 4:
(b) Add 3 toothpicks each time.
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(c) One rule for the number of toothpicks in a pattern is to start with 4 and
add 3 toothpicks for every additional term.
(d) 4 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 19 toothpicks in pattern 6.
(e) 4 + 9(3) = 4 + 27 = 31 toothpicks in pattern 10.
(f) 4 + (100 − 1)(3) = 4 + (99)(3) = 4 + 297 = 301 toothpicks in pattern 100.
(g) Rule: number of toothpicks = 4 + 3 × (number of the pattern less 1).
(h) Rule using symbols: m = 4 + 3(n − 1).
(i) Pattern Toothpicks
number Number Pattern
1 4 4
2 7 4+3
3 10 4+3+3
4 13 4+3+3+3
Any number, n 4 + 3(n −1) 4 + 3 × (number of the pattern less 1)
50 151 4 + (3 × 49) = 151
200 601 4 + (3 × 199) = 601
(j) Check to see if Sarah’s rule works for the first 4 patterns.
Number of toothpicks using
Actual Sarah’s rule:
Pattern
number of
number ‘3 times the number of the pattern and
toothpicks
add 1’
1 4 3(1) + 1 = 4
2 7 3(2) + 1 = 7
3 10 3(3) + 1 = 10
4 13 3(4) + 1 = 13
Sarah’s rule works for the first four patterns, so it is true.
(k) Let m = 34 (number of toothpicks) and n = the pattern number.
m = 4 + 3(n − 1)
Substitute m = 34 into the formula and expand the RHS.
⇒
34 = 4 + 3n − 3
⇒
34 = 1 + 3n Subtract 1 from both sides.
⇒ 34 − 1 = 3n
⇒
33 = 3n Divide by 3.
___
33
⇒ n = = 11
3
The pattern number is 11.
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Example
The first five numbers in a pattern of numbers Term Number
are given in the table.
T1 13
(a) (i) Follow the pattern in the table to write
the next three numbers into the table. T2 15
(ii) Use the data in the table to show that T3 19
the pattern is quadratic. T4 25
(b) Tn = n2 + bn + c, where b, c ∈ ℤ. Find the T5 33
values of b and c.
T6
Solution T7
(a) (i) To fill in the table: T8
zzInsert two columns and label them:
‘First difference’ and ‘Second difference’.
zzFind the first and second differences.
zzFind the values of T6, T7and T8.
Term Number First Second
difference difference
T1 13
T2 15 +2
T3 19 +4 +2
T4 25 +6 +2
T5 33 +8 +2
33 + 10 = 43
T6 43 +10 +2
43 + 12 = 55
T7 55 +12 +2
55 + 14 = 69
T8 69 +14 +2
(ii) The pattern is quadratic as the second difference is constant, as shown
in the table.
(b) The sequence is of the form Tn = n 2 + bn + c, where the values of b and c need
to be found.
_______________
second difference __ 2
Note: a = = = 1. This shows that the coefficient of n2 is 1.
2 2
Use the information given in the table and Tn = n2 + bn + c to write two
equations in b and c.
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For equation 1: For equation 2:
Substitute T1 = 13 and n = 1. 2 = 15 and n = 2.
Substitute T
(1)2 + b(1) + c = 13 (2)2 + b(2) + c = 15
⇒ b + c = 12 (1) ⇒ 4 + 2b + c = 15
⇒ 2b + c = 11 (2)
zz Solve the simultaneous equations, to find the values of b and c.
zz Eliminate c : equation (1) × −1, plus equation (2):
−b − c = −12 (1) × −1
+ 2b + c = 11 (2)
b = −1
zzFind the value of c:
b + c = 12
Substitute b = −1 into equation (1).
⇒ −1 + c = 12
⇒ c = 12 + 1
⇒
c = 13
The quadratic sequence is of the form Tn = n2 − n + 13.
Exercise
Q1 List the next three terms in each pattern below:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Q2 For each of the sequences below:
(a) List the next term in the sequence.
(b) Write down the 10th term in the sequence.
(c) Write down the general formula for the nth term.
(d) State whether the sequence is linear, quadratic, exponential or none
of these.
(i) 11, 22, 33, 44, … (iii) 1, 4, 9, 16, …
(ii) 3, 7, 11, 15, … (iv) 2, 4, 8, 16, …
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Q3 A four-card repeating pattern is shown below, where the Ace represents the
number 1:
A 2 4 8 A 2 4 8
A 2 4 8 A 2 4 8
(a) Describe how the pattern repeats in words.
(b) Predict the 9th card if this pattern continues.
(c) Predict the 16th card if this pattern continues.
(d) Predict the 202nd card if this pattern continues.
(e) Predict the 503rd card if this pattern continues.
Q4 In the 100-square grid here, some of the squares are coloured green.
(a) Copy the grid and continue the pattern.
(b) Counting the grid from left to right,
write down the numbers that represent
the green squares.
(c) I n words, write down what you notice
about the numbers in the green squares.
If the grid was to expand and continue:
(d) What colour would the 118th square be?
(e) What colour would the 180th square be?
(f) What colour would the 903rd square be?
Q5 Complete the number pyramid by filling in the empty spaces.
5 10 11
2 3 7 4 1
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Q6 (a) Fill in all empty spaces in the number pyramid in terms of x.
223
60
19 24
7 12 x 18 6
(b) Solve for x.
(c) Substitute x for all unknown values to complete the number pyramid.
Q7 List the first three terms of each sequence:
(a) Tn= 2n2 − 3 Tn= 5n − 7
(b) Tn = 3(2n )
(c)
Q8 (a) Fill in the first difference and the second difference for each pattern.
(i) Pattern 1: 2 4 9 17 28
First difference:
(Change)
Second difference:
(Change of change)
(ii) Pattern 2: −1 2 5 8 11
First difference:
(Change)
Second difference:
(Change of change)
(iii) Pattern 3: 6 12 24 48 96
First difference:
(Change)
Second difference:
(Change of change)
(b) State whether each pattern is linear, quadratic or exponential.
Give a reason for each answer.
(SEC 2014)
Q9 The first three stages of a pattern are shown below. Each stage is made up
of a certain number of shaded discs and a certain number of white discs.
1st Stage 2nd Stage 3rd Stage
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(a) Shade in the appropriate discs to show the 4th stage of the pattern.
(b) Complete the table to show
Number of Number of
how the pattern continues.
shaded discs white discs
(c) I n a particular stage of the 1 5
pattern, there are 21 white 2
discs. How many shaded discs
3
are there in this stage of the
pattern? 4
5
(d) Write down the relationship
between the number of shaded 6
discs and the number of white
discs in each stage of the pattern.
State clearly the meaning of any letters you use.
(SEC 2014)
Q10 Melissa bought a 800
horse in 2007 for 700
€500. She took the 600
Value (€)
horse to the sales 500
each year for three 400
years to have it 300
200
valued but did not
100
sell. She recorded
the values on the 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
graph shown. Year
(a) Use a line to join the points on the graph.
(b) If the pattern continued, what was the horse worth in 2011?
(c) How much did the horse lose in value each year?
(d) Melissa will sell the horse when it reaches a value of €200.
If the pattern continues, in what year will she sell the horse?
(e) James bought a horse for €700 in 2007. His horse loses value at a
constant rate. It was worth €100 in 2011. Mark these two points on the
graph above, and join them with a straight line.
(f) In what year will the two horses have the same value?
What is that value?
(g) Louise examines the graph and says, ‘Looking at the slopes of the lines,
I can tell which horse loses value faster’. Explain in your own words
what Louise means.
(SEC 2012)
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26 Graphs and Real-life
Problems
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
� Linear graphs
� Quadratic graphs
� Exponential graphs
� Graphs without formulae.
Linear graphs – real-life problems
A linear graph represents a linear function or pattern which always forms a
straight line. The equation of the line has the form y = mx + c, where m, c ∈ℚ, x ∈ℝ.
Link
RW Book 2 Chapter 9
Coordinate Geometry of the Line
y = mx + c
rise
m = Slope = c = y-intercept
run
y
m = Slope = rise
run
rise
run
(0, c) c = y-intercept
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Directly proportional and non-proportional graphs
Top Tip
Two quantities are directly proportional if:
zzone quantity increases as the second quantity increases at a constant rate.
zzwhen graphed, the information forms a straight line which passes
through the origin (0, 0) of the graph.
The equation of a line for The equation of a line for
two quantities that are two quantities that are
directly proportional: not directly proportional:
y = mx y = mx + c
where m represents the rate of change where m represents the rate of change
(slope) of the line. (slope) of the line and c represents the
y-intercept.
Example: Example:
y = 2x where m = 2. y = 2x + 4 where m = 2, c = 4.
This means that the rate of change This means that the rate of change
(slope) is 2. (slope) is 2 and the y-intercept is 4.
y y
12 f(x) = 2x + 4
12 (4, 12)
10 (5, 10) 10
(3, 10)
8 (4, 8) 8
(2, 8)
6 (3, 6) f(x) = 2x 6 (1, 6)
4 (2, 4) 4 (0, 4)
2 (1, 2) 2
(0, 0)
0 1 2 3 4 5 x 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
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Example
Sean and his brother Mark decide to save some
90 of their pocket money each week for six weeks as
Sean
80 shown on the graph.
70 Use the graph to answer the following questions.
Mark
Amount saved (€)
60 (a)
How much has Mark saved by week 3?
50 (b)
In which week did Sean and Mark have
40 the same amount saved?
30 (c)
Write down a formula to represent Sean’s
savings each week.
20
(d)
Write down a formula to represent Mark’s
10
savings each week.
0 1 2 3 4 (e) 5 6 Identify which of the graphs is directly
No. of weeks proportional and give a reason for your answer.
Solution
(a)
From the graph, Mark saved €45 by week 3.
90 (b)
From the graph, by week 4 Sean and Mark
Sean
80 had each saved €60.
70 (c) Use the equation of the line y = mx + c,
Mark
Amount saved (€)
60 where m is the slope (rate of change) and
50 c is the y-intercept.
€45
40 Find the slope (rate of change) using the
coordinates (0, 0) and (1, 15).
30
1
€10
____
rise ______ y2 − y1 _____15 − 0 ___ 15
20 m = slope = run = x − x =
= = 15
€15
2 1 1 − 0 1
10
c = y-intercept = 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Substituting into y = mx + c gives y = 15x + 0.
No. of weeks
∴ y = 15x (The equation of the line is directly proportional.)
This equation represents the relationship between the number of weeks and
the amount saved per week by Sean.
