Bridge

A bridge is a structure built to span a physical obstacle (such as a

body of water, valley, road, or railway) without blocking the way
underneath. It is constructed for the purpose of providing passage
over the obstacle, which is usually something that is otherwise
difficult or impossible to cross. There are many different designs of
bridges, each serving a particular purpose and applicable to
different situations. Designs of bridges vary depending on factors
such as the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where
the bridge is constructed and anchored, and the material used to
make it, and the funds available to build it. Bosphorus Bridge in Istanbul,
Turkey
The earliest bridges were likely made with fallen trees and stepping
stones. The Neolithic people built boardwalk bridges across
marshland. The Arkadiko Bridge (dating from the 13th century BC, in the
Peloponnese) is one of the oldest arch bridges still in existence and use.

Etymology
The Oxford English Dictionary traces the origin of the word bridge to an
1
Old English word brycg, of the same meaning.[1][2]: b ridge   The word can
be traced directly back to Proto-Indo-European *bʰrēw-. The origin of the
2
word for the card game of the same name is unknown.[2]: b ridge  

History
Underneath the Fort Pitt
Bridge in Pittsburgh,
The simplest and earliest types of bridges were stepping stones. Neolithic
Pennsylvania, US
people also built a form of boardwalk across marshes; examples of such
bridges include the Sweet Track and the Post Track in England,
approximately 6000 years old.[3] Undoubtedly, ancient people
would also have used log bridges; that is a timber bridge[4] that fall
naturally or are intentionally felled or placed across streams. Some
of the first human-made bridges with significant span were
probably intentionally felled trees.[5]

Among the oldest timber bridges is the Holzbrücke Rapperswil-

Hurden bridge that crossed upper Lake Zürich in Switzerland;
prehistoric timber pilings discovered to the west of the Seedamm
causeway date back to 1523 BC. The first wooden footbridge there The old stone-made arch bridge over
led across Lake Zürich; it was reconstructed several times through the Kerava River in Kerava, Finland
the late 2nd century AD, when the Roman Empire built a 6-metre-
wide (20  ft) wooden bridge to carry transport across the lake.
Between 1358 and 1360, Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria, built a 'new' wooden bridge across the lake that was
used until 1878; it was approximately 1,450 metres (4,760 ft) long
and 4 metres (13 ft) wide. On April 6, 2001, a reconstruction of the
original wooden footbridge was opened; it is also the longest
wooden bridge in Switzerland.

The Arkadiko Bridge is one of four Mycenaean corbel arch bridges

part of a former network of roads, designed to accommodate
chariots, between the fort of Tiryns and town of Epidauros in the
Peloponnese, in southern Greece. Dating to the Greek Bronze Age
The Stone Bridge in Skopje, North
(13th century BC), it is one of the oldest arch bridges still in
Macedonia
existence and use. Several intact arched stone bridges from the
Hellenistic era can be found in the Peloponnese.[6]

The greatest bridge builders of antiquity were the ancient

Romans.[7] The Romans built arch bridges and aqueducts that
could stand in conditions that would damage or destroy earlier
designs. Some stand today.[8] An example is the Alcántara Bridge,
built over the river Tagus, in Spain. The Romans also used cement, The Siosepol bridge over Zayandeh
which reduced the variation of strength found in natural stone.[9] River is an example of Safavid
One type of cement, called pozzolana, consisted of water, lime, dynasty (1502–1722) bridge design.
sand, and volcanic rock. Brick and mortar bridges were built after Isfahan, Iran.
the Roman era, as the technology for cement was lost (then later
rediscovered).

In India, the Arthashastra treatise by Kautilya mentions the

construction of dams and bridges.[10] A Mauryan bridge near
Girnar was surveyed by James Princep.[11] The bridge was swept
away during a flood, and later repaired by Puspagupta, the chief
architect of emperor Chandragupta I.[11] The use of stronger
bridges using plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible in India by The 13th century Wetherby Bridge
about the 4th century.[12] A number of bridges, both for military and spans the River Wharfe.
commercial purposes, were constructed by the Mughal
administration in India.[13]

Although large Chinese bridges of wooden construction existed at

the time of the Warring States period, the oldest surviving stone
bridge in China is the Zhaozhou Bridge, built from 595 to 605 AD Seasonal bridge north of Jispa, H.P.,
during the Sui dynasty. This bridge is also historically significant as India. 2010
it is the world's oldest open-spandrel stone segmental arch bridge.
European segmental arch bridges date back to at least the Alconétar
Bridge (approximately 2nd century AD), while the enormous
Roman era Trajan's Bridge (105 AD) featured open-spandrel
segmental arches in wooden construction.

