UNIVERSITY OF GUYANA

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CIV 2212: Soil Mechanics

Lecture 8:
Compressibility & Consolidation

1
 PRESENTATION OUTLINE
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Consolidation
3.0 Consolidometer
4.0 Interpretation of Results
5.0 Computation of Settlement
6.0 Empirical Relations
7.0 Problems
8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
9.0 Problems

2
 1.0 Introduction
 Structures are built on soils. Loads from these structures are
transferred to the subsoil via the foundations.
 Due to the loads, the soil undergoes a deformation which results in a
decrease in volume.This causes settlement of the structure.
 The compression of the soil due to the imposed stress may be almost
immediate or time dependent. This is a function of the permeability of
the soil which depends on the soil type.

3
 1.0 Introduction
 Soils are neither truly elastic nor plastic. When a soil mass is under
compression, the volume change is predominately due to the slipping
of grains one relative to another.
 The grains do not spring back to their original positions upon removal
of the stress. However, a small elastic rebound under low pressures
could be attributed to the elastic compression of the absorbed water
surrounding the grains.

4
 1.0 Introduction
 Settlements of structures built on granular soils are generally
considered only under two states, either dry or saturated.
 The stress-strain characteristics of dry sand, depend primarily on the
relative density of the sand, and to a much smaller degree on the shape
and size of grains.
 Saturation does not alter the relationship significantly provided the
water content of the sand can change freely.

5
 1.0 Introduction
 For fine-grained soils, the water content may remain almost unchanged
during a rapid change in stress. Under this condition, the compression
is time-dependent.

6
 2.0 Consolidation
 When a saturated clay-water system is subjected to an external
pressure, the pressure applied is initially taken by the water in the
pores resulting in an excess pore water pressure.
 A portion of the applied stress is transferred to the soil skeleton,
which in turn causes a reduction in the excess pore pressure.
 This process, involving a gradual compression occurring simultaneously
with a flow of water out of the mass and with a gradual transfer of the
applied pressure from the pore water to the skeleton is called
Consolidation.
7
 2.0 Consolidation
 Consolidation may be due to several factors:
I. External static loads from structures.
II. Self-weight of the soil such as recently placed fills.
III. Lowering of the ground water table.
IV. Desiccation.
 The total compression of a saturated clay strata under excess effective
pressure consists of the sum of:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
+ 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

8
 2.0 Consolidation
 Immediate Settlement occurs simultaneously with an applied load to
the soil mass. The settlement is due to the compression of the soil
layer under undrained condition and is calculated assuming the soil
mass is elastic.
 Primary Consolidation occurs if the rate of compression of the soil
layer is controlled by the resistance of the flow of water under the
induced hydraulic gradients. At the present, the only theory of practical
value for estimating time-dependent settlement due to volume changes
is the One-dimension theory.
9
 2.0 Consolidation
 The third part of the settlement is due to the secondary
consolidation. After the primary consolidation is completed, i.e. after
the excess pore water pressure approaches zero, the secondary
consolidation starts. This settlement is due to the rearrangement of the
soil fabric and is referred to as soil creep.

10
 2.0 Consolidation
Immediate Settlement
 The stress-strain behaviour of an undrained saturated mass of soil
subject to loading is similar to that of an elastic solid body, provided
that the strains are relatively low.
 The highest values of stress occur immediately under the point of
loading and diminish laterally and vertically away from that point.
 The standard equation used to estimate this settlement is:
𝒒𝑩(𝟏−𝒗𝟐 )
𝑺𝒕 = 𝑰𝒑 …eq. 1
𝑬𝒖

11
 2.0 Consolidation
Immediate Settlement
Where 𝑞 = 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐵 = 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑣 = 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝐸𝑢 = 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝐼𝑝 = 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

12
 2.0 Consolidation
 To demonstrate the process of consolidation, consider the following
schematic. The piston is supported on four springs with the space
underneath the piston completely filled with water.
 The spring represent the soil skeleton in the soil mass and the water is
the pore water in the saturated condition.
 When the load p is placed on the piston, this stress is transferred to
the water (assuming it is incompressible) and the water pressure
increases.