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(d) Use the equation of the line y = mx + c, where m is the slope (rate of change)
and c is the y-intercept.
Find the slope (rate of change) using the coordinates (0, 20) and (1, 30).
____
rise ______ y2 − y 1 ______
30 − 20 ___ 10
m = slope = run = x − x
=
= = 10
2 1 1−0 1
c = y-intercept = 20
Substituting into y = mx + c gives y = 10x + 20.
(The equation of the line is not directly proportional.)
This equation represents the relationship between the number of weeks and
the amount saved each week by Mark.
(e) The graph representing the relationship between number of weeks and amount
saved per week by Sean is directly proportional as it passes through the origin
(0, 0) and is a straight line.
Quadratic graphs – real-life problems
Questions that involve finding the
maximum area of a rectangle or square,
or the flight of an object through the
air, will all form quadratic functions
or patterns which, when graphed,
will form a ∩-shaped or a ∪-shaped
graph.
y ∪-shaped ∩-shaped
quadratic graph y quadratic graph
Maximum point
Roots of the Roots of the
y-intercept function function
y-intercept
f(x) = 0 f(x) = 0
x x
Minimum point
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Example
A square sheet of cardboard measures 6 cm
6 cm by 6 cm.
A square of side x cm is removed from
each corner.
The remaining piece of cardboard is x cm
folded to form an open box as shown.
(a) Show that the area, in cm2 , of each side of the box is 6x − 2x2 .
(b) Let f be the function f : x → 6x − 2x2 .
(c) Hence, draw the graph of f for 0 ≤ x ≤ 4, x ∈ℝ, and use your graph to estimate:
(i) the area of a side when x = 0.5
(ii) the maximum possible area of a side
(iii) the value of x that gives sides of maximum area
(iv) the length and height of a side of maximum area.
(SEC 2003)
Solution
(a) Area = length × height x
= (6 − 2x) × (x)
= 6x − 2x2 6 – 2x
(b) Table for f : x → 6x − 2x2
Domain f (x) = 6x − 2x2 Range Coordinates
x y (x, y)
0 f (0) = 6(0) − 2(0)2 0 (0, 0)
1 f (1) = 6(1) − 2(1)2 4 (1, 4)
2 f (2) = 6(2) − 2(2)2 4 (2, 4)
3 f (3) = 6(3) − 2(3)2 0 (3, 0)
4 f (4) = 6(4) − 2(4)2 −8 (4, −8)
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(c) y (i) From the graph, the area of a
side when x = 0.5 is f (0.5) = 2.5 cm2 .
6
Max area (ii) From the graph, the maximum
4·5
4 possible area of a side = 4.5 cm2 .
2·5
(iii) From the graph,
2 f (1.5) = 4.5 cm2 , i.e. x = 1.5.
(iv) Length of a side of
0 0·5
1 1·5
2 3 4 x maximum area = 6 − 2x
–2
= 6 − 2(1.5)
= 3.
–4
Height of a side of
maximum area = x = 1.5.
–6
–8
Exponential graphs – real-life problems
An exponential function or pattern is a function or pattern whose value is a
constant raised to the power of x.
On the Junior Certificate course we will focus on exponential functions in the
form f (x) = a(2x ) or f (x) = a(3x ), where a ∈ℕ, x ∈ℝ. y
Exponential graphs of the forms
f (x) = a(2x) or f (x) = a(3x ), where a ∈ℕ, x ∈ℝ, will always:
� pass through the point (0, a)
(0, a)
� stay above the x-axis
� have an upward slope.
x
Example
A scientist is studying the growth rate of bacteria in a food sample.
The number of bacteria N in the sample after t days is given by N(t) = 40(2t).
(a) Graph the growth rate of bacteria over four days.
(b) Use the graph to estimate how long it will be before 200 bacteria are
present in the sample.
(c) Use the graph to estimate the number of bacteria present after three days.
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Solution
Set up and complete a table for N(t) = 40(2t)
(a)
1000 in the given domain.
900 Domain N(t) = 40(2t) Range Coordinates
800 0 40(20 ) 40 (0, 40)
700 1 40(21) 80 (1, 80)
No. of bacteria N
600 2 40(22) 160 (2, 160)
500 3 40(23) 320 (3, 320)
400 4 40(24) 640 (4, 640)
320
300
200
(b)
From the graph, we can see that ʻ200 bacteriaʼ
corresponds to approximately 2·3 days.
100
(c)
From the graph, we can see that after three days
0 1 2 3
2·3
4 the number of bacteria is approximately 320.
No. of days
Graphs without formulae
Rates of change
A rate of change is a rate that defines how one quantity changes in relation to
another quantity. When the rate of change is constant, the graph will form a
straight line.
Positive Horizontal Negative
When the value of x When the value of x When the value of x
increases, the value of y increases, the value of y increases, the value of y
increases. remains constant. decreases.
The graph slants upward The graph will be a The graph slants downward
(positive slope). horizontal line. (negative slope).
y y y
0 x 0 x 0 x
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Distance–time graphs
Top Tip
A distance–time graph represents the distance travelled by an object over a
given period of time.
Fast, Getting
steady speed faster
Moving away
from the start
Distance
position
Stationary (at rest)
Returning to the
Steady start position
speed
Time
Points to note
1 The steeper the graph, the faster the object is moving.
2 A horizontal line means the object is not changing its position.
In other words, the object is at rest.
3 An upward-sloping line means the object is moving away from the
start position.
4 A downward-sloping line means the object is returning to the
start position.
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Example
The graph shows information about a journey taken by a bus on its morning
route to and from a bus terminal.
35
Distance (km) 30
25
20
15
10
5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Time (min)
Use the graph to answer the following questions:
(a) What was the rate of change for the first part of the journey?
(b) In total, how long was the bus stopped for, over the journey?
(c) At which two times is the bus 10 km from the bus terminal?
(d) What is the average speed of the bus over the last 20 km of the journey?
Solution
35
Bus at rest
30
Distance (km)
25
20
15
10
5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Time (min)
(a) From the graph, the rate of change for the first part of the journey is represented
as the slope of the line.
____
rise ___ 10
m = slope = run = = 1 km/min
10
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(b) From the graph, the bus had stopped:
for 10 minutes, between 30 and 40 minutes, and
for 10 minutes, between 60 and 70 minutes
Therefore the bus stopped for a total of 20 minutes.
(c) From the graph, the bus is 10 km from the bus terminal at both
10 minutes and 95 minutes into the journey.
(d) The average speed of the bus over the last 40 km of the journey:
________________
distance travelled
Average speed =
time taken
____________
40 km ___
20
= = = 0.4 km/min
(120 − 70) min 50
Speed–time graphs
Top Tip
Speed–time graphs are also called velocity–time graphs.
A speed–time graph shows how the speed of an object changes over time.
y
Gradual
acceleration
Speed
Steady
deceleration
Steady Steady speed
acceleration
Time x
Points to note
1 The steeper the graph, the greater the acceleration of the object.
2 A horizontal line means the object is moving at a constant speed.
3 An upward sloping line means that the object is accelerating
(speeding up).
downward sloping line means that the object is decelerating
4 A
(slowing down).
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Example
The graph below shows some details about a journey Alex made by bicycle.
Alex’s journey
25
20
km per hour
15
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time in minutes
Alex waited for his friend before he set off on his journey.
(a) How long did he wait before setting out?
(b) What was Alex’s highest speed during the journey?
(c) For what length of time was Alex travelling at the highest speed?
(d) How far did Alex travel at the highest speed?
(SEC 2013)
Solution
(a) From the graph, Alex waited 5 minutes before setting out.
(b) From the graph, Alex’s highest speed was 20 km/h.
(c) From the graph, Alex travelled at his highest speed for 10 minutes
(35 − 25 = 10).
(d) Using the graph to calculate how far Alex travelled at the highest speed:
Distance = speed × time
= 20 × 10 min Convert min to hours by dividing by 60.
__
1
= 20 × of an hour
6
__1
= 3 km
3
Height–time graphs
We use height–time graphs to examine how various containers are filled with a
liquid flowing at a constant rate. We compare the depth (height) of the liquid in
the container over time.
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Example
Three containers are shown. Water is poured into each container at a constant rate,
until it is full. The three graphs represent the height of the water, h, in the containers
after time t. Match each container with its corresponding graph.
Container A B C
Graph (i) (ii) (iii)
h h h
t t t
Solution
zzContainer A corresponds to graph (ii).
A (ii)
h
t
Reason – As the radius of the container doesn’t change, it fills at a uniform rate,
thus the height of the water flowing into the container increases at a steady rate.
zzContainer B corresponds to graph (iii).
B (iii)
h
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Reason – The shape is not uniform. As the radius of the container widens, the
height of the water flowing into the container will increase more slowly. The rate
the water flows into the container starts off very fast; then, as the container is
filled, the rate slows down. This is why the graph starts with a steep slope and
then gradually gets less steep as the height increases.
zzContainer C corresponds to graph (i).
C (i)
h
t
Reason – The container is a combination of two uniform shapes. To begin with,
the water flows into the container at a uniform rate, then when the width of the
container increases the water will continue to flow into the container, but at a
slower rate. This is illustrated on the graph by the fact that the slope is steeper for
the first part of the graph, then less steep for the second part of the graph.
Exercise
Q1 Two mobile phone companies, Cellulon and Mobil, offer price plans for
mobile internet access. A formula, in x, for the total cost per month for
each company is shown in the table below. x is the number of MB of data
downloaded per month.
Phone company Total cost per month (cents)
Cellulon c(x) = 4x
Mobil m(x) = 1000 + 2x
Draw the graphs of c(x) and m(x) on a coordinate grid to show
(a)
the total cost per month for each phone company, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 700.
Label each graph clearly.
(b)
Which company charges no fixed fee? Justify your answer, with
reference to the relevant formula or graph.
(c)
Write down the point of intersection of the two graphs.
Fergus wants to buy a mobile phone from one of these two companies,
and wants his mobile internet bill to be as low as possible.
(d) Explain how your answer to part (c) would help Fergus choose between
Cellulon and Mobil.
(SEC 2015)
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Q2 The height, h, of a tennis ball thrown into the air is given by the formula
h(t) = 10t − t 2which is graphed below.
28
26
24
22
20
Height (metres)
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (seconds)
Use the graph to estimate answers to each of the following.
(a) What was the height of the tennis ball after 2.5 seconds?
(b) At what times is the height of the tennis ball 12 metres above the ground?
(c) What is the maximum height of the tennis ball?
Q3 James is planting a rectangular flower bed that has a perimeter of 12 m.
