Hand Tools

Hand tools are used to remove small amounts of material, usually from
small areas of the workpiece. This may be done because no machine is
available, the workpiece is too large to go on a machine, the shape is too
intricate or simply that it would be too expensive to set up a machine to do
the work.
Since the use of hand tools is physically tiring, it is important that the
amount of material to be removed by hand is kept to an absolute minimum
and that the correct tool is chosen for the task. Wherever possible, use
should be made of the available powered hand tools, not only to reduce
fatigue but also to increase the speed of the operation and so reduce the
cost.
 Engineer’s Files
Files are used to perform a wide variety of tasks, from simple removal of sharp edges
to producing intricate shapes where the use of a machine is impracticable. They can
be obtained in a variety of shapes and in lengths from 150 mm to 350 mm. When a
file has a single series of teeth cut across its face it is known as single-cut file, and
with two sets of teeth cut across its face it is known as double-cut file.

The grade of cut of a file refers to the spacing of the teeth and determines the coarseness or
smoothness of the file. Three standard grades of cut in common use, from coarsest to smoothest, are
bastard, second cut and smooth. In general, the bastard cut is used for rough filing to remove the most
material in the shortest time, the second cut to bring the work close to finished size and the smooth
cut to give a good finish to the surface while removing the smallest amount of material.
 Engineer’s Files
File identification

Files are identified either by their general shape – i.e. hand, flat or pillar – or by their cross-section – i.e. square,
three-square, round, half-round or knife.
Hand File

The hand file is for general use, typically on flat surfaces. It is rectangular in
cross-section, parallel in width along its length, but tapers slightly in thickness
for approximately the last third of its length towards the point. It is double cut
on both faces, single-cut on one edge and is plain on the second edge. The
plain edge with no teeth is known as the ‘safe ’ edge and is designed to file up
to the edge of a surface without damaging it. The taper in thickness enables
the file to enter a slot slightly less than its full thickness.

Pillar File

This file has the same section as a hand file but of a thinner section. It is used
for narrow slots and keyways.
 Engineer’s Files
File identification
Flat File

The flat file is also for general use, typically on flat surfaces. It is rectangular in cross-section and tapers
in both width and thickness for approximately the last third of its length towards the point. Both faces
are double-cut and both edges single-cut. The tapers in width and thickness enable this file to be used
in slots which are narrower than its full width and thickness and which require filing on length and
width.

Square File

The square file is of square cross-section, parallel for approximately two-thirds of its length, then
tapering towards the point. It is double-cut on all sides. This file is used for filing keyways, slots and the
smaller square or rectangular holes with 90° sides.

Three-square File

The three-square or triangular file has a 60° triangle cross-section, parallel for approximately two-
thirds of its length, then tapering towards the point. The three faces are double-cut and the edges
sharp. This file is used for surfaces which meet at less than 90°, angular holes and recesses.
 Engineer’s Files
File identification
Round File

The round file is of circular cross-section, parallel for approximately two-thirds of its length and then
tapering towards the point. Second-cut and smooth files are single-cut, while the bastard is double-
cut. This file is used for enlarging round holes, elongating slots and finishing internal round corners.

Half-round File

The half-round file has one flat and one curved side. It is parallel for approximately two-thirds of its
length, then tapers in width and thickness towards the point. The flat side is double-cut and the curved
side is single-cut on second-cut and smooth files. This is an extremely useful double-purpose file for
flat surfaces and for curved surfaces too large for the round file.

Knife File

The knife file has a wedge-shaped cross-section, the thin edge being straight while the thick edge
tapers to the point in approximately the last third of its length. The sides are double-cut. This file is
used in filing acute angles.
 Engineer’s Files
File identification
Dreadnought File

This file is designed to remove material faster and with less effort, since the
deep curved teeth produce small spiral filings which clear themselves from the
tooth and so prevent clogging. Their principal use is in filing soft materials such
as aluminium, lead, white metal, copper, bronze and brass. They can also be
used on large areas of steel, as well as on non-metallic materials such as
plastics, wood, fibre and slate.