13
 2.0 Consolidation
 The pressure in the water is:
𝑢=𝑝
 This is analogous to pore water pressure that would be developed in a
clay-water system under external pressures.
 With the model watertight, the water cannot escape. This can be
idealized as the condition for a highly impermeable clay-water system.
 If the water is allowed to drains from the cylinder, the load is
transferred to the springs until the flow stops.

14
 2.0 Consolidation
 A point is reach whereby the load is carried by the spring alone.
 The time required to obtain this condition depends on the number and
size of the holes.
 When the spring-water system attains equilibrium conditions under
the imposed load, the settlement of the piston is analogous to the
compression of the soil under external pressures.

15
 2.0 Consolidation
 In many cases, the settlement of a structure is due to the presence of
one or more layers of soft clay located between layers of sand and
stiffer clay.
 The adhesion between the soft and stiff layers almost prevents the
lateral movement of the soft layers.
 The theory was developed by Terzaghi (1925) referred to as the One-
Dimensional consolidation theory.
 In the laboratory, this is simulated by the Consolidation Test.

16
 2.0 Consolidation
 The process of consolidation will be elaborated using the previous
schematic. If the clay strata is subject to an excess pressure ∆𝑝 due to
a uniformly distributed load 𝑝 on the surface.
 The layer is compressed overtime and excess pore water drains out of
it and into the sandy layer.
 This constitutes the process of consolidation. At the instant of
application of the excess load ∆𝑝, the load is carried entirely by water
in the voids of the soil.

17
 2.0 Consolidation
 With the increase in time, the excess pore water pressure decreases
and the effective vertical pressure increases correspondingly.

18
 3.0 Consolidometer
 The laboratory test that is performed on the undisturbed saturated
clay specimen can be conducted (ASTM D-2435) to determine the
consolidation settlement caused by various incremental loadings.
 Test specimens are usually 63.5 mm in diameter and 25.4 mm in height.
 Specimens are placed inside a ring, with one porous stone at the top
and one at the bottom (to simulate the sandy layers).
 A load on the specimen is then applied so that the total vertical stress
is equal to 𝜎.

19
 3.0 Consolidometer
 Readings are taken on the gauge periodically for 24 hours.
 Subsequently, the load on the specimen is doubled and more
settlement readings are taken.
 During the test, the specimen is kept under water to simulate the
saturation condition in the field.
 The test is done until the stress the clay will be subjected to in the field
is achieved.

20
 3.0 Consolidometer
 The main purpose of the consolidation test on the soil sample is to
obtain the necessary information about the compressibility properties
of a saturated soil for use in determining the magnitude and rate of
settlement of structures.

21
 4.0 Interpretation of Results
 Many curves can be plotted from the consolidation results, one of
which is the pressure-void ratio curves (e-log p curve).
 Once the void ratio at the end of each increment of load is
determined.
𝑊
 Let the volume of solids in the sample be 𝑉𝑠 =
𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤

𝑉𝑠
Also, 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐴ℎ𝑠 ≫ ℎ𝑠 =
𝐴

Where ℎ𝑠 = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠

22
 4.0 Interpretation of Results
𝑉𝑣 𝑉−𝑉𝑠 𝐴ℎ−𝐴ℎ𝑠 ℎ−ℎ𝑠
 Recall 𝑒 = = = =
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝐴ℎ𝑠 ℎ𝑠

𝒉−𝒉𝒔
𝒆= …eq .2
𝒉𝒔

 In eq. 2, ℎ𝑠 is constant and only ℎ is a variable which decreases with

increment load. It can be determined at any stage of the test.
 To determine the void-ratio change, consider the following phase
diagram:

23
 4.0 Interpretation of Results
 The change in height ∆ℎ per unit of original height ℎ equals the change
in volume ∆𝑉 per unit of original volume 𝑉.
∆𝒉 ∆𝑽
= …eq. 3
𝒉 𝑽

 Expressing 𝑉 in terms of void ratio e:

𝑉𝑣 = 𝑒𝑉𝑠 , 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 (1 + 𝑒), 𝑉𝑣′ = 𝑒 ′ 𝑉𝑠 , 𝑉 ′ = 𝑉𝑠 (1 + 𝑒 ′ )

∆𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑉′ 𝑉𝑠 1 + 𝑒 − 𝑉𝑠 (1 + 𝑒 ′ ) 𝑒 − 𝑒′
= = =
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 1+𝑒

24
 4.0 Interpretation of Results
∆ℎ ∆𝑒
=
ℎ 1+𝑒
𝟏+𝒆
∆𝒆 = ∆𝒉…eq. 4
𝒉

Where ∆𝑒 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

ℎ = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
e = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
e′ = void ratio after compression under 𝑎 𝑙𝑎𝑜𝑑
∆ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠)

25
 4.0 Interpretation of Results
 Typical pressure-void ratio curves for an undisturbed clay sample is
shown in the following image.
 The curve on the log scale indicates clearly two branches, a fairly
horizontal initial portion and a nearly straight inclined portion.
 The coordinates of point A in the figure represent the void ratio 𝑒𝑜
and the effective overburden pressure 𝑝𝑜 corresponding to a state of
the clay in the field as shown.
 When the samples is extracted, the water content does not change
significantly.
26
 4.0 Interpretation of Results
 Therefore, the void ratio 𝑒𝑜 at the start of the test is practically
identical with that of the field condition.
 When the pressure on the sample in the consolidometer reaches 𝑝𝑜 .
The e-lop p curve should pass through the point A unless the test
conditions differ or due to disturbance.
 The curve that passes through A is referred to as the Field Curve or
Virgin Curve.
 A lot of information can be gathered from this curve.

27
 4.0 Interpretation of Results
Normally Consolidated & Overconsolidated Clays
 A clay is said to be normally consolidated if the present effective
overburden pressure 𝑝𝑜 is the maximum pressure to which the layer
has ever been subjected at any time in its history.
 On the other hand, the layer is said to be overconsolidated if the layer
was subjected at one time in its history to a greater effective
𝑝𝑐
overburden pressure, 𝑝𝑐 , than the present pressure, 𝑝𝑜 . The ratio is
𝑝𝑜

called the overconsolidated ratio (OCR).

28
 4.0 Interpretation of Results
Normally Consolidated & Overconsolidated Clays
 Overconsolidation of a clay stratum may be caused by one of the
following:
1. Weight of an overburden of soil which has eroded.
2. Weight of a continental ice sheet that melted (glacial).
3. Desiccation of layers close to that surface.

29
 4.0 Interpretation of Results
Determination of Preconsolidation Pressure
 These can be categorized under two methods:
1. Field Method
2. Graphical Method (Consolidation Test)
 The most widely used method was the one proposed by Casagrande
(1936). The method involves locating the point of maximum curvature,
B, on the laboratory e-log p curve of an undisturbed sample.
 From B, a tangent is drawn to the curve and a horizontal line is also
constructed.
30
 4.0 Interpretation of Results
Determination of Preconsolidation Pressure
 The angle between these two lines is then bisected. The abscissa of the
point of intersection of this bisector with the upward extension of the
inclined straight part corresponds to the preconsolidation pressure, 𝑝𝑐 .
 In the case where a sample’s disturbance is high, the Virgin Curve has
to be reconstructed.

31
 5.0 Computation of Consolidation
Settlement Equations for Normally Clays
 For computing the ultimate settlement of a structure founded on clay
the following data are required:
1. The thickness of the clay stratum, 𝐻
2. The initial void ratio, 𝑒𝑜
3. The consolidation pressure 𝑝𝑜 or 𝑝𝑐
4. The field consolidation curve 𝑘𝑓

32
 5.0 Computation of Consolidation
Settlement Equations for Normally Clays
 The equation for 𝐶𝑐 may be written as:

𝒆𝒐 −𝒆 ∆𝒆
𝑪𝒄 = = 𝒑 ..eq. 5
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒑−𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒑𝒐 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝒑𝒐

 Recall from eq. 3,

∆𝒉 ∆𝑽
=
𝒉 𝑽

33
 5.0 Computation of Consolidation
Settlement Equations for Normally Clays
 Considering a unit sectional area of the clay stratum:
𝑉 = 𝐻, 𝑉1 = 𝐻1
∆𝑉 = 𝐻 − 𝐻1 , 𝐻𝑠 1 + 𝑒𝑜 − 𝐻𝑠 1 + 𝑒1 = 𝐻𝑠 𝑒𝑜 − 𝑒1
∆𝑉 𝐻𝑠 𝑒𝑜 −𝑒1 ∆𝑒
Then = =
𝑉 𝐻𝑠 (1+𝑒𝑜 ) 1+𝑒𝑜

∆𝑽 ∆𝒆
= …eq. 6
𝑽 𝟏+𝒆𝒐

34
 5.0 Computation of Consolidation
Settlement Equations for Normally Clays
 Substituting for ∆𝑉/𝑉 and denoting ∆𝐻 as the total settlement 𝑆𝑡 of
the structure built on it:

∆𝐻 ∆𝑒
=
𝐻 1 + 𝑒𝑜
∆𝒆
∆𝑯 = 𝑺𝒕 = 𝑯 …eq. 7
𝟏+𝒆𝒐

35
 5.0 Computation of Consolidation
Settlement Calculation from 𝒆 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒑 Curves
 Recall from eq. 5:

∆𝑒 𝑝
𝐶𝑐 = ≫ ∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑐 log
𝑝 𝑝𝑜
log
𝑝𝑜
 And from eq. 7:

∆𝑒
𝑆𝑡 = 𝐻
1 + 𝑒𝑜

36
 5.0 Computation of Consolidation
Settlement Calculation from 𝒆 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒑 Curves
 Combining the two equations:
𝑪𝒄 𝒑
𝑺𝒕 = 𝑯 𝐥𝐨𝐠 …eq. 8
𝟏+𝒆𝒐 𝒑𝒐
 Or
𝑪𝒄 𝒑𝒐 +∆𝒑
𝑺𝒕 = 𝑯 𝒍𝒐𝒈 …eq. 9
𝟏+𝒆𝒐 𝒑𝒐
 The net change is pressure ∆𝑝 produced by the structure at the middle
of a clay stratum is calculated from the Boussinesq or Westergaard
theories.

37
 5.0 Computation of Consolidation
Settlement Calculation from 𝒆 − 𝒑 Curves
 If a plot is done for the void ratios vs. pressures, another parameter
referred to as the Coefficient of Compressibility can be found for
different ranges.
 The weight of a structure or a fill increases the pressure on the clay
stratum from the overburden pressure 𝑝𝑜 to the value 𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝.
 There is a corresponding void ratio decrease from 𝑒𝑜 to 𝑒.

38
 5.0 Computation of Consolidation
Settlement Calculation from 𝒆 − 𝒑 Curves
 For the pressure increase, we can write:
𝑒𝑜 − 𝑒 = ∆𝑒 = 𝑎𝑣 ∆𝑝, or
∆𝒆
𝒂𝒗 = …eq. 10
∆𝒑

∆𝑒
 Recall from eq. 7: 𝑆𝑡 = 𝐻
1+𝑒𝑜

𝑎𝑣 𝐻
𝑆𝑡 = ∆𝑝
1 + 𝑒𝑜
39
 5.0 Computation of Consolidation
Settlement Calculation from 𝒆 − 𝒑 Curves
𝑺𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗 𝑯∆𝒑…eq. 11
𝑎𝑣
Where 𝑚𝑣 = is known as the Coefficient of Volume
1+𝑒𝑜

Compressibility.
 The reciprocal of 𝑚𝑣 is the modulus of Elasticity 𝐸.
 It represents the compression of the clay per unit of original thickness
due to a unit increase of the pressure.

40
 5.0 Computation of Consolidation
If 𝒑𝒐 + ∆𝒑 ≤ 𝒑𝒄
 In such a case the swell index is utilized. To determine the swell index,
we find the slope of the rebound part corresponding to the e-log p
curve.