(a) If the width of the flower bed is x m, find an equation, in terms of x, for
the length of the flower bed.
(b) Show that the area of the flower bed is given by A(x) = 6x − x 2.
(c) Draw a graph to represent the area of the flower bed A(x) = 6x − x 2
as the width, x, changes from 0 m to 6 m.
(d) What is the width that corresponds to the maximum area?
Q4 A new app was launched during the first week in January. The number
of users is estimated by the function u(n) = 100(2n ), where u(n) means
the number of users and n means the number of months since the
launch date.
(a) Draw a graph to represent the number of users over the first four months.
(b) How many users does the company expect after three months?
(c) How many months does the company expect it will take for the new
app to reach 300 users?
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Q5 The speed–time graph given
represents the speed of a car 70
travelled on a given day. 60
50
Speed (km/h)
(a) What is the car’s highest
40
speed over the journey?
30
(b) How far did the car travel 20
at its highest speed? 10
(c) How long (in minutes) is 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110120
the car travelling for?
Time (min)
Q6 Match each distance–time graph with its corresponding speed–time graph.
Distance–time graphs
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Distance (m)
Distance (m)
Distance (m)
Distance (m)
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)
Speed–time graphs
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Speed (m/s)
Speed (m/s)
Speed (m/s)
Speed (m/s)
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)
Q7 Water is poured at a constant rate into each container shown, until they are
full. The graphs represent the height of the water, h, in the containers after
time t. Match each container with its corresponding graph.
Container A B C
Graph (i) (ii) (iii)
h h h
t t t
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Q8 Match each description of motion with its corresponding distance–time graph.
Description of (a) Object is (b) Object is (c) Object is
motion moving at a moving at a moving at a
slow pace and fast pace, slows steady pace,
then moves at a down and then then it comes
faster pace for a speeds up again. to a stop and
certain period of remains at rest
time. for a certain
period of time.
Distance-time (i) (ii) (iii)
graph d d d
t t t
Q9 Paul and Marie have been studying the growth of a particular bacterium.
They each come up with a function to predict the number of bacteria
in a colony, in thousands, after t days. They both assume that there are
1000 bacteria in the colony at the beginning (t = 0).
Paul comes up with the function: f : t → 2t
Marie comes up with the function: g : t → t2 + 2t + 1.
On a grid, draw the graphs of y = f (t) and y = g(t) in the domain
(i)
0 ≤ t ≤ 5, t ∈ℝ. For parts (ii), (iii), and (iv), you must show your
working out on the diagram.
(ii) U
se your graphs to find the difference in the number of bacteria predicted
by Paul and the number of bacteria predicted by Marie after 2·5 days.
(iii) Use your graphs to estimate the range of values of t for which both
Paul and Marie predict that there will be at least 20 000 bacteria in
the colony.
(iv) By extending your graphs, estimate the value of t (other than t = 0)
for which the number of bacteria predicted by Paul and the number
of bacteria predicted by Marie will be the same.
(v) The actual number of bacteria after two weeks (14 days) is roughly
1·6 × 107. Based on this, which formula would you say gives the better
prediction for the number of bacteria? Explain your answer.
(SEC 2014)
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27 Trigonometry 1:
Theory of Trigonometry
Learning objectives
In this chapter, you will learn about:
� Problem solving using Pythagoras’ Theorem
� Trigonometric ratios: sine, cosine and tangent
� Finding an unknown side or angle, in a right-angled triangle,
using trigonometric ratios
� Angle measure in degrees, minutes and seconds
� Working with the angles 30°, 45° and 60°.
Key terminology and information
Key Terminology
Word(s) Meaning
Pythagoras’ The theorem states that, in a right-angled triangle,
Theorem the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the
squares of the other two sides.
Adjacent Beside or alongside
Opposite Across from
Trigonometric ratios � Ratios that identify the relationship between
a given angle and the sides of a right-angled
triangle.
� The trigonometric ratios are called sine, cosine
and tangent from Greek words. They are
usually shortened to sin, cos and tan.
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Problem solving using Pythagoras’ Theorem
Points to note
zz Pythagoras’ Theorem states that, in a right-angled triangle, the square of
the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
Theorem is given in the Formulae and Tables booklet as:
zz Pythagoras’
c2 = a2 + b2
c = hypotenuse side, as it is opposite
the right-angle (90° )
c a
a = opposite side, as it is across from angle A
b = adjacent side, as it is beside/alongside angle A
A
zzThe hypotenuse side is always the longest side, b
as it is always opposite the biggest angle (the 90° angle).
zzPythagoras’
Theorem is used to solve trigonometry problems when:
1 We know the length of two sides and wish to find the value of the
third length.
2 We wish to verify/check that a triangle is right-angled.
Example
ABC is a triangle such that | ∠ABC | = 90°, | AB | = 12 and | AC | = 13. Find | BC |.
A
Solution
Note: as an angle is not labelled on the diagram, the
length 12 can be labelled as either a or b. In this case let b = 12.
So c = hypotenuse = 13, a = | BC |and b = 12.
12 13
First substitute all known values for a, b and c into c2 = a2 + b2 .
132 = | BC |2 + 122
Then swap sides so the unknown value is on the left.
| BC |2 + 122 = 132
B C
⇒ | BC |2 + 144 = 169
⇒ | BC |2 = 169 − 144
___
25
⇒ | BC |= √
___
25 only, as length is positive. | BC |= 5 units
Finally, write down the positive value for √
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Example
The isosceles triangle shown in the diagram has a
base of length 12 cm and the other two sides are
each 10 cm in length. 10 cm
h
(a) Prove that the perpendicular line divides
the isosceles triangle into two congruent triangles. 12 cm
(b) Find h, the perpendicular height of the triangle.
(SEC 2007)
Solution
(a) The perpendicular line divides the isosceles triangle into two smaller
right-angled triangles. Comparing these two triangles:
10 = 10 … (Property of isosceles triangle)
h = h … (Common side)
90° = 90° … (Right angles because h is a perpendicular line)
This proves by SAS that the perpendicular line divides the isosceles triangle
into two congruent triangles.
(b) To find h, the perpendicular height, follow the steps below.
Step 1: Draw a right-angled triangle using the information given. h 10 cm
The length of half the base is 6 cm, as the triangle is an
isosceles triangle.
Step 2: Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the length | h |. 6 cm
Note: as an angle is not labelled on the diagram, the length 6 cm can be
labelled as either a or b. In this case let b = 6 cm.
We know that c = hypotenuse = 10 cm, a = | h |and b = 6 cm.
First substitute all known values in for a, b and c into c 2= a2 + b2 .
(10)2 = h2 + 62 ⇒ 100 = h 2 + 36
Subtract 36 from both sides.
100 − 36 = h2 ⇒ 64 = h 2
Take the square root of both sides, swap sides and write down the positive
value___ for the result only, as length is positive.
64 ⇒ h = 8 cm
h2= √
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Trigonometric ratios
Points to note
1 Trigonometric ratios identify the relationship between a given angle and the
sides of a right-angled triangle.
2 The trigonometric ratios are called sine, cosine and tangent from Greek
words. They are usually shortened to sin, cos and tan for ease of use.
3 The trigonometric ratios are given in the Formulae and Tables book as:
a
sin A = __
c Note:
b
cos A = __ c c = hypotenuse side, as it is opposite the
right-angle (90°)
a
tan A = __
c a
a = opposite side, as it is across from
b
angle A
A
b = adjacent side, as it is beside angle A
b
* This information is not in the formulae
and tables booklet.
4 However, the trigonometric ratios are usually taught using the diagram below:
opposite
sin q = __________
hypotenuse
adjacent
cos q = __________
Opposite Hypotenuse
hypotenuse
opposite
tan q = ________
adjacent q
Adjacent
Where q = theta (a Greek letter)
5 The trigonometric ratios are usually learned using one of these acronyms:
zzO Hell, Another Hour, Of Algebra
_____
zzSilly = , Caught = ______
Old , Trawling = _______
A Over
Harry Herring America
zz SOH-CAH-TOA
6 Never write ‘sin’ or ‘cos’ or ‘tan’ without an angle, as they mean nothing
unless the angle is specified.
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7 The sin, cos and tan buttons are on the calculator. Because for the Junior
Certificate Course all angles must be measured in degrees, the calculator
must be in Degrees mode (usually denoted by a D at the top of the screen).
To make sure the calculator is in Degrees mode:
zz Look for D on the top right-hand corner of the display screen.
� If the calculator is not in Degrees mode, follow these steps:
� Press then the button.
� The list 1:MthIO 2:LineIO will appear on the screen.
3:Deg 4:Rad
5:Gra 6:Fix
7:Sci 8:Norm
� Press to choose degrees for the angle setting.
Example
(a) In the table given, write down the values of cos q p Cosp Sinp
and sin q for the angles listed. Give your answers 0°
correct to three significant figures. 10°
(b) What can you conclude from these results? 20°
Give a reason for your answer.
30°
(c) During an examination Katie notices that her
40°
calculator is not working properly. The cos q gives
an error message. Assuming all other functions are 50°
working correctly, explain how she might use 60°
her calculator to calculate the value of cos 35°. 70°
Solution 80°
90°
(a) p Cosp Sinp
0° 1 0
10° 0·985 0·174
20° 0·940 0·342
30° 0·866 0·5
40° 0·766 0·643
50° 0·643 0·766
60° 0·5 0·866
70° 0·342 0·940
80° 0·174 0·985
90° 0 1
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(b) The value for cos q = sin(90° − q ) or sinq = cos(90° − q ).
For example: cos 10° = sin 80° = 0·985, cos 20° = sin 70° = 0·940, etc.
This is because q and (90° − q ) are complementary angles in a right-angled
triangle.
(c) As the cos function is not working properly on Katie’s calculator she could
find the complementary sin value. To do this, she would use the fact that
cos q = sin(90° − q ):
cos 35° = sin(90° − 35°)
⇒ cos 35° = sin 55°
⇒ sin 55° = 0·819
Points to note
From the examples shown above, we have found that:
zzThe value of cos A + cos B ≠ cos( A + B), tan A + tan B ≠ tan( A + B).
We can further extend this to include sin A + sin B ≠ sin( A + B).
zzThe value of cos q and sin q for acute angles is always ≤ 1.
zzThe value of tan q, for an acute angle, can be any value.
This information can be used to check that the values for cos q, sin q
and tan q are correct, when solving right-angled triangle problems using
trigonometric ratios.
Example
__
4
(a) Construct a right-angled triangle containing an angle A such that cos A = .
7
(b) Find tan A and sin A, giving your answer in surd form.