Rope bridges, a simple type of suspension bridge, were used by the

Inca civilization in the Andes mountains of South America, just
prior to European colonization in the 16th century.

The Ashanti built bridges over streams and rivers.[14][15] They were
constructed by pounding four large forked tree trunks into the Bridges in Amsterdam, Netherlands
stream bed, placing beams along these forked pillars, then
positioning cross-beams that were finally covered with
four to six inches of dirt.[15]

During the 18th century, there were many innovations

in the design of timber bridges by Hans Ulrich
Grubenmann, Johannes Grubenmann, and others. The
first book on bridge engineering was written by Hubert
Gautier in 1716.
Samuel Beckett Bridge in Dublin, Ireland
A major breakthrough in bridge technology came with
the erection of the Iron Bridge in Shropshire, England
in 1779. It used cast iron for the first time as arches to
cross the river Severn.[16] With the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron
were developed for larger bridges, but iron does not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With
the advent of steel, which has a high tensile strength, much larger bridges were built, many using the ideas
of Gustave Eiffel.[17]

In Canada and the United States, numerous timber covered bridges

were built in the late 1700s to the late 1800s, reminiscent of earlier
designs in Germany and Switzerland. Some covered bridges were
also built in Asia.[18] In later years, some were partly made of stone
or metal but the trusses were usually still made of wood; in the
United States, there were three styles of trusses, the Queen Post, the
Burr Arch and the Town Lattice.[19] Hundreds of these structures The covered bridge in West
still stand in North America. They were brought to the attention of Montrose, Ontario, Canada
the general public in the 1990s by the novel, movie, and play The
Bridges of Madison County.[20][21]

In 1927 welding pioneer Stefan Bryła designed the first welded road bridge in the world, the Maurzyce
Bridge which was later built across the river Słudwia at Maurzyce near Łowicz, Poland in 1929. In 1995,
the American Welding Society presented the Historic Welded Structure Award for the bridge to Poland.[22]

Types of bridges
Bridges can be categorized in several different ways. Common categories include the type of structural
elements used, by what they carry, whether they are fixed or movable, and by the materials used.

Structure types

Bridges may be classified by how the actions of tension, compression, bending, torsion and shear are
distributed through their structure. Most bridges will employ all of these to some degree, but only a few will
predominate. The separation of forces and moments may be quite clear. In a suspension or cable-stayed
bridge, the elements in tension are distinct in shape and placement. In other cases the forces may be
distributed among a large number of members, as in a truss.
 Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by substructure
units and can be either simply supported when the beams only connect
across a single span, or continuous when the beams are connected across
two or more spans. When there are multiple spans, the intermediate
supports are known as piers. The earliest beam bridges were simple logs
that sat across streams and similar simple structures. In modern times,
beam bridges can range from small, wooden beams to large, steel boxes.
The vertical force on the bridge becomes a shear and flexural load on the
beam which is transferred down its length to the substructures on either
side[23] They are typically made of steel, concrete or wood. Girder bridges
and plate girder bridges, usually made from steel, are types of beam
bridges. Box girder bridges, made from steel, concrete, or both, are also
beam bridges. Beam bridge spans rarely exceed 250 feet (76 m) long, as
the flexural stresses increase proportionally to the square of the length
(and deflection increases proportionally to the 4th power of the length).[24]
However, the main span of the Rio–Niteroi Bridge, a box girder bridge, is
Beam bridge 300 metres (980 ft).

The world's longest beam bridge is Lake Pontchartrain

Causeway in southern Louisiana in the United States, at
23.83 miles (38.35  km), with individual spans of 56 feet
(17 m).[25] Beam bridges are the simplest and oldest type of
bridge in use today,[26] and are a popular type.[27]

A truss bridge is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed

of a truss. This truss is a structure of connected elements forming
triangular units. The connected elements (typically straight) may be
stressed from tension, compression, or sometimes both in response to
dynamic loads. Truss bridges are one of the oldest types of modern
bridges. The basic types of truss bridges shown in this article have simple
designs which could be easily analyzed by nineteenth and early twentieth-
century engineers. A truss bridge is economical to construct owing to its
Truss bridge efficient use of materials.

Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevers—horizontal beams supported

on only one end. Most cantilever bridges use a pair of continuous spans
that extend from opposite sides of the supporting piers to meet at the
center of the obstacle the bridge crosses. Cantilever bridges are
constructed using much the same materials and techniques as beam
bridges. The difference comes in the action of the forces through the
bridge.

Some cantilever bridges also have a smaller beam

connecting the two cantilevers, for extra strength.
Cantilever bridge
The largest cantilever bridge is the 549-metre (1,801  ft)
Quebec Bridge in Quebec, Canada.

Arch bridges have abutments at each end. The weight of the bridge is
thrust into the abutments at either side. The earliest known arch bridges
were built by the Greeks, and include the Arkadiko Bridge.

With the span of 220 metres (720 ft), the Solkan Bridge over
the Soča River at Solkan in Slovenia is the second-largest
stone bridge in the world and the longest railroad stone
Arch bridge bridge. It was completed in 1905. Its arch, which was
constructed from over 5,000 tonnes (4,900 long tons; 5,500
short tons) of stone blocks in just 18 days, is the second-
largest stone arch in the world, surpassed only by the
 Friedensbrücke (Syratalviadukt) in Plauen, and the largest
railroad stone arch. The arch of the Friedensbrücke, which
was built in the same year, has the span of 90 m (295 ft) and
crosses the valley of the Syrabach River. The difference
between the two is that the Solkan Bridge was built from
stone blocks, whereas the Friedensbrücke was built from a
mixture of crushed stone and cement mortar.[28]

The world's largest arch bridge is the Chaotianmen Bridge

over the Yangtze River with a length of 1,741 m (5,712 ft) and
a span of 552 m (1,811 ft). The bridge was opened April 29,
2009, in Chongqing, China.[29]

Tied-arch bridges have an arch-shaped superstructure, but differ from

conventional arch bridges. Instead of transferring the weight of the bridge
and traffic loads into thrust forces into the abutments, the ends of the
arches are restrained by tension in the bottom chord of the structure. They
are also called bowstring arches.

Tied arch bridge

Suspension bridges are suspended from cables. The earliest suspension

bridges were made of ropes or vines covered with pieces of bamboo. In
modern bridges, the cables hang from towers that are attached to caissons
or cofferdams. The caissons or cofferdams are implanted deep into the bed
of the lake, river or sea. Sub-types include the simple suspension bridge,
the stressed ribbon bridge, the underspanned suspension bridge, the
suspended-deck suspension bridge, and the self-anchored suspension
bridge. There is also what is sometimes called a "semi-suspension" bridge,
of which the Ferry Bridge in Burton-upon-Trent is the only one of its kind in
Europe.[30]

Suspension bridge The longest suspension bridge in the world is the 4,608  m
(15,118 ft) 1915 Çanakkale Bridge in Turkey.

Cable-stayed bridges, like suspension bridges, are held up by cables.

However, in a cable-stayed bridge, less cable is required and the towers
holding the cables are proportionately higher.[31] The first known cable-
stayed bridge was designed in 1784 by C. T. (or C. J.) Löscher.[32][33]

The longest cable-stayed bridge since 2012 is the 1,104  m

(3,622 ft) Russky Bridge in Vladivostok, Russia.[34]
Cable-stayed bridge

A ford bridge allows the flow of water over the way.

Ford-Bridge
Some Engineers sub-divide 'beam' bridges into slab, beam-and-slab and box girder on the basis of their
cross-section.[35] A slab can be solid or voided (though this is no longer favored for inspectability reasons)
while beam-and-slab consists of concrete or steel girders connected by a concrete slab.[36] A box-girder
cross-section consists of a single-cell or multi-cellular box. In recent years, integral bridge construction has
also become popular.

Fixed or movable bridges

Most bridges are fixed bridges, meaning they have no moving parts
and stay in one place until they fail or are demolished. Temporary
bridges, such as Bailey bridges, are designed to be assembled, taken
apart, transported to a different site, and re-used. They are important
in military engineering and are also used to carry traffic while an
old bridge is being rebuilt. Movable bridges are designed to move
out of the way of boats or other kinds of traffic, which would
otherwise be too tall to fit. These are generally electrically Tank bridge transporter of the United
powered.[37] States Army. These are mobile
bridges; tanks and other vehicles
The Tank bridge transporter (TBT) has the same cross-country
can use them to cross certain
performance as a tank even when fully loaded. It can deploy, drop
obstacles.
off and load bridges independently, but it cannot recover them.