∆𝑒 𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝
𝐶𝑠 = ≫ ∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑠 log
𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝 𝑝𝑜
log
𝑝𝑜

41
 5.0 Computation of Consolidation
If 𝒑𝒐 + ∆𝒑 ≤ 𝒑𝒄
 Then eq. 7 becomes
𝑪𝒔 𝑯 𝒑𝒐 +∆𝒑
𝑺𝒕 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 …eq. 12
𝟏+𝒆𝒐 𝒑𝒐

42
 5.0 Computation of Consolidation
If 𝒑𝒐 < 𝒑𝑪 ≤ 𝒑𝑶 + ∆𝒑
 The Total consolidation settlement is the sum of ∆𝑒 = ∆𝑒1 + ∆𝑒2 . Eq. 6
can be written as:
𝑪𝒔 𝑯 𝒑𝒄 𝑪𝒄 𝑯 𝒑𝒐 +∆𝒑
𝑺𝒕 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 …eq. 13
𝟏+𝒆𝒐 𝒑𝒐 𝟏+𝒆𝒐 𝒑𝒄

1 1
 The swell index can vary ≈ 𝑡𝑜 𝐶𝑐 .
5 10

 Nagaraj and Murthy (1985) proposed the following equation for Cs

𝑳𝑳
𝑪𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟔𝟑 𝑮𝒔 …eq. 14
𝟏𝟎𝟎
43
 6.0 Empirical Relations
 Skempton (1944) established a relationship between 𝐶𝑐 and liquid
limits for remolded clays as:
𝑪𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕 𝑳𝑳 − 𝟏𝟎 …eq. 15
 Terzaghi and Peck (1948) modified eq. 14 and the following equation is
applicable to normally consolidated clays of low to moderate
sensitivity as:
𝑪𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗 𝑳𝑳 − 𝟏𝟎 …eq. 16

44
 7.0 Problems
 A concrete raft foundation of length 32 m and breadth 18 m will
transmit to the soil a uniform contact pressure of 240 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 at a
depth of 2.0 m. Determine the amount of immediate settlement that is
likely to occur under the centre of the foundation. Assume the
foundation is flexible, 𝐸𝑢 = 45 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 , 𝑣 = 0.5 and 𝛾 = 20 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 .
𝐼𝑝 can be found from the following table.

45
 7.0 Problems
 During a consolidation test, a sample of fully saturated clay 3 cm (ℎ𝑜 ) is
consolidated under a pressure increment of 200 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 . When
equilibrium is reached, the sample thickness is reduced to 2.60 cm. The
pressure is then removed and the sample is allowed to expand and
absorb water. The final thickness is observed as 2.8 cm (ℎ𝑓 ) and the
final moisture content is determined as 24.9%. If the specific gravity of
the soil solids is 2.70, find the void ratio of the sample before and after
consolidation.

46
 7.0 Problems
 A recently completed fill was 32.8 ft. thick and its initial void ratio was
1.0. The fill was loaded on the surface by constructing an embankment
covering a large area of the fill. Some months after the embankment
was constructed, measurements of the fill indicated an average void
ratio of 0.8. Estimate the compression of the fill.

47
 7.0 Problems
 Soil investigation at a site gave the following information. Fine sand
exists to a depth of 10.6 m and below this lies a soft clay layer 7.60 m
thick. The GWT is at 4.60 below the ground surface. The submerged
unit weight of sand is 10.4 kN/m3, and the bulk unit weight above the
GWT is 17.6 kN/m3. The water content of the normally consolidated
clay is 40%, its LL is 45%, and the specific gravity of the solid is 2.78. The
proposed construction will transmit a net stress of 120 kN/m2 at the
centre of the clay layer. Find the average settlement of the clay layer.

48
 7.0 Problems
 A sand fill compacted to a bulk unit weight of 18.84 kN/m3 is to be
placed on a compressible saturated marsh deposit 3.5 m thick. The
height of the sand fill is to be 3 m. If the volume compressibility 𝑚𝑣 of
the deposit is 7 × 10−4 𝑚2 /𝑘𝑁, estimate the final settlement of the fill.