Solution
(a) First set the cosine trigonometric ratio equal to its value:
__ adjacent
4 ___________
cos A = = 7
7 hypotenuse
Therefore hypotenuse = 7 and the adjacent = 4.
Construct the right-angled triangle using the A
construction techniques learned in Chapter 8. 4
(b) Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the length of the opposite side:
Opposite2 + 42 = 72
⇒ Opposite2 = 49
___− 16
33
⇒ Opposite = √
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___
33 , adjacent = 4 and hypotenuse = 7.
Hence opposite = √
To find tan A, use the trigonometric ratio: To find sin A, use the trigonometric ratio:
opposite
________ opposite
___________
tan A =
sin A =
adjacent hypotenuse
___
___
√ 33
____ √ 33
____
⇒ tan A = ⇒ sin A =
4 7
Finding an unknown side or angle, in a
right-angled triangle, using trigonometric ratios
Points to note
Trigonometric ratios can be used for a right-angled triangle, to find:
zzan unknown angle, given the lengths of two sides; or
zzan unknown length, given an angle and the length of one side.
Top Tip
To use the trigonometric formulae, we must:
1 Label all three sides of the triangle.
2 Write down the known information.
3 Write down the required information.
4 Identify the trigonometric ratio which connects this information.
5 Substitute the relevant information into this ratio.
6 Solve to find the unknown information.
Examples
(a) ABC is a right-angled triangle. | ∠ACB |= 60° and | AC |= 10 cm.
Calculate the length of [AB], correct to two decimal places.
A
10 cm
60°
B C
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(b) MNO is a triangle with [OP] O
perpendicular to [MN].
| MP |= 10 cm, | ON |= 30 cm
and | ∠PMO |= 65°.
30 cm
Calculate:
(i) |OP|, correct to one
decimal place.
(ii) |MON|, correct to one
65°
decimal place. M N
10 cm P
(SEC 2011)
Solutions
(a) To calculate the length of [AB], use the sine trigonometric ratio, as |∠ACB| = 60°
and | AC |= hypotenuse = 10 cm are known and we need to find | AB |= opposite.
opposite
___________
sin | ∠ACB |=
hypotenuse
| AB |
____
⇒ sin| ∠ACB |=
| AC |
Substituting in the known values and solving for |AB|:
| AB |
____
sin 60° =
10
⇒ | AB |= 10 sin__ 60°
( )
√ 3
___
__
⇒ | AB |= 10 = 5√ 3 cm
2
⇒ | AB |= 8·66025 cm = 8·66 cm to 2 d.p.
(b) (i) To calculate |OP|, use the tan ratio as the adjacent length = |MP| = 30 cm
and | ∠PMO |= 65° are known and we need to find |OP| = opposite length.
opposite
________
tan | ∠PMO |=
adjacent
| OP |
_____
⇒ tan | ∠PMO |=
| ON |
Substituting in the known values and solving for |OP|:
| OP |
____
tan 65° =
10
⇒ | OP |= 10 tan 65°
Use your calculator to find the value of 10 tan( 65°)
| OP |= 21·445 cm = 21·4 to 1 d.p.
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(ii) Step 1: Find |∠ONP |, using the sine ratio, | OP |= 21·4 cm and | ON |= 30 cm
opposite
sin | ∠ONP |= ___________
p!
-T i
To p
hypotenuse
| OP | ____
____ 21·4 ·
⇒ sin| ∠ONP |= = = 0·713 lue of
| ON | 30 To find the va
must carry
| ∠ONP |= sin−1
(0·713)
· |∠ONP |, we tion of sine.
te opera
⇒ | ∠ONP |= 45·50677577o out the opposi function of sine. To
erse
This is the inv ss , , then
Give the answer correct to two is w e p re
do th lue.
decimal places, as the final type in the va
answer must be rounded to
one decimal place.
⇒ | ∠ONP |= 45·51o
Step 2: Find | ∠MON |.
| ∠ MON |= 180o − 65o − | ∠ONP |, as the sum of angles in a triangle add
up to 180°.
∴ | ∠MON |= 180o − 65o − 45·51o
⇒ | ∠MON |= 69·49o = 69·5o to 1 d.p.
Angle measure in degrees, minutes and seconds
Points to note
Sometimes a question may ask you to convert the value of an angle from
decimal form into DMS form, or vice versa.
zzThese are both methods of expressing fractions of degrees.
zzDecimal form states the fraction as a decimal of a degree.
For example, 37·7047°.
zzDMS stands for degrees, minutes and seconds. The symbol for degrees is °,
for minutes is ′, and for seconds is ″. This method divides each degree
into 60 minutes (1° = 60’ ), then each minute into 60 seconds (1′ = 60″ ).
For example, 37° 42′ 17″.
zz To convert from DMS to decimal form, (or vice versa), we use the
button on a Casio calculator. Other calculators may use a DMS button.
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Examples
(a) Convert 13° 23′ 16″ to decimal form, correct to two decimal places.
(b) Convert 78·36° to DMS form.
Solutions
(a) Step 1: Make sure the calculator is in Degrees mode.
Step 2: Type 13° 23′ 16″ into the calculator. This is called the DMS (degrees,
minutes and seconds) form.
� Press 1 3 then the button
� Press 2 3 then the button
� Press 1 6 then the button
� Press = button
� Press the button
� R
ound to two decimal places
Answer = 13·39° in decimal form.
(b) Step 1: Make sure the calculator is in Degrees mode.
Step 2: Type into the calculator (this is called
the decimal form)
Press the button
Press the button
Step 3: Write down the solution in DMS form.
Answer: 78·36° = 78° 21′ 36″, pronounced 78 degrees, 21 minutes and
36 seconds.
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Exercise
Q1 The triangle ABC is shown below. Find | BC |.
C
20
A 21 B
Q2 The triangle PQR is shown below. Find | PQ |.
R
41
9
P
Q
Q3 Show that sin 155° ≠ sin 90° + sin 65°, using the calculator.
Round all values to two decimal places, where necessary.
Q4 During a trigonometry lesson, a group of students made some predictions
about what they expected to find for the values of the trigonometric
functions of some angles. They then found the sine, cosine and tangent of
25° and 50°.
(a) In the table given, show, correct to three decimal places, the values
they found.
sin 25° = cos 25° = tan 25° =
sin 50° = cos 50° = tan 50° =
(b) (i) Maria had said, ‘The value from any of these trigonometric
functions will always be less than 1.’ Was Maria correct?
Give a reason for your answer.
(ii) Sharon had said, ‘If the size of the angle is doubled, then the
value from any of these trigonometric functions will also double.’
Was Sharon correct? Give a reason for your answer.
(iii) James had said, ‘The value for all of these trigonometric functions
will increase if the size of the angle is increased.’ Was James
correct? Give a reason for your answer.
(SEC 2014)
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__
1
Q5 If tan A = , find the value of sin2 A + cos2 A.
7
Q6 (a) The diagram below shows the angle A in a right-angled triangle.
Indicate which side is adjacent and which is opposite in relation to the
angle A, and which side is the hypotenuse.
(b) Fill in the appropriate ratios in the table below.
Trigonometric ratio Ratio
sin A
cos A
tan A
(c) In the right-angled triangle here, B = 35°
and the opposite side is 12 cm. Find the
length of the hypotenuse correct to 12 cm
the nearest centimetre.
(SEC 2012) B
Q7 (a) For the right-angled triangle shown:
(i) Calculate the ratios sin A, cos A and tan A.
(ii) Find the measure of the angle A. 15 12
A
9
(b) In the right-angled triangle XYZ, | XZ |= 13 Z
and | ∠YXZ |= 60°.
(i) Find | XY |.
(ii) Find | YZ |. 13
60°
Y X
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Q8 (a) Convert 67° 28′ 13″ to decimal form, correct to two decimal places.
(b) Convert 38·93° to DMS form.
Q9 Without using a calculator, find the 5√2
value of x in the right-angled triangle shown. x
45°
Q10 Without using a calculator, find the
value of the angle A, in the
right-angled triangle shown. 10
A
5√3
Q11 (a) (i) Write 2° 43′ 5″ in degrees in decimal form,
correct to two decimal places.
(ii) Write 3·14° in DMS (i.e. degrees,
minutes, and seconds).
(b) The diagram shows a right-angled triangle,
with the angle A marked. Given that cos A = sin A,
show that this triangle must be isosceles. A
(c) A right-angled triangle has sides of length 7 cm, 24 cm and 25 cm.
Find the size of the smallest angle in this triangle. Give your answer
correct to one decimal place.
(SEC 2016)
Q12 (a) The triangle PQR has sides of length 8, 11, and y. Write down one value
of y for which ∆PQR is an isosceles triangle.
(b) The triangle STU has sides of length 4, 7, and x. Find the two values
of x for which ∆STU is a right-angled triangle.
Give each answer in surd form.
(SEC 2015)
Q13 (a) Use the diagram shown to calculate the value of x.
Give your answer in surd form.
x
3
3
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(b) Use the diagram shown to calculate
3
the value of y. Give your answer 1
in surd form.
y
(c) A rectangle with sides of length x
x
and y is drawn using the values of x
and y from parts (a) and (b), as shown.
y
Write the perimeter
__ of this rectangle in
the form a√ 2 , where a ∈ N.
(SEC 2014)
Q14 During a trigonometry lesson a group of students wrote down some
statements about what they expected to happen when they looked at the
values of trigonometric functions of some angles. Here are some of the
things they wrote down.
(a) The value from any of these trigonometric functions will always be less
than 1.
(b) If the size of the angle is doubled then the value from the trigonometric
functions will not double.
(c) The value from all the trigonometric functions will increase if the size of
the angle is increased.
(d) I do not need to use a calculator to find sin 60°. I can do it by drawing
an equilateral triangle. The answer will be in surd form.
They then found the sin, cos and tan of some angles, correct to three
decimal places, to test their ideas.
(i) Do you think that (a) is correct? Give an example to justify your answer.
(ii) Do you think that (b) is correct? Give an example to justify your answer.
(iii) Do you think that (c) is correct? Give an example to justify your answer.
(iv) Show how an equilateral triangle of side 2 cm can be used to find sin 60°
in surd form.
(SEC 2014)
Q15 In the right-angled triangle shown in the diagram, one of the acute
angles is four times as large as the other acute angle.
(a) Find the measures of the two acute
angles in the triangle.
(b) The triangle in part (a) is placed on
a coordinate diagram. The base is
l
parallel to the x-axis.
Find the slope of the line l that contains the Base
hypotenuse of the triangle. Give your answer
correct to three decimal places.