Needle File

Needle files are used for very fine work in tool making and fitting, where very
small amounts of material have to be removed in intricate shapes or in a
confined space. This type of file is available from 120 mm to 180 mm long, of
which approximately half is file-shaped and cut, the remainder forming a
slender circular handle.
 The Hacksaw
The hacksaw is used to cut metal. Where large amounts of waste metal have to be
removed, this is more easily done by hacksawing away the surplus rather than by filing.
If the workpiece is left slightly too large, a file can then be used to obtain the final size
and surface. The hacksaw blade fits into a hacksaw frame on two holding pins, one of
which is adjustable in order to tension the blade. The hacksaw frame should be rigid,
hold the blade incorrect alignment, tension the blade easily and have a comfortable
grip. The blade is fitted to the frame with the teeth pointing away from the handle and
incorrectly tensioned by turning the wing nut to take-up the slack and then applying a
further three turns only. A loose blade will twist or buckle and not cut straight, while an
overtightened blade could pullout the ends of the blade.
 The Hacksaw
Selection of Hacksaw Blades

Three types of hacksaw blade are available: all-hard, flexible and bimetal.

All hard – this type is made from hardened high-speed steel. Due to their all-through hardness, these blades have a long blade life
but are also very brittle and are easily broken if twisted during sawing. For this reason they are best suited to the skilled user.
Flexible – this type of blade is also made from high-speed steel, but with only the teeth hardened. This results in a flexible blade
with hard teeth which is virtually unbreakable and can therefore be used by the less experienced user or when sawing in an
awkward position. The blade life is reduced due to the problem of fully hardening the teeth only.
Bimetallic – this type of blade consists of a narrow cutting-edge strip of hardened high-speed steel joined to a tough alloy-steel
back by electron beam welding. This blade combines the qualities of hardness of the all-hard blade and the unbreakable qualities
of the flexible blade, resulting in a shatterproof blade with long life and fast-cutting properties.

Table shown gives recommendations

for the number of teeth per 25 mm on
blades used for hard and soft
materials of varying thickness.
 The Hacksaw
Methodology of using Hacksaw Blade

When cutting thin sections such as plate, at least three consecutive teeth must always
be in contact with the metal or the teeth will straddle the thin section. The teeth will
therefore have to be closer together, which means more teeth in the blade, i.e. 32
teeth per 25 mm.

Like a file, the hacksaw cuts on the forward stroke, which is when pressure should be
applied. Pressure should be released on the return stroke. Do not rush but use long
steady strokes (around 70 strokes per minute when using high-speed steel blades). The
same balanced stance should be used as for filing.
 Cold Chisel
Cold chisels are used for cutting metal. They are made from high-carbon steel, hardened and tempered at the
cutting end. The opposite end, which is struck by the hammer, is not hardened but is left to withstand the hammer
blows without chipping.

Cold Chisel Classification

Cold chisels are classified as ‘flat ’ or ‘cross-cut ’ , according to the shape of the point.
Flat

This chisel has a broad flat point and is used to cut thin sheet metal, remove
rivet heads or split corroded nuts. The cutting edge is ground to an angle of
approximately 60°.

Cross-cut

This chisel has a narrower point than the flat chisel and is used to cut keyways,
narrow grooves, square corners and holes in sheet metal too small for the flat
chisel.
 Methodology of using Cold Chisel

When using a cold chisel on sheet-material,

great care must be taken not to distort the
metal. To prevent distortion, the sheet must
be properly supported. A small sheet is best
held in a vice.
 Scrapers
Scraping, unlike filing or chiseling, is not done to
remove a great deal of material. The material is
removed selectively in small amounts, usually to give
a flat or a good bearing surface. A surface produced
by machining or filing may not be good enough as a
bearing where two surfaces are sliding or rotating.
The purpose of scraping is therefore to remove high
spots to make the surface flat or circular, and at the
same time to create small pockets in which lubricant
can be held between the two surfaces. Surface plates
and surface tables are examples of scraping being
used when flatness is of prime importance. Examples
where both flatness and lubricating properties are
required can be seen on the sliding surfaces of
center lathes and milling, shaping and grinding
machines.
Thank you