49
 7.0 Problems
 The soil profile at a building site consists of dense sand up to 2 m
depth, normally loaded soft clay from 2 m to 6 m depth, and stiff
impervious rock below 6 m depth. The ground-water table is at 0.40 m
below ground level. The sand has a unit weight of 18.5 kN/m3 above the
water table and 19 kN/m3 below it. For the clay, natural water content
is 50%, LL is 65% and the Gs is 2.65. Calculate the probable ultimate
settlement resulting from a uniformly disturbed surface load of 40
kN/m2 applied over an extensive area of the site.

50
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 The magnitude of the consolidation settlement can easily be
determined from the equation derived.
 However, this settlement usually takes place over time, much longer
than the time of construction.
 The magnitude alone is not suffice. How much Time would be required
for that magnitude of settlement to occur is also required.
 Engineers may need to know the amount of settlement at a specific
time before the end of consolidation or the time required for a
specific magnitude of settlement.
51
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 From the spring analogy, the consolidation settlement is related to how
much water was squeezed out of the soil voids.
 This results in a change in void ratio, which is directly proportional to
the amount of excess pore water pressure that has dissipated.
 Therefore, we require a governing equation that can predict the change
in pore water pressure at any point in time and space in the
consolidation clay layer.
 This is done by the Theory of Consolidation.

52
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 Terzaghi developed a theory based on the assumption that an
increment of load immediately is transferred to the pore water to
create excess pore water pressure.
 With time, as the water is dissipated the load is transferred to effective
stress.
 He assumed that all drainage of excess pore water is vertical toward
one or two horizontal faces. This is referred to as One-Dimensional
Consolidation.

53
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 He made the following assumptions:
1. The soil is homogeneous.
2. The soil is fully saturated.
3. The solids particles and water are incompressible.
4. Compression and flow are 1-D (vertical)
5. Darcy’s law is valid at all hydraulic gradients.
6. The coefficient of permeability and volume change remain constant
throughout the process.
7. Strains are small.
54
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
Derivation of the One-Dimensional Consolidation Equation
 With the aforementioned assumptions, consider a clay layer of
thickness 𝐻𝑡 as shown in the following image.
 The layer is located between two highly permeable sand layers. When
clay is subjected to an increase of vertical pressure, ∆𝜎, the pore water
at any point A will increase by 𝑢.
 The soil element has a volume of 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 𝑑𝑧 at A.
 Flow will be considered in the z direction.

55
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
Derivation of the One-Dimensional Consolidation Equation
 The rate of flow in and out of the soil element is given by:
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 − 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝝏𝒗𝒛 𝝏𝑽
𝒗𝒛 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚 + 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛 − 𝒗𝒛 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚 = …eq. 17
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒕

 Simplify the left-hand:

𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝑽
−𝒌 𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛 =
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒕

56
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
Derivation of the One-Dimensional Consolidation Equation
𝑢
 Recall ℎ = , then eq. 18 becomes:
𝛾𝑤

𝑘 𝜕2𝑢 1 𝜕𝑉
− 2
=
𝛾𝑤 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑡
 During consolidation, the rate of change of volume is equal to the rate
of change of void volume:

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉𝑣
=
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
57
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
Derivation of the One-Dimensional Consolidation Equation
 Also, 𝑉𝑣 = 𝑒𝑉𝑠
 Then:

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑒 𝑉 𝜕𝑒 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑒
= 𝑉𝑠 = =
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 1 + 𝑒 𝜕𝑡 1 + 𝑒 𝜕𝑡

𝑘 𝜕2𝑢 1 𝜕𝑒
− 2
=
𝛾𝑤 𝜕𝑧 1 + 𝑒 𝜕𝑡
 The change in void ratio is due to the increase of effective stress, and
assuming that these are linearly related, then:
58
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
Derivation of the One-Dimensional Consolidation Equation
𝜕𝑒 = −𝑎𝑣 𝜕∆𝜎′
 The increase of effective stress is due to the decrease of excess pore
water pressure.Then:
𝜕𝑒 = 𝑎𝑣 𝜕𝑢