(SEC 2014)
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Q16 In the right-angled triangle ABC, |AB| = 2 and |BC| = 1.
(a) Find |AC|, giving your answer in surd form.
B
(b) Write cos | ∠BAC |and hence find | ∠BAC |.
(c) Sketch a right-angled isosceles triangle in
which the equal sides are 1 unit each and
use it to write cos 45° in surd form. A C
(d) Show that cos 75° ≠ cos 45° + cos 30°.
(SEC 2013)
Q17 (a) Construct a right-angled triangle containing an angle A such that
sin A = 0·4.
(b) Find, from your triangle, cos A in surd form.
(SEC 2012)
Q18 In the diagram ABC is a right-angled A
triangle, __with AC perpendicular __ to BC.
| AC |= 2√ 2 and | BC |= 3√ 3 . 2√2
Calculate:
(a) |AB|, leaving your answer in surd form. B C
3√3
(b) |∠ABC|, correct to the nearest degree.
(SEC 2012)
Q19 Without using a calculator, construct the angle A such that
6 tan A = 8, 0° ≤ A < 90°.
___ (SEC 2010)
50
Q20 abc is an isosceles triangle with |ac| = |bc|, |ab| = √ a
and | ∠acb | = 90°.
Find |bc|. √50
(SEC 2009)
c b
___
1
Q21 Given that tan A = 4, write cos A in the form __ , x ∈ N.
√ x (SEC 2008)
__
2
Q22 Given that cos C = , find the value of x.
3
C
x
(SEC 2005)
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Trigonometry 2: 28
Applications of Trigonometry
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
� Angles of elevation and depression
� Using a clinometer
� Solving real-life problems using trigonometry rules.
Key information required when solving
problems using trigonometry
Points to note
Rule Formulae Diagram
2 2
Pythagoras’ c = a + b 2 , given in the
Theorem Formulae and Tables booklet
c = hypotenuse side, as c a
it is opposite the right-angle
(90o)
a = opposite side, as it is A
across from angle A b
b = adjacent side, as it is
beside angle A
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Rule Formulae Diagram
opposite
___________
Sine ratio sin θ =
hypotenuse Hypotenuse
Opposite
adjacent
___________
Cosine ratio cos θ =
hypotenuse q
opposite Adjacent
________
Tangent ratio tan θ =
adjacent q = theta (a Greek letter)
N
A A is N 30° E (or E 60° N)
B
B is N 60° W (or W 30° N)
30°
Compass 60° C is S 70° E (or E 20° S)
directions W
O
E
D is S 80° W (or W 10° S)
D 80° 70°
C Note: N 30° E means start at
S North and turn 30° East.
When solving problems using trigonometry follow the steps below:
1 Draw and label a diagram to represent the problem.
2 Write down all the information provided.
3 Identify the information required.
4 Identify whether a trigonometric ratio or Pythagoras’ Theorem can be
used to help solve the problem.
5 Solve the problem and check the solution.
Angles of elevation and depression
Points to note
Word Meaning Diagram
Angle of The angle between the horizontal Object
elevation and the line of sight up to an object.
Note: An angle of elevation has an
equal angle of depression, from angle of
alternate angles. elevation
q horizontal
Angle of The angle between the horizontal horizontal
depression and the line of sight down to an q
angle of
object. depression
Note: An angle of depression has
an equal angle of elevation, from
alternate angles. Object
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Example
A boat approches a 300 m high cliff. An observer on the top of the cliff calculates
that the angle of depression from the top of the cliff to the boat is 15°. Calculate how
far the boat is from the base of the cliff, to the nearest metre.
q 15°
300 m
Opposite
x
Solution
Method 1
1 Draw and label a diagram. q 15°
2 Write down all the Cliff = 300 m
information given. 90° Boat
x
θ = 90° − 15° = 75°
Adjacent side length = 300 m
3 Identify the information required.
We want to find the opposite length = x m
4 Use the tangent ratio to solve the problem.
opposite
________ x
____
tan θ = ⇒ tan 75° =
adjacent 300
5 Solve the problem.
x
____
tan 75° = ⇒ x = 300 tan 75° = 1119·615... = 1120 m
300
Method 2
1 Draw and label a diagram. q 15°
2 Write down all the Cliff = 300 m
information given. 90° q = 15° Boat
x
Opposite side length = 300 m
θ = 15°, from alternate angles.
3 Identify the information you need.
We want to find the adjacent length = x m
4 Use the tangent ratio to solve the problem.
opposite
________ ____
300
tan θ = ⇒ tan 15° = x
adjacent
5 Solve the problem.
____
300 ______
300
tan 15° = x
⇒ x =
= 1119·615... = 1120 m
tan 15°
Therefore, the boat is 1120 m from the base of the cliff, to the nearest metre.
28. Trigonometry 2 391
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Application questions
Example
A tree 32 m high casts a shadow 63 m long. Calculate q, the angle of elevation of
the sun. Give your answer in degrees and minutes (correct to the nearest minute).
q
63 m
(SEC 2013)
Solution
We know that opposite length = height of the tree = 32 m and adjacent length = 63 m.
We want to find the angle q.
opposite
________
Use the trigonometric formula: tan q =
.
adjacent
tan
___
32
( )
q = ⇒ q = tan−1
63
___
32
63
To find the inverse function of tangent, press [shift], [tan] and the value.
⇒ q = 26·92767785°
To convert to DMS form press the button.
q = 26° 55′ 39·64″, pronounced 26 degrees, 55 minutes, and 39·64 seconds.
Example
The angle of elevation of the top of a
building, as viewed from a point a, 81 m
from the base of the building, is 27°.
(a) Find the height of the building correct to
the nearest metre.
62 m
The bottom of a balloon is 62 m above the top
of the building, as shown.
(b) Find the angle of elevation of the
bottom of the balloon as viewed from the point a.
Give your answer correct to the nearest degree.
a 27°
81 m
(SEC 2009)
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Solution
(a) We know that adjacent side = 81 m and q = 27°.
Let h = height of the building = opposite side.
opposite
________
Use the trigonometric formula: tan q = .
adjacent
opposite ___
________ h h
___
tan 27° = = ⇒ tan 27° =
adjacent 81 81
⇒ h = 81 tan 27°
⇒ h = 41·27156141 = 41 m, correct to the nearest metre.
(b) The distance from the base of the building to the bottom of the balloon is
the opposite side = 62 + 41 = 103 m and adjacent side = 81 m.
Let the angle of elevation be q .
opposite
________
Use the trigonometric formula: tan q =
.
adjacent
____
103
tan q =
81
⇒ q = tan−1
( ____
81 )
103
= 51·81824157° = 52°, correct to the nearest degree.
Example
Two vertical poles A and B, each of height h, are standing on opposite sides of a level
road. They are 24 m apart. The point P, on the road directly between the two poles, is a
distance x from pole A. The angle of elevation from P to the top of pole A is 60°.
B A
h h
30° P 60°
x
24 m
(a) Write h in terms of x.
(b) From P the angle of elevation to the top of pole B is 30°.
Find h, the height of the two poles. (SEC 2012)
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Solution
(a) We know that q = 60°, opposite = h and adjacent = x m.
Also, we know that q = 30°, opposite = h and adjacent = 24 − x m.
Right side triangle Left side triangle
__ h h
_____
tan 60° = x tan 30° =
24 − x
__ 1 _____ h
__ h
3 = x
⇒√ ⇒ ___
__ =
√ 3 24 −x
__
24 − x
_____
3 x
⇒h=√ ⇒ h = __
√ 3
(b) Since the height h is the same for both poles:
__
24 − x
_____
√ 3 x = __
__ __ √
3
⇒√ 3 · √
3 x = 24 − x
⇒ 3x = 24 − x
⇒ 4x = 24
⇒x=6
Then substitute
__ this value for x in either equation for h.
⇒ h = 6√ 3 ≈ 10·39 m
Two height of the two poles is 10·39 m
Example
D
30 m
A B C
A boat sails due east from the base A of a 30 m high lighthouse, [AD]. At the point B
the angle of depression of the boat from the top of the lighthouse is 68°. Ten seconds
later the boat is at the point C and the angle of depression is now 33°.
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(a) Find |BC|, the distance the boat has travelled in this time, correct to two decimal
places.
(b) Calculate the average speed at which the boat is sailing between B and C.
Give your answer in metres per second, correct to one decimal place.
(SEC 2011)
Solution
(a) At point B, the angle of depression of the boat from the top of the lighthouse is
68°, so q = 68° from alternate angles.
D
68°
30 m
q
A B
We know that opposite side = 30 m and q = 68°.
We want to find the adjacent length |AB|.
opposite
________
Use the trigonometric formula tan q =
.
adjacent
____
30 ______
30
tan 68° = ⇒ |AB| =
= 12·12078...
|AB| tan 68°
⇒ |AB| = 12·12 m, correct to 2 d.p.
At point C, the angle of depression of the boat from the top of the lighthouse
is 33°, so q = 33° from alternate angles.
D
33°
30 m
q
A C
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We know that:
Opposite side = 30 m and q = 33°.
We want to find the adjacent length |AC|.
opposite
________ e y note
Use the trigonometric formula: tan q =
adjacent
K
____
30 ______
30 is:
⇒ tan 33° = ⇒ |AC| =
= 46·19594... The formula
tan 33°
|AC|
e d = _d _is_ta_n_c_ e_
⇒|AC| = 46·2 m, correct to 1 d.p.
S p e time
Hence, the distance the boat
has sailed from point B to point C is:
|BC| = |AC| − |AB| = 46·2 − 12·12 = 34·08 m, correct to 2 d.p.
________
distance ____ 34·1
(b) Average speed = = = 3·41 = 3·4 m/s, correct to 1 d.p.
time 10
Example
A boat travels due north from A for B C
30 minutes at 20 km/h.
It reaches B and then travels due
east for 24 minutes at 10 km/h.
It is then at C.
(a) How many kilometres has the A
boat travelled?
(b) On the diagram, draw a line segment that
shows the shortest distance from C back to A.
(c) Find the shortest distance |AC|, correct to the nearest metre.
Solution
(a) First find the distance from A to B.