Double-decked bridges

Double-decked (or double-decker) bridges have two levels,

such as the George Washington Bridge, connecting New
York City to Bergen County, New Jersey, US, as the world's
busiest bridge, carrying 102 million vehicles annually;[38][39]
truss work between the roadway levels provided stiffness to
the roadways and reduced movement of the upper level when
the lower level was installed three decades after the upper
level. The Tsing Ma Bridge and Kap Shui Mun Bridge in
Hong Kong have six lanes on their upper decks, and on their
lower decks there are two lanes and a pair of tracks for MTR
metro trains. Some double-decked bridges only use one level
for street traffic; the Washington Avenue Bridge in
Minneapolis reserves its lower level for automobile and light
The double-decked George Washington rail traffic and its upper level for pedestrian and bicycle traffic
Bridge, connecting New York City to Bergen (predominantly students at the University of Minnesota).
County, New Jersey, US, is the world's Likewise, in Toronto, the Prince Edward Viaduct has five
busiest bridge, carrying 106 million vehicles lanes of motor traffic, bicycle lanes, and sidewalks on its
annually.[38][39] upper deck; and a pair of tracks for the Bloor–Danforth
subway line on its lower deck. The western span of the San
Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge also has two levels.

Robert Stephenson's High Level Bridge across the River Tyne in Newcastle upon Tyne, completed in
1849, is an early example of a double-decked bridge. The upper level carries a railway, and the lower level
is used for road traffic. Other examples include Britannia Bridge over the Menai Strait and Craigavon
Bridge in Derry, Northern Ireland. The Oresund Bridge between Copenhagen and Malmö consists of a
four-lane highway on the upper level and a pair of railway tracks at the lower level. Tower Bridge in
London is different example of a double-decked bridge, with the central section consisting of a low-level
bascule span and a high-level footbridge.

Viaducts

A viaduct is made up of multiple bridges connected into one longer structure. The longest and some of the
highest bridges are viaducts, such as the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway and Millau Viaduct.

Multi-way bridge

A multi-way bridge has three or more separate spans which meet

near the center of the bridge. Multi-way bridges with only three
spans appear as a "T" or "Y" when viewed from above. Multi-way
bridges are extremely rare. The Tridge, Margaret Bridge, and
Zanesville Y-Bridge are examples.

Bridge types by use The Tridge is a type of multi-way

bridge
A bridge can be categorized by what it is designed to carry, such as
trains, pedestrian or road traffic (road bridge), a pipeline (Pipe
bridge) or waterway for water transport or barge traffic. An aqueduct is a bridge that carries water,
resembling a viaduct, which is a bridge that connects points of equal height. A road-rail bridge carries both
road and rail traffic. Overway is a term for a bridge that separates incompatible intersecting traffic,
especially road and rail.[40] A bridge can carry overhead power lines as does the Storstrøm Bridge.

Some bridges accommodate other purposes, such as the tower of Nový Most Bridge in Bratislava, which
features a restaurant, or a bridge-restaurant which is a bridge built to serve as a restaurant. Other suspension
bridge towers carry transmission antennas.[41]

Conservationists use wildlife overpasses to reduce habitat fragmentation and animal-vehicle collisions.[42]
The first animal bridges sprung up in France in the 1950s, and these types of bridges are now used
worldwide to protect both large and small wildlife.[43][44][45]

Bridges are subject to unplanned uses as well. The areas underneath some bridges have become makeshift
shelters and homes to homeless people, and the undertimbers of bridges all around the world are spots of
prevalent graffiti. Some bridges attract people attempting suicide, and become known as suicide
bridges.[46][47]

Bridge types by material

The materials used to build the structure are also used to categorize bridges. Until the end of the 18th
century, bridges were made out of timber, stone and masonry. Modern bridges are currently built in
concrete, steel, fiber reinforced polymers (FRP), stainless steel or combinations of those materials. Living
bridges have been constructed of live plants such as Ficus elastica tree roots in India[48] and wisteria vines
in Japan.[49]
 Bridge
Materials used
type

For small footbridges, the cantilevers may be simple

beams; however, large cantilever bridges designed to
Cantilever handle road or rail traffic use trusses built from
structural steel, or box girders built from prestressed
concrete.[50]

The cables are usually made of steel cables galvanised

Suspension with zinc, along with most of the bridge, but some
bridges are still made with steel-reinforced concrete.[51]
The Iron Bridge completed in 1781
Stone, brick and other such materials that are strong in was the first cast iron bridge.
Arch
compression and somewhat so in shear.