𝑘 𝜕2𝑢 𝑎𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
2
= = 𝑚𝑣
𝛾𝑤 𝜕𝑧 1 + 𝑒 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

59
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
Derivation of the One-Dimensional Consolidation Equation
 Then:

𝜕𝑢 𝑘 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
= 2
= 𝐶𝑣 2
𝜕𝑡 𝛾𝑤 𝑚𝑣 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

60
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 Terzaghi’s equation is a linear partial differentiation equation in one
dependent variable.
 It can be solved by one of various methods with the following
boundary conditions:
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖
= 𝒄𝒗 𝟐 …eq. 18
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒛

𝑧 = 0, 𝑢 = 0
𝑧 = 2𝐻𝑑𝑟 , 𝑢 = 0
𝑡 = 0, 𝑢 = 𝑢𝑜
61
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 The solutions yields

𝒎=∞ 𝟐𝒖𝒐 𝑴𝒛 −𝑴𝟐 𝑻𝒗

𝒖= 𝒎=𝟎 𝑴 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒆 …eq. 19
𝑯𝒅𝒓

𝑐𝑣 𝑡
Where 𝑢 = 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑣 = 2 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐻𝑑𝑟

𝑢𝑜 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝜋
𝑀= 2𝑚 + 1 , 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
2

𝑧 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝐻𝑑𝑟 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ

62
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 The theory relates three variables:
1. Excess pore water pressure 𝑢.
2. The depth 𝑧 below the top of the clay layer.
3. The time 𝑡 from the moment of application of load.
 Or simply it provides 𝑢 at any depth 𝑧 at any time 𝑡.
 The solution was for a doubly drained stratum.
 Finding the degree of consolidation for single drainage is exactly the same
procedure as for double drainage case except 𝐻𝑑 is the entire depth of the
drainage layer when substituting in equations or when using the figure of
isochrones.

63
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 If the coefficient of consolidation 𝑐𝑣 and the initial pore water pressure
distribution along the layer thickness and boundary conditions, the
value of 𝑢 at any depth 𝑧 at any time 𝑡 can be found.
 The consolidation process by the dissipation of excess pore water
pressure, the degree of consolidation at a distance 𝑧 at any time 𝑡 is
given by:
𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅(𝒖𝒛 )
𝑼𝒛 = …eq. 20
𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 (𝒖𝒐 )

64
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
Where 𝑢𝑧 = 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡.
𝑢𝑜 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒.

65
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 If the initial pore water ∆𝑢𝑜 distribution is constant with depth as
shown in the figure. Then the average degree of consolidation can be
expressed as:

𝟐𝑯 𝟐𝑯 𝟐𝑯
𝟎
∆𝒖𝒐 𝒅𝒛 − 𝟎 ∆𝒖𝒅𝒛 ∆𝒖𝒐 𝟐𝑯 − 𝟎
∆𝒖𝒅𝒛
𝑼= 𝟐𝑯 =
∆𝒖𝒐 𝒅𝒛 ∆𝒖𝒐 (𝟐𝑯)
𝟎

66
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 Substituting the equation excess pore water pressure yields:

𝒖𝒛
𝑼=𝟏−
𝒖𝒐
𝒎= 𝟐 𝑴𝒛 −𝑴𝟐𝑻
𝒗 …eq. 21
𝑼=𝟏− 𝒎=𝟎 𝑴 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝑯 𝒆
𝒅𝒓

67
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 The previous equation can be used to find the average degree of
consolidation at depth 𝑧 at a given time 𝑡.
 At any given time excess pore water pressure 𝑢𝑧 varies with depth as
well as the degree of consolidation 𝑢𝑧 .
 In the case of a single drainage, the equation is valid. However, the
length of the drainage path is equal to the total thickness of the clay
layer.