We know:
Speed = 20 km/h
___
30
Time = 30 minutes = = 0·5 hr
60
not e
Ke y
Distance = Speed × Time
Therefore |AB| = 20 × 0·5 = 10 km ula:
Use the form
Next find the distance from B to C.
peed ×
We know: Distance = S
Time
Speed = 10 km/h
___
24
Time = 24 minutes = = 0·4 hr
60
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Distance = Speed × Time
Therefore |BC| = 10 × 0·4 = 4 km
Total distance travelled = |AB| + |BC| = 10 + 4 = 14 km
(b) B 4 km C
10 km Shortest distance
A
(c) To find the shortest distance |AC| use Pythagoras’ Theorem, given in the
Formulae and Tables booklet as c2= a2 + b2 .
c2 = 102____
+ 4 2 = 100 + 16
116 = 10·77032961 km
⇒c=√
To change km to m, multiply by 1000.
The shortest distance |AC| = 10 770 m, correct to the nearest metre.
Exercise
Q1 A sailing boat is taking part in a race. During the race, the boat sails towards
a lighthouse which stands on a vertical cliff face. The top of the lighthouse
is 214 m above sea level. At point A, the angle of elevation from the top of
the lighthouse to the boat is 16°. When the boat reaches point B the
angle of elevation from the
lighthouse to the boat is 28°.
Calculate |AB|, the distance 214 m
the boat has sailed towards
the cliff. Give your answer
correct to the nearest metre.
B A
(SEC 2013)
Q2 A homeowner wishes to replace the three identical steps leading to her
front door with a ramp. Each step is 10 cm high and 35 cm long. Find the
length of the ramp. Give your answer correct to one decimal place.
ramp
35 cm
10 cm
(SEC 2012)
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Q3 A group of students wish to calculate
the height of the Millennium Spire
in Dublin. The spire stands on flat
level ground. Maria, who is 1·72 m tall,
looks up at the top of the spire using a
clinometer and records an angle of elevation
of 60°. Her feet are 70 m from the base of
the spire. Ultan measures the circumference
of the base of the spire as 7·07 m.
(a) Explain how Ultan’s measurement will
be used in the calculation of the height
of the spire.
(b) Draw a suitable diagram and calculate
the height of the spire, to the nearest
metre, using the measurements obtained by the students.
(SEC 2011)
Q4 A builder wants to construct a roof with a pitch of 30°. The height of the
apex above the ceiling level is 2 m, as shown in the diagram.
xm
2m
30° 30°
ym
(a) Calculate x, the length of the rafter.
(b) Calculate y, the length of the ceiling joist, correct to two
decimal places.
(SEC 2010)
Q5 The diagram shows an equilateral triangle and the incircle of the triangle
with centre o.
o
4
m n
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(a) Given that |om| = 4, find |mn|, giving your answer in surd form.
(b) Find |on|.
(c) Write down the height of the equilateral triangle.
(d) Calculate the area of the equilateral triangle, giving your answer in
surd form.
(SEC 2008)
Q6 In the diagram shown, abcd represents the course in a triathlon.
Competitors must swim the 9 km from a to b, then run the 12 km from b to c
and cycle from c to d and back to a.
|∠ adc| = 36·87°
a
9 km
12 km
36·87°
d c
(a) Find the distance from a to c.
(b) Find the distance from c to d, correct to the nearest km.
(c) Find the total length of the course.
(SEC 2007)
Q7 Some students wish to estimate the height of a tree standing on level
ground. One of them stands so that the end of his shadow coincides with
the end of the shadow of the tree, as shown in the diagram. This student is
1·6 m tall. His friend then measures the distances shown in the diagram.
A is the angle of elevation of the sun.
A
3m 10 m
(a) Find A, correct to the nearest degree.
(b) Find the height of the tree correct to one decimal place.
(SEC 2005)
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29 Applied Measure
Learning objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
zz2D Shapes: Perimeter and area
zz3D Shapes: Nets, volume and surface area
zzProblems involving:
¡ Combined 3D shapes
¡ Displacement of liquid
¡ Recasting
¡ Flow of liquid.
2D Shapes: Perimeter and area
Shape Diagram Formula
Square Perimeter: sum of all sides
x
Perimeter = x + x + x + x = 4x
Area: length × breadth (or width)
x x
Area = x ë x = x2
x *Not in the Formulae and Tables
booklet
Rectangle y Perimeter: sum of all sides
Perimeter = x + y + x + y = 2 x + 2y
x x Area: length × breadth
Area = x ë y = xy
y *Not in the Formulae and Tables
booklet
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Shape Diagram Formula
Triangle Perimeter: sum of all sides
a c Perimeter = a + b + c
h
Area: Half the base by ⊥
(perpendicular) height
b
__
1
Area = bh
2
*In the Formulae and Tables
booklet
Parallelogram Perimeter: sum of all sides
h a Perimeter = 2a + 2b
Area: base by ⊥ height
b
Area = bh
*In the Formulae and Tables
booklet
Circle (disc) Circumference: the perimeter of
a circle.
radius
Perimeter = 2p r
Area: the enclosed space inside
a circle.
Area = p r2
*In the Formulae and Tables
booklet
Points to note
Units of measurement
Length Area
1 cm = 10 mm 1 cm2 = 10 mm × 10 mm = 100 mm2
1 m = 100 cm 1 m2 = 100 cm × 100 cm = 10 000 cm2
1 km = 1000 m
Volume Capacity
1 cm3 = 10 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm = 1000 mm3 Capacity (Volume) of a 3D shape is
the measure of the amount liquid
1 m3 = 100 cm × 100 cm × 100 cm = 1 000 000 cm3
which the 3D shape can carry.
1 litre = 1000 cm3
Always remember to read the question carefully to ensure you are working
in the correct units.
29. Applied Measure 401
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Example
The perimeter of a rectangular field is 280 m. 100 m
The length of the longer side is 100 m. Find:
(a) the length of the shorter side; and
(b) the area of the field.
Solution
(a) Let the shorter side = x. Then:
100 m
x + 100 + x + 100 = 280
2x + 200 = 280 ⇒ 2x = 280 − 200 ⇒ 2x = 80
x x
___
2x ___ 80
= ⇒ x = 40 m
2 2
2
(b) Area = length × breath = 100 × 40 = 4000 m 100 m
Example
4m
Calculate the area of the figure in the diagram.
4m
Solution
8m
Always break up the given combined shaped
4m
into standard shapes.
Area of square + Area of triangle
__
1 4m + 4m
= side2 + (breadth × height)
2
__1
= (4)2 + (4)(4) = 16 + 8 = 24 m
2
2 4m
Points to note
zzPi represents the ratio of any circle’s circumference to its diameter.
circumference
___________
zzPi (p ) = = 3·14159...
diameter
zzThere is no repeatable pattern in the digits of Pi.
Mathematicians have calculated Pi to billions of
digits, and have never found any pattern to the digits.
___
22
zzWe generally take Pi (p ) = 3·14 or or use the p button on the calculator.
7
zzIf you are asked to leave your answer in terms of p, then do not substitute
in for p. Leave your answer with p in it.
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Example
A plastic disc has a diameter of 15 cm. A smaller disc of
radius 3·5 cm is removed from the larger disc as shown.
Find the area of the remaining plastic, correct to two 3·5 cm
decimal places. Take p = 3·14.
15 cm
Solution
First find the area of the original disc of plastic.
( )
___
15 2 2
Area = p r2= 3·14 = 176·625 cm
2
Then find the area of the disc of plastic removed.
2 2
Area = p r2 = 3·14(3·5) = 38·465 cm
So the remaining area of plastic = 15 cm
area of large disc – area of small disc
2
= 176·625 − 38·465 = 138·16 cm
2 3·5 cm
= 138·16 cm to 2 d.p.
Example
A rectangular piece of metal has a width of
16p cm. Two circular pieces, each of radius 7 cm, 7 cm
are cut from the rectangular piece, as shown. l
(a) Find the length, l, of the rectangular
piece of metal. 16p cm
(b) Calculate the area of the metal remaining
(i.e. the shaded section), giving your answer in terms of p.
(SEC 2007)
Solution
(a) From the diagram we can see that l = diameter of each circle.
∴ l = 2(7) = 14 cm
(b) Area of the rectangle = 16p × 14 = 224p cm2
Area of the two circles = 2p r 2 = 2p (7)2 = 98p cm2
Therefore, the area of the remaining metal = 224p − 98p = 126p cm2
29. Applied Measure 403
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3D Shapes: Volume and surface area
Standard 3D Shapes
Shape Diagram Formula
Cube Volume: x ë x ë x = x3
Surface area: 6x2
x
*Not in the Formulae and Tables
booklet
x x
Cuboid Volume: l ë w ë h
height
h Surface area:
2(l ë w) + 2(w ë h) + 2(l ë h)
dth
l w *Not in the Formulae and Tables
wi
length booklet
Cylinder Volume: pr 2h
r
Curved surface area: 2p rh
h Total surface area:
2p rh + 2pr 2
*In the Formulae and Tables booklet
Sphere __
4
Volume: pr 3
3
Surface area: 4p r 2
r
*In the Formulae and Tables booklet
Hemisphere __2
r Volume: pr 3
3
Curved surface area: 2p r 2
Total surface area: 3pr 2
*Not in the Formulae and Tables booklet
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Points to note
In general when solving questions based on volume and surface area we can
follow these steps:
1 State the relevant formula.
2 Substitute the known variables.
3 Solve for the required value.
Example
A rectangular solid is shown.
3 cm
(a) Find the volume of the rectangular solid.
(b) Find the total surface area of the rectangular solid. 2 cm
Solution 10 cm
(a) Volume: l × w × h … state the relevant formula
= 10 × 2 × 3 … substitute the known variables
= 60 cm3 … solve for the required value
(b) Surface area: 2(l × w) + 2(w × h) + 2(l × h) … state the relevant formula
= 2(10 × 2) + 2(2 × 3) + 2(10 × 3) … substitute the known variables
= 40 + 12 + 60 = 112 cm2
… solve for the required value
Example
Find the volume and total surface area of a cylinder of radius 7 cm and height 10 cm.
Take p = 3·14, and give your answer correct to two decimal places.
Solution
Volume of a cylinder: pr2h … state the relevant formula
= (3·14)(7)2(10) … substitute the known variables
= 1538·6 cm3 … solve for the required value
Total surface area: 2p rh + 2pr2 … state the relevant formula
2
= 2(3·14)(7)(10) + 2(3·14)(7) … substitute the known variables
2
= 439·6 + 307·72 = 747·32 cm … solve for the required value
29. Applied Measure 405
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Example
Find (a) the volume and (b) the surface
area of the given sphere; leave your
answers in terms of p.