Beam bridges can use pre-stressed concrete, an

inexpensive building material, which is then embedded
Beam with rebar. The resulting bridge can resist both
compression and tension forces.[52]
The triangular pieces of truss bridges are manufactured
Truss from straight and steel bars, according to the truss
bridge designs.[53]

Analysis and design Krämerbrücke in Erfurt, Germany –

with half timbered buildings
Unlike buildings whose design is led by architects, bridges are
usually designed by engineers. This follows from the importance of
the engineering requirements; namely spanning the obstacle and
having the durability to survive, with minimal maintenance, in an
aggressive outdoor environment.[36] Bridges are first analysed; the
bending moment and shear force distributions are calculated due to
the applied loads. For this, the finite element method is the most
popular. The analysis can be one-, two-, or three-dimensional. For
the majority of bridges, a two-dimensional plate model (often with
stiffening beams) is sufficient or an upstand finite element
model.[54] On completion of the analysis, the bridge is designed to
resist the applied bending moments and shear forces, section sizes Small stone bridge, Othonoi, Greece
are selected with sufficient capacity to resist the stresses. Many
bridges are made of prestressed concrete which has good durability
properties, either by pre-tensioning of beams prior to installation or
post-tensioning on site.

In most countries, bridges, like other structures, are designed

according to Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
principles. In simple terms, this means that the load is factored up
by a factor greater than unity, while the resistance or capacity of the Highway overpass under
structure is factored down, by a factor less than unity. The effect of construction in 2021, over Interstate
the factored load (stress, bending moment) should be less than the 5 in Burbank, California
factored resistance to that effect. Both of these factors allow for
uncertainty and are greater when the uncertainty is greater.

Aesthetics
Most bridges are utilitarian in appearance, but in some cases, the
appearance of the bridge can have great importance.[55] Often, this
is the case with a large bridge that serves as an entrance to a city, or
crosses over a main harbor entrance. These are sometimes known
as signature bridges. Designers of bridges in parks and along
parkways often place more importance on aesthetics, as well.
Examples include the stone-faced bridges along the Taconic State
Parkway in New York.
The Prins Clausbrug across the
Generally bridges are more aesthetically pleasing if they are simple Amsterdam–Rhine Canal in Utrecht,
in shape, the deck is thinner (in proportion to its span), the lines of Netherlands
the structure are continuous, and the shapes of the structural
elements reflect the forces acting on them.[56] To create a beautiful
image, some bridges are built much taller than necessary. This type,
often found in east-Asian style gardens, is called a Moon bridge,
evoking a rising full moon. Other garden bridges may cross only a
dry bed of stream-washed pebbles, intended only to convey an
impression of a stream. Often in palaces, a bridge will be built over
an artificial waterway as symbolic of a passage to an important
place or state of mind. A set of five bridges cross a sinuous
waterway in an important courtyard of the Forbidden City in
Beijing, China. The central bridge was reserved exclusively for the
use of the Emperor and Empress, with their attendants. The World Heritage Site of Stari
Most (Old Bridge) gives its name to
the city of Mostar, Bosnia and
Bridge maintenance Herzegovina

The estimated life of bridges varies between 25 and 80 years

depending on location and material.[57][58] However, bridges may
age hundred years with proper maintenance and rehabilitation.
Bridge maintenance consisting of a combination of structural health
monitoring and testing. This is regulated in country-specific
engineer standards and includes an ongoing monitoring every three
to six months, a simple test or inspection every two to three years
and a major inspection every six to ten years. In Europe, the cost of
maintenance is considerable[35] and is higher in some countries than
spending on new bridges. The lifetime of welded steel bridges can
be significantly extended by aftertreatment of the weld transitions. Bridge at Gatwick Airport, under
This results in a potential high benefit, using existing bridges far which planes can pass
beyond the planned lifetime.