68
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 During consolidation water dissipates from the soil to the surface or
to a permeable sub-surface layer above or below.
 The rate of consolidation depends on the longest path taken by a
water molecule. The length of the longest path is the drainage path
length 𝐻𝑑𝑟 .
 Typical cases are:
1. An open layer, a permeable layer both above and below 𝐻𝑑𝑟 = 𝐻/2.
2. A half-closed layer, a permeable layer either above or below 𝐻𝑑𝑟 = 𝐻.
3. Vertical sand drains, horizontal drainage 𝐻𝑑𝑟 = 𝐿/2.
69
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 The average degree of consolidation can be related to the ultimate
settlement of the layer and the settlement at any time.
𝑺𝒄 𝒕
𝑼= …eq. 22
𝑺𝒄

Where 𝑆𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

𝑆𝑐 =
𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟

70
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 The average degree of consolidation can be related to a Time factor 𝑇𝑣
by the following graph.
 Table of values can also be utilized.
 Terzaghi proposed the following correlations for the variation of U
with 𝑇𝑣 :
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑈 = 0 𝑡𝑜 60%

𝝅 𝑼% 𝟐 𝟒𝑻𝒗
𝑻𝒗 = ≫𝑼= ..eq. 23
𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝝅

71
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 Terzaghi proposed the following correlations for the variation of U
with 𝑇𝑣 :
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑈 => 60%
𝑻𝒗 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟖𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟑 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑼%
𝑻 −𝟏.𝟕𝟖𝟏
− 𝒗𝟎.𝟗𝟑𝟑
𝑼 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 ..eq. 24

72
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 Alternatively, the following equations can be used:

𝑼% 𝟒𝑻𝒗 /𝝅 𝟎.𝟓
= 𝟐.𝟖 𝟎.𝟏𝟕𝟗
…eq. 25
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝑻𝒗
𝟏+
𝝅

𝝅 𝑼% 𝟐

𝑻𝒗 = 𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟎.𝟑𝟓𝟕 …eq. 26
𝑼% 𝟓.𝟔
𝟏− 𝟏𝟎𝟎

73
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 The coefficient of consolidation can be determined by either of the
following methods:
1. Root time Method (Taylor’s Method)
2. Deformation log-time Method (Casagrande’s Method)
 This allows for the determination of time rate of consolidation based
on a percentage of consolidation (50%, 90%,..) and the drainage
conditions.
 The coefficient is unique for each load increment using a consolidation
test.
74
 8.0 Time Rate of Consolidation
 The deformation log-time method utilizes the following equation:

𝑻𝑯𝟐𝒅𝒓 𝟎.𝟏𝟗𝟕𝑯𝟐𝒅𝒓
𝑪𝒗 = = …eq. 27
𝒕 𝒕𝟓𝟎

 On the other hand, the root time method utilizes the following
equation:

𝑻𝑯𝟐𝒅𝒓 𝟎.𝟖𝟒𝟖𝑯𝟐𝒅𝒓
𝑪𝒗 = = …eq. 28
𝒕 𝒕𝟗𝟎

75
 9.0 Problems
 A 12 m thick clay is doubly drained. The coefficient of consolidation is
8.0 × 10−8 𝑚2 /𝑠. Find the degree of consolidation for the clay 5 years
after loading at the depths of 3 m, 6 m, 9 m and 12 m.

76
 9.0 Problems
 An open layer of clay 4 m thick is subjected to loading that increases
the average effective vertical stress from 185 kPa to 310 kPa. Assuming
𝑚𝑣 = 0.00025 𝑚2 /𝑘𝑁, and 𝐶𝑣 = 0.75 𝑚2 /𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟. Determine:
1. The ultimate consolidation settlement.
2. The settlement at the end of 1 year.
3. The time in days for 50% consolidation.
4. The time in days for 25 mm settlement to occur.

77
 9.0 Problems
 The time required for 50% consolidation of a 25 mm thick clay layer in
the laboratory (doubly drained) is 2 minutes 20 seconds. Determine:
1. How long in days will it take a 3 m thick clay layer of the same clay in
the field under the same pressure increment to reach 50%
consolidation? In the field, there is a rock at the bottom of the clay
layer.
2. How long in days will it take in the field for 30% primary consolidation
to occur?

78
 9.0 Problems
 Using the data from the file “Consolidation”, determine the following:
1. The coefficient of consolidation using the Casagrande’s method
2. The preconsolidation Stress, compression index, and the swell index.

79
THE END
QUESTIONS?

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