5 cm
Solution
__
4
(a) Volume = pr3 … state the relevant formula
3
__
4
= p (5)3 … substitute the known variable
3
__
4 ____
500
= p (125) = p = 166·67p cm3 … solve for the required value
3 3
(b) Surface area = 4p r2 … state the relevant formula
= 4p (5)2 … substitute the known variable
= 4p (25) = 100p cm2 … solve for the required value
Prisms
A prism is any 3D object with the
following properties:
zz Opposite ends are identical.
zz All sides or faces are flat.
zz It has the same cross-sectional
area along its entire length.
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Points to note
Cross-section of a prism
If you cut through a prism along its
length or depth, the 2D shape that you
form is called the cross-section.
The area of this shape is called the
cross-sectional area of the prism. Cross-sectional
area
Volume of a prism
The volume of any prism can be found
by multiplying the cross-sectional area
by the length or depth of the prism. length
Area of
cross-section
Total surface area of a prism
The total surface area of any prism is equal to the sum of the areas of each side.
Example
(a) Draw a sketch of the cross-section of the
given prism and find its cross-sectional area.
(b) Hence, find the volume of the prism.
(c) Find the total surface area of the prism.
15 cm
8 cm
Solution 6 cm
(a) Cross-section of the prism: Cross-sectional area of the prism
= area of the triangle
= half the base times ⊥ height
8 cm __1
= bh
2
__1
= (8)(6) = 24 cm2
2
6 cm
29. Applied Measure 407
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(b) Volume of the prism = cross-sectional area times length = 24 × 15 = 360 cm3
(c) The total surface area of any prism is equal to the sum of the areas of each side.
Using Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the third side of the cross-section
a2+ b2 = c2
(8)2 + (6)2 = x 2
100 = x 2
____
√ 100 = x = 10 cm
So the total surface area is made up as shown in the diagram below.
15 cm 15 cm 15 cm
8 cm 8 cm
+ + + +
6 cm 6 cm 6 cm 10 cm 8 cm
__
1 __
1
Area = (8)(6) Area = (8)(6) Area = (6)(15) Area = (10)(15) Area = (8)(15)
2 2
= 24 cm2 = 24 cm2 = 90 cm2 = 150 cm2 = 120 cm2
Total surface area of the prism
= 24 cm2+ 24 cm2 + 90 cm2 + 150 cm2 + 120 cm2 = 408 cm2
Nets of 3D shapes
A net of a 3D shape is a 2D representation of the 3D shape. The 2D net can be
folded up to form the 3D shape. There may be several possible nets for one 3D
shape.
The following are some examples of nets of standard 3D shapes.
Shape Diagram Sample net
Cube
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Shape Diagram Sample net
Cuboid
Cylinder
Triangular-based
prism
(right–angled)
Triangular-based
prism
(isosceles)
Equilateral
triangular-based
prism
29. Applied Measure 409
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Example
Identify which of the following nets will form a cube.
A B
C D
Solution
A B
This is not a net of a cube as the two This is a net of a cube.
highlighted squares will overlap.
C D
This is not a net of a cube as the two This is not a net of a cube as the two
highlighted squares will overlap. highlighted squares will overlap.
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Example
A soup tin in the form of a cylinder has a diameter of 7 cm and a height of 10 cm.
The cylinder is constructed from pieces of metal cut from a thin sheet measuring
23 cm by 18 cm.
(a) Which one of the four diagrams A, B, C or D could represent the sheet of metal
from which the cylinder has been cut? Give a reason for your choice.
A 23 cm B 23 cm
18 cm 18 cm
C 23 cm D 23 cm
18 cm 18 cm
(b) Find the area of metal which remains after the pieces have been cut out.
(c) Find the capacity of the soup tin.
(SEC 2012)
Solution
(a) To construct the cylinder we need two circles of radius 3·5 cm and a rectangular
piece 2p r × h where h, height, is 10 cm.
2p r = 2p (3·5) = 7p = 21·991 ≃ 22 cm
Hence a rectangular piece 22 cm × 10 cm is required to make this cylinder,
and only D has this.
(b) Area of the sheet of metal = 18 × 23 = 414 cm2
Total surface area of the cylinder = 2p rh + 2p r2 … state the relevant formula
= 2(3·14)(3·5)(10) + 2(3·14)(3·5)2
… substitute the known variables
= 219·8 + 76·93 = 296·73 cm2 … solve for the required value
Hence the metal remaining = 414 cm2 − 296·73 cm2 = 117·27 cm2
(c) Volume of a cylinder: p r2h … state the relevant formula
= (3·14)(3·5)2 (10) … substitute the known variables
= 384·65 cm3 … solve for the required value
29. Applied Measure 411
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Example
(a) Draw a sketch of the net for the given prism,
labelling all dimensions.
(b) Hence or otherwise find the total surface
area of the prism. Give your answer
correct to 2 decimal places.
20 cm
10 cm
8 cm
Solution
(a) Net of the prism
20 cm
8 cm 10 cm
(b) The total surface area of any prism is equal to the sum of the areas of each side.
First use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the third side of the cross-section.
a2 + b2 = c 2
(4)2 + (10)2 = c 2
16 + 100 = c 2 ___
____ c
116 = c = 2√ 29 cm
√ 10 cm
4 cm
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20 cm
Area
2√29
1
8 cm 10 cm
Area
2
Area Area
4 5
Area
2√29 3
Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5
___ ___
__1 __1
= (2 √ 29 )(20) = (8)(20) 29 )(20)
= (2 √ = (8)(10) = (8)(10)
___ ___ 2 2
= 40 √ 29 cm2 = 160 cm2 = 40 √ 29 cm2 = 40 cm2 = 40 cm2
Total surface
___ area of the prism:
___
= 40√ 29 cm2 + 160 cm2 + 40√ 29 cm2 + 40 cm2 + 40 cm2
= 670·8131846 cm2
≈ 670·81 cm2
Solving for unknown measurements when given
the volume or surface area of a shape
Points to note
In general when solving for unknown measurements when given the volume
or surface area of a shape we follow these steps:
1 State the relevant formula and let it equal the given value.
2 Substitute the known variables.
3 Solve for the unknown value.
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Example
The volume of a hemisphere is 486p cm3 .
(a) Find the radius of the hemisphere.
(b) Find the volume of the smallest rectangular box that the hemisphere will fit into.
Solution
__
2
(a) Volume of a hemisphere = pr 3
3
__
2
∴ pr 3 = 486p … state the relevant formula and let it equal 486p cm3
3
__ 2
r 3= 486 … solve for r
3
( ) __
3
2 ____( ) _____
1458
r 3 = 486 = = 729
2
3
⇒ r = √ 729 = 9 cm
(b) To find the smallest rectangular box needed: 9 9
zz The minimum height of the box needs to be 9 cm.
9
zz The minimum width and breadth each need to be 18 cm.
Volume of the rectangular box = (9)(18)(18) = 2916 cm3.
Example
A small sphere has a radius of 1·5 cm.
(a) Find the volume of the small sphere. Give your answer in cm3, in terms of p.
The volume of a large sphere is three times the volume of the small sphere. __
3
a√ a
____
(b) Find the radius of the large sphere. Give your answer in cm, in the form
,
b
where a, b ∈N.
(SEC 2015)
Solution
__
4
(a) Volume = p r3 … state the relevant formula
3
__
4
= p (1·5)3 … substitute the known variables
3
4 ___
__
3 ( )
27 ____
8
108
24
__
9
= p = p = p cm3
2
… solve for the required value
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( ) __
9
2
___
27
(b) Volume of the large sphere = 3 p = p cm3
2
__4 3 ___ 27
p r = p … state the relevant formula and let it equal the given value
3 2
__
4 ___
27
r 3 = … solve for r
3 2
( )( ) ( )
__
3 ___27 ___
81
r 3 = =
4___ 2 ___ 8 __
√
3 3
81 √
3 ___ 81 ____
____ 3√ 3
⇒ r = = 3 = cm, as required.
__
8 2
√ 8
Combined 3D shapes
Combined 3D shapes are shapes that are made up of two or more standard
shapes added together or subtracted from one and other.
A shape that is made up by adding together A shape that is made up by subtracting two
two or more standard shapes. or more standard shapes.
A hemisphere and cylinder combined Two hemispheres removed from a cylinder
Points to note
In general when solving questions based on combined 3D shapes we follow
these steps:
1 Separate the combined shape into standard 3D shapes.
2 State the relevant formula for each 3D shape in the question.
3 Substitute the known variables.
4 Solve for the required value.
29. Applied Measure 415
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Example
A capsule is made up of a cylindrical section and two hemispherical ends.
The length of the cylindrical section is 170 cm and the diameter is 84 cm.
170 cm
84 cm
(a) Find the surface area of the capsule in cm2 . Give your answer correct to two
significant figures.
(b) Find the volume of the capsule in m3. Give your answer correct to two decimal
places.
(SEC 2003)
Solution
(a) Always separate the combined shape into standard 3D shapes, in this case a
cylinder and sphere.
170 cm
84 cm
+ 84 cm
Total surface area = curved surface area of the cylinder + total surface area of the
sphere
= 2p rh + 4p r2 … state the relevant formula for each 3D shape
= 2p (42)(170) + 4p (42)2 … substitute the known variables
= 14 280p + 7056p … solve for the required value
= 21 336p = 21 336(3·14) = 66 995·04 cm2= 67 000 cm2 to 2 sig. fig.
(b) Volume of the capsule = volume of the cylinder + volume of the sphere. Note that as
the answer is required in m3 , all measurements need to be converted to metres.
Radius of 42 cm: Height of 170 cm:
____
42 ____
170
42 cm = = 0·42 m 170 cm = = 1·70 m
100 100
__
4
So total volume = p r2h + p r3 … state the relevant formula for each 3D shape
3
__4
= p (0·42)2(1·70) + p (0·42)3 … substitute the known variables
3
= 0·29988p + 0·098784p … solve for the required value
3 = 1·25 m3 to 2 d.p.
= 0·398664p = 0·398664(3·14) = 1·25180496 m
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Example
A shape is made by placing a small cube
on top of a larger one, as shown. The cubes
have edges of length 1 unit and 2 units respectively.
(a) Find the total surface area of this shape.
(b) The line segment [AB] is a diagonal
of the base of the shape, as shown.
(i) Find | AB |. Give your answer in surd form.
(ii) The right-angled triangle ABC is constructed C
inside this shape, as shown.
Find | BC |. Give your answer in surd form.
A
(SEC 2016)
B
Solution
(a) Total surface area is a combination of:
1 cm
2 cm
zza 1 cm cube with five sides visible and
zza 2 cm cube with six sides visible with a 1 cm2 square removed.
Hence surface area = 5(1)2 + 6(2)2 − (1)2
= 5 + 24 − 1 = 28 cm2
29. Applied Measure 417
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(b) (i) The diagram shows the constructed triangle is a right-angled triangle
with the length of two of the sides known. Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to
solve for the third side, x.