Bridge traffic loading

While the response of a bridge to the applied loading is well
understood, the applied traffic loading itself is still the subject of
research.[59] This is a statistical problem as loading is highly
variable, particularly for road bridges. Load Effects in bridges
(stresses, bending moments) are designed for using the principles of
Load and Resistance Factor Design. Before factoring to allow for
Highway bridge treated with high-
frequency impact treatment
uncertainty, the load effect is generally considered to be the maximum characteristic value in a specified
return period. Notably, in Europe, it is the maximum value expected in 1000 years.

Bridge standards generally include a load model, deemed to represent the characteristic maximum load to
be expected in the return period. In the past, these load models were agreed by standard drafting
committees of experts but today, this situation is changing. It is now possible to measure the components of
bridge traffic load, to weigh trucks, using weigh-in-motion (WIM) technologies. With extensive WIM
databases, it is possible to calculate the maximum expected load effect in the specified return period. This is
an active area of research, addressing issues of opposing direction lanes,[60][61] side-by-side (same
direction) lanes,[62][63] traffic growth,[64] permit/non-permit vehicles[65] and long-span bridges (see
below). Rather than repeat this complex process every time a bridge is to be designed, standards authorities
specify simplified notional load models, notably HL-93,[66][67] intended to give the same load effects as the
characteristic maximum values. The Eurocode is an example of a standard for bridge traffic loading that
was developed in this way.[68]

Traffic loading on long span bridges

Most bridge standards are only applicable for short and medium
spans[69] - for example, the Eurocode is only applicable for loaded
lengths up to 200 m. Longer spans are dealt with on a case-by-case
basis. It is generally accepted that the intensity of load reduces as
span increases because the probability of many trucks being closely
spaced and extremely heavy reduces as the number of trucks
involved increases. It is also generally assumed that short spans are
governed by a small number of trucks traveling at high speed, with
an allowance for dynamics. Longer spans on the other hand, are Traffic on Forth Road Bridge,
governed by congested traffic and no allowance for dynamics is Scotland, before it was closed to
needed. Calculating the loading due to congested traffic remains a general traffic. Traffic has now been
challenge as there is a paucity of data on inter-vehicle gaps, both moved to the Queensferry Crossing,
within-lane and inter-lane, in congested conditions. Weigh-in- which can be seen on the left.
Motion (WIM) systems provide data on inter-vehicle gaps but only
operate well in free flowing traffic conditions. Some authors have
used cameras to measure gaps and vehicle lengths in jammed situations and have inferred weights from
lengths using WIM data.[70] Others have used microsimulation to generate typical clusters of vehicles on
the bridge.[71][72][73]

Bridge vibration
Bridges vibrate under load and this contributes, to a greater or lesser extent, to the stresses.[36] Vibration
and dynamics are generally more significant for slender structures such as pedestrian bridges and long-span
road or rail bridges. One of the most famous examples is the Tacoma Narrows Bridge that collapsed shortly
after being constructed due to excessive vibration. More recently, the Millennium Bridge in London
vibrated excessively under pedestrian loading and was closed and retrofitted with a system of dampers. For
smaller bridges, dynamics is not catastrophic but can contribute an added amplification to the stresses due to
static effects. For example, the Eurocode for bridge loading specifies amplifications of between 10% and
70%, depending on the span, the number of traffic lanes and the type of stress (bending moment or shear
force).[74]

Vehicle-bridge dynamic interaction

There have been many studies of the dynamic interaction between vehicles and bridges during vehicle
crossing events. Fryba[75] did pioneering work on the interaction of a moving load and an Euler-Bernoulli
beam. With increased computing power, vehicle-bridge interaction (VBI) models have become ever more
sophisticated.[76][77][78][79] The concern is that one of the many natural frequencies associated with the
vehicle will resonate with the bridge first natural frequency.[80] The vehicle-related frequencies include
body bounce and axle hop but there are also pseudo-frequencies associated with the vehicle's speed of
crossing[81] and there are many frequencies associated with the surface profile.[59] Given the wide variety
of heavy vehicles on road bridges, a statistical approach has been suggested, with VBI analyses carried out
for many statically extreme loading events.[82]

Bridge failures
The failure of bridges is of special concern for structural engineers
in trying to learn lessons vital to bridge design, construction and
maintenance.

The failure of bridges first assumed national interest in Britain

during the Victorian era when many new designs were being built,
often using new materials, with some of them failing
catastrophically.