(2)2 + (2)2 = x 2
4 + 4 = x 2
8 = x 2
__ A
√ 8 = x
__ __
2 x
| | 8 = 2√ 2 cm.
Answer in surd form: AB = √ 2 B
(ii) As for part (i), the diagram shows the constructed triangle is a
right-angled triangle with the length of two of the sides known.
Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to solve for the third side, x.
__
(3)2 + (2√ 2 )2 = x 2
C
9 + 8 = x 2
17 = x 2
___
√ 17 = x
3 cm
x
___
17 cm.
Answer in surd form: | BC |= √ A
2√2
B
Displacement of liquid
Displacement of liquid refers to when an object is placed into liquid: this will
cause the liquid to rise, and the rise in liquid is equal to the volume of the object.
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Example
A spherical golf ball has a diameter of 4 cm.
(a) Find the volume of the golf ball in terms of p.
A cylindrical hole on a golf course is 10 cm in diameter and 12 cm deep. The hole is
half full of water.
(b) Calculate the volume of water in the hole, in terms of p.
The golf ball is dropped into the hole.
(c) Find the rise in the level of the water, correct to
two decimal places. 12 cm
10 cm
(SEC 2008)
Solution
__
4
(a) Volume of the golf ball (sphere) = p r 3 … state the relevant formula
3
__
4
= p (2)3 … substitute the known variable
3
__
4 ___
32
= p (8) = p = 10·67p cm3 … solve for the required value
3 3
(b) Volume of the water in the cylinder
12 cm
6 cm
10 cm
Volume : p r2h
… state the relevant formula
= p (5)2 (6) … substitute the known variables
= p (25)(6) = 150p cm3
… solve for the required value
(c) Let the rise of water in the cylinder = h. The volume of this part of the cylinder is
___
32
therefore p r 2h. So as the ball has a volume of p cm3:
3
____
32p
p r2h = … state the relevant formula and let it equal the given value
3
____
32p
p (5)2 h = … substitute the known variables
3
___
32
25h = … solve for the required value
3
_____
32 ___
32
h = = = 0·42666... = 0·43 cm to 2 d.p.
3(25) 75
29. Applied Measure 419
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Example
A container in the shape of a cylinder has a capacity
of 50 litres. The height of the cylinder is 0·7 m.
(a) Find the length of the diameter
of the cylinder. Give your answer 0·7 m
correct to the nearest whole number.
(b) A rectangular tank has a length of 0·6 m,
a width of 0·35 m and its height measures 15 cm.
Find the capacity of the rectangular tank.
(c) The rectangular tank is full of water. This water is then poured into the
cylindrical container in (a) above. Find the depth of water in the cylinder.
Give your answer correct to one decimal place.
(SEC 2012)
Solutions
(a) First change all measurements to the same unit. Note: 1 litre = 1000 cm3.
50 litres = 50 000 cm3 and 0·7 m = 70 cm
Volume of the cylinder = pr2h. Therefore:
pr2h = 50 000 …s tate the relevant formula and let it equal the
given value
pr2(70) = 50 000 …substitute the known variables
50 000
______
r2=
= 227·36
…solve for the unknown value
p (70)
_______
227·36
⇒ r = √ = 15·08 = 15 cm to the nearest whole number.
(b) Volume = l × w × h …state the relevant formula
= 60 × 35 × 15 …substitute the known variables
= 31 500 cm3 …solve for the required value
31 500 cm3
__________
Hence capacity in litres = = 31·5 litres.
1000
(c) Let the rise of water in the cylinder = h. The volume of this part of the cylinder is
therefore pr 2h. As the ball has a volume of 31 500 cm3 :
pr 2h = 31 500
…state the relevant formula and let it equal the given value
p (15)2 h = 31 500
…substitute the known variables
p (225)h = 31 500 …solve for the required value
31 500
______
h =
= 44·5634 = 44·6 cm, correct to 1 d.p.
225p
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Recasting
Recasting refers to melting down a given object and reforming it into another
shape of the same volume.
Example
A steelworks buys steel in the form of solid cylindrical rods of radius 10 centimetres
and length 30 metres. The steel rods are melted to produce solid spherical
ball-bearings. No steel is wasted in the process.
(a) Find the volume of steel in one cylindrical rod, in terms of p.
(b) If the radius of a ball-bearing is 2 centimetres, how many such ball-bearings can
be made from one steel rod?
(c) Ball-bearings of a different size are also produced. One steel rod makes 225 000
of these new ball-bearings. Find the radius of the new ball-bearings.
Solution
(a) First, all measurements need to be converted to the same unit, cm or m.
Here, we will convert all measurements to cm.
Length of 30 m: 30 m = 30(100) = 3000 cm
Volume of a cylinder: p r2h
… state the relevant formula
= p (10)2 (3000)
… substitute the known variables
= p (100)(3000) = 300 000p cm3 … solve for the required value
29. Applied Measure 421
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__
4
(b) Volume of a ball-bearing = volume of a sphere = pr3
3
__
4
pr3 … state the relevant formula
3
__
4
= p (2)3 … substitute the known variables
3
__
4 ___
32
= p (8) = p cm2 … solve for the required value
3 3
300 000 p
_________
Hence number of ball-bearings =
= 28 125.
___
32
p
3
( ) __
4
(c) Total volume of 225 000 ball-bearings = 225 000 p r 3 .
3
( ) __
4
225 000 p r 3 = 300 000p
3
… state the relevant formula and let it equal
the given value
__
4 3 __ 4
⇒ r =
… solve for the required value
3 3
( )( )
__
3 __ 4
⇒ r 3= = 1
4 3
__
3
Hence r = √ 1 = 1 cm.
Flow of liquid
This section shows how to solve problems in which liquid is flowing from one
container into another container.
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Points to note
The flow rate of a liquid is the measure of the volume of liquid that passes
through a pipe or container per second.
Formula for the flow rate:
Flow rate through a pipe = cross-sectional area × the speed
= pr2 × speed
The unit of flow rate
Flow rate is measured in cm3/s or m3/s.
Example
Water flows through a cylindrical pipe with
radius 2 cm at a speed of 20 cm/s into a
rectangular tank with base 90 cm by 60 cm.
What is the height of the water after 10 minutes?
Take p = 3·14, and give your answer correct to
one decimal place.
Solution
Flow rate through a pipe = cross-sectional area × speed
2
= p r × speed
2
= (3·14)(2) × 20
3
= 251·2 cm /s
Length of time the water is flowing through the
pipe = 10 minutes = 10(60) = 600 seconds.
Therefore total volume of water that has flown through the pipe in
3
10 minutes = 251·2 × 600 = 150 720 cm .
Let the rise of water in the tank = h. Then:
l × w × h = 150 720 … state the relevant formula and let it equal the given value
90 × 60 × h = 150 720 … substitute the known variables
5400h = 150 720 … solve for the required value
_______
150 720
Hence h =
= 27·9111 = 27·9 cm, correct to 1 d.p.
5400
29. Applied Measure 423
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Exercise
Q1 The perimeter of a rectangle is 200 cm. If length : breadth = 3 : 2, find the
area of the rectangle. (SEC 2004)
Q2 The perimeter of a square lawn is 96 m.
(a) Find the area of the lawn in m2 .
(b) A garden roller, in the shape of a cylinder,
has a diameter of 75 cm and is 1 m wide,
as shown in the diagram. Calculate the
curved surface area of the roller in m2 75 cm
correct to one decimal place. Take p = 3·14.
(c) What percentage of the lawn will be
1m
rolled when the roller has completed nine revolutions? (SEC 2006)
Q3 A solid cone has a vertical height of 4 cm. The radius of its base is 3 cm.
(a) Find, in terms of p, the volume of the cone.
(b) Find, in terms of p, the curved surface area of the cone.
Q4 A solid metal cylinder has height 20 cm and diameter 14 cm.
(a) Find its curved surface area in terms of p.
A hemisphere with diameter 14 cm is
removed from the top of this cylinder, as shown.
(b) Find the total surface area of the remaining
solid in terms of p. (SEC 2005)
Q5 A hot water container is in the shape of a
25 cm
hemisphere on top of a cylinder, as shown.
The hemisphere has a radius of 25 cm and
the container has a height of 90 cm. Find the 90 cm
internal volume of the container in litres, giving
your answer correct to the nearest litre.
(SEC 2007)
Q6 A packet of sweets is in the
shape of a closed triangular-
based prism. It has a height of
8 cm and a triangular base with
sides of length 4 cm, 4 cm, and
6 cm. Construct an accurate net
4 cm 8 cm
of the prism. Show all of your 4 cm
construction lines clearly.
6 cm
(SEC 2016)
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Q7 A solid rectangular metal block has length 12 cm and width 5 cm.
The volume of the block is 90 cm3.
(a) Find the height of the block in cm.
(b) Find the total surface area of the block in cm2.
(c) Each cm3 of the metal has mass 8·4 g. The total mass of a number of
these metal blocks is 113·4 kg. How many blocks are there?
(SEC 2003)
Q8 A solid metal hemisphere has a radius of 12 cm.
(a) Calculate the volume of the hemisphere.
Give your answer in terms of p.
(b) A solid cone of radius 4 cm and
height 12 cm is cut from the hemisphere.
Calculate the volume of the cone. Give your answer in terms of p.
(c) The remaining metal in the hemisphere is melted down and recast into
cones of the same dimensions as the cone above. How many cones can
be formed from the remaining metal?
(SEC 2013)
Q9 (a) The volume of a sphere is 36p cm3 . Find the
radius of the sphere.
(b) When the sphere is fully immersed in a
cylinder of water, the level of the water
rises by 2·25 cm. Find the radius of the cylinder.
Q10 An ornament is carved from a rectangular block of wood which has a
square base and a height of 24 cm. The ornament
consists of two identical spheres and two identical
cubes as illustrated in the diagram. The diameter of
each sphere is equal to the length of the side of each cube.
The ornament has the same width as the original block.
24 cm
(a) Find the length of a side of one of the cubes.
(b) Find the volume of the ornament, correct to
one decimal place.
(c) In making the ornament, what percentage of
the original block of wood is carved away?
(SEC 2012)
Q11 The diagram shows a rectangle of length 42 cm.
The area of the rectangle is 966 cm2.
(a) Find the height of the rectangle.
(b) Find the area of the shaded triangle.
42
29. Applied Measure 425
Revise Wise JC Math 2_Chapter 29.indd 425 01/04/21 3:28 PM
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