In the United States, the National Bridge Inventory tracks the

structural evaluations of all bridges, including designations such as
"structurally deficient" and "functionally obsolete".
Mississippi Highway 33 bridge over
the Homochitto River failed due to
Bridge health monitoring flood induced erosion

There are several methods used to monitor the condition of large

structures like bridges. Many long-span bridges are now routinely monitored with a range of sensors,
including strain transducers, accelerometers,[83] tiltmeters, and GPS. Accelerometers have the advantage
that they are inertial, i.e., they do not require a reference point to measure from. This is often a problem for
distance or deflection measurement, especially if the bridge is over water.[84] Crowdsourcing bridge
conditions by accessing data passively captured by cell phones, which routinely include accelerometers and
GPS sensors, has been suggested as an alternative to including sensors during bridge construction and an
augment for professional examinations.[85]

An option for structural-integrity monitoring is "non-contact monitoring", which uses the Doppler effect
(Doppler shift). A laser beam from a Laser Doppler Vibrometer is directed at the point of interest, and the
vibration amplitude and frequency are extracted from the Doppler shift of the laser beam frequency due to
the motion of the surface.[86] The advantage of this method is that the setup time for the equipment is faster
and, unlike an accelerometer, this makes measurements possible on multiple structures in as short a time as
possible. Additionally, this method can measure specific points on a bridge that might be difficult to access.
However, vibrometers are relatively expensive and have the disadvantage that a reference point is needed to
measure from.

Snapshots in time of the external condition of a bridge can be recorded using Lidar to aid bridge
inspection.[87] This can provide measurement of the bridge geometry (to facilitate the building of a
computer model) but the accuracy is generally insufficient to measure bridge deflections under load.

While larger modern bridges are routinely monitored electronically, smaller bridges are generally inspected
visually by trained inspectors. There is considerable research interest in the challenge of smaller bridges as
they are often remote and do not have electrical power on site. Possible solutions are the installation of
sensors on a specialist inspection vehicle and the use of its measurements as it drives over the bridge to infer
information about the bridge condition.[88][89][90] These vehicles can be equipped with accelerometers,
gyrometers, Laser Doppler Vibrometers[91][92] and some even have the capability to apply a resonant force
to the road surface in order to dynamically excite the bridge at its resonant frequency.

Visual index

See also
Transport portal

Engineering portal

Air draft Jet bridge

Architectural engineering Landscape architecture
Bridge chapel Megaproject
Bridge tower Military bridges
Bridge to nowhere Orphan bridge
Bridges Act Outline of bridges
BS 5400 Overpass
Causeway Pontoon bridge
Coal trestle Rigid-frame bridge
Covered bridges Structure gauge
Cross-sea traffic ways Transporter bridge
Culvert Tensegrity
Deck Trestle bridge
Devil's Bridge Tunnel
Footbridge

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Further reading
Bagher Shemirani, Alireza. Experimental and numerical studies of concrete bridge decks
using ultra high-performance concrete and reinforced concrete. Computers and Concrete,
29(6), p. 407-418, 2022. doi:10.12989/cac.2022.29.6.407 (https://doi.org/10.12989%2Fcac.2
022.29.6.407)
Brown, David J. Bridges: Three Thousand Years of Defying Nature. Richmond Hill, Ont:
Firefly Books, 2005. ISBN 1-55407-099-6.
Sandak, Cass R. Bridges. An Easy-read modern wonders book. New York: F. Watts, 1983.
ISBN 0-531-04624-9.
 Whitney, Charles S. Bridges of the World: Their Design and Construction. Mineola, NY:
Dover Publications, 2003. ISBN 0-486-42995-4 (Unabridged republication of Bridges : a
study in their art, science, and evolution. 1929.)

External links
Digital Bridge: Bridges of the Nineteenth Century (http://bridges.lib.lehigh.edu/), a collection
of digitized books at Lehigh University
Structurae (http://en.structurae.de/) – International Database and Gallery of Engineerings
Structures with over 10000 Bridges.
U.S. Federal Highway Administration Bridge Technology (http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/)
The Museum of Japanese Timber Bridges (http://tbl.tec.fukuoka-u.ac.jp/index-en.shtml)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110623165007/http://tbl.tec.fukuoka-u.ac.jp/index-e
n.shtml) June 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine Fukuoka University
"bridge-info.org": site for bridges (http://www.bridge-info.org)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bridge&oldid=1171184663"