Module in Purposive Communication GE5

MODULE 1
COMMUNICATION PROCESSES, PRINCIPLES, AND
ETHICS

Introduction

If you are an online seller or of online shops, you probably recognize the phrase “PM is the key.” In Internet slang,
PM is short for Personal Message. Thus, we have “Personal Message is the key.” Usually, the seller uses this phrase as
caption to items in sale. This entails that the buyer should directly message the seller for negotiation and more information
regarding the sale. In other words, communication is the key.

But what do we mean by “communication”? When asked to define the word, how would you respond? Most people
will relate to the obvious—talking or listening. But communication goes beyond that. The Oxford English Dictionary defines
communication as “the imparting, conveying, or exchange of ideas, knowledge and information”. This can apply to words or
body language.

Given the arbitrary property of language and the symbols we use, it is not unlikely to have gaps in communication. A
situation that interests scholars is: If I tell you one thing and you hear another, have I communicated? Communication, seen
from another angle, involves the perception of the information as much as the delivery of that information. In this module, you
will look at different communication models, as well as certain ethical principles which should guide whatever we communicate.

The nature of communication

It is a mistake to believe that communication is a simple process. People talk with one another daily, but the real
question is whether the ideas one has expressed are truly understood by another. Communication breakdowns happen in
every part of the globe, and the COVID-19 pandemic has even brought about outbreaks in communication. The use of online
platforms such as Zoom for virtual meetings, and Google classroom for online learning, has reached an all-time high.

Amid this situation, effective communication can breach peace, spark revolutions, and affect change in government.
However, to communicate effectively, one cannot simply strive to express oneself and leave understanding to fate. Effective
communication depends on the richness of ideas. One must organize one’s thoughts and control one’s emotions to articulate
concepts and arguments in the best way possible.

The art of one’s communication reflects the art of one’s thinking. According to James Berlin (1982), one of the major
proponents of The New Rhetoric, “In teaching writing, we are not simply offering training in a useful technical skill that is meant
as a simple complement to the more important studies of other areas. We are teaching a way of experiencing the world, a way
of ordering and making sense of it” (776).

This is true to all the language skills essential in communication. Writing, reading, listening, and speaking are tools
that help us analyze, critique, and negotiate with the world. To construct ideas and bring people to believe in one’s vision, it is
important to be able to communicate in an effective, articulate manner. On a personal level, good communication skills bring
about success to one’s personal and professional life.

Communication models

One way of thinking about communication processes is by looking at the different communication models available.
According to Denis Mcquail and Sven Windahl (2013), in their book Communicative Models for the Study of Mass
Communications, “a model seeks to show the main elements of any structure or process and the relationship between these
elements…it helps in explaining by providing in a simplified way information which would otherwise be complicated or
ambiguous” (2).

The earliest model comes from Aristotle at around 5 B.C. In this model, Aristotle explains that speakers should adjust their
messages according to their audience and the occasion to achieve a particular effect. This model is more focused on public
speaking than interpersonal communication.

1
 Module in Purposive Communication GE5

Let us apply this to a modern example. After the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, then US
President Franklin Roosevelt delivered a stirring speech to declare war on Japan on December 8 (National Geographic, 2017).
The speaker, in this case, was US President Franklin Roosevelt and his speech was crafted especially for the occasion, filled
with strong words that were crisp and straight to the point. The occasion was the US President’s response to the attack on
Pearl Harbor; the main audience was the US Congress; and the effect was to persuade members of Congress to declare war
on Japan, which they did, with only one dissenting vote. These components of speaker, speech, occasion, audience, and effect
should be considered when communicating one’s message.

The Shannon-Weaver model was created by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver. According to the website
Communication Theory.Org, in 1948, Shannon and Weaver wrote an article in the Bell System Technological Journal titled “A
Mathematical Theory of Communication.” This is also often called the “Telephone Model,” since it was developed because of
the technology of the telephone and the experience of “Noise” coming from the switchboard.

The sender would be the person giving the message, while the encoder would be the transmitter which converts the
message into signals. Let us see the modern example of the mobile phone. With our modern example, the encoder would be
the cellphone, and the sender, of course, would be the person calling. The decoder, on the other hand, would be the reception
place of the signal which converts signals into message, which is why in modern parlance, when there is “no signal,” there is
difficulty in decoding the message. The receiver would be the destination of the message by sender which would be the person
who is being called—and when there are problems, or “noise,” that interferes with the message, then the receiver would give
feedback, which is usually phrased as “choppy,” when the message cannot be heard because of the signal. The messages
are transferred through the use of a channel; in the case of the telephone, the channel would be the cables, while in the case
of the cellphone, the channel would be radio frequencies (Communication Theory.Org). This model can also be used in other
situations, and can tell us how the message may sometimes get lost because of the noise, which can be physical or
psychological, and how feedback is an essential component of communication to ensure that the message is successfully
received.

On the other hand, when it comes to Schramm’s model of communication, there are two primary models involved.
The first one is built on the theories of Osgood, which is why this is also known as the Osgood-Schramm model.

2
 Module in Purposive Communication GE5

In this model, pay attention to the role of the interpreter. Encoding and decoding are not automatic processes both go
through the filter of the interpreter. Therefore, the message may succeed or fail, based on the interpreter’s appreciation of the
message. There are times when the sender and receiver may apply different meanings to the same message, and this is
termed “Semantic noise” (Communication Theory.Org).

His second model, on the other hand, builds this theory about the interpreter into the different fields of experience of
the sender and the receiver. For the message to reach the receiver, there must be a common field of experience between the
sender and the receiver. Although the receiver might not fully appreciate all the nuances of the message, as there are parts of
the sender’s experience that the receiver has no knowledge of, the receiver may still understand the core meaning of the
message. According to Sneha Mishra (2017), this field of experience may constitute “culture, social background, beliefs,
experiences, values, and rules.”

The last model is Eugene White’s Stages of Oral Communication. According to White, it is possible to begin at any of
the stages outlined in his model. People are under the mistaken impression that when we communicate, we usually start with
thinking, but that is not necessarily the case. Since it is a circular model, it means that oral communication is a continuous
process with no real beginning or end. The most important contribution from Eugene White’s model is the concept of feedback,
which can only be processed by the speaker if he or she has been monitoring the audience or the listener. Hence, the speaker
must also pay attention to the listener’s verbal and non-verbal cues (Flores, 2016).

WHITE’S STAGES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

3
 Module in Purposive Communication GE5

In conclusion, communication is not a simple process that starts with the speaker and ends with the listener—there
are many factors that should be considered. When it comes to the message, how the message is organized and what field of
experience it comes from should be taken into consideration. When it comes to the sender, the best communication is the one
that involves feedback. Furthermore, there are several kinds of “Noise” that may severely affect the reception of the message
and thus, should be considered and avoided. Cultural differences, technology, and interpretation need to be considered as
well. To be good communicators, one needs to pay attention to how people are responding to the message, and adjust
accordingly, rather than being preoccupied with simply expressing oneself.

Communication Ethics

It is important to understand that whatever we communicate should be guided by certain ethical principles. The US
National Communication Association (NCA, 1999) discusses this in their Credo for Ethical Communication, stating that, “Ethical
communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision-making, and the development of relationships and communities
within and across contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human worth and
dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others. We believe that
unethical communication threatens the quality of all communication and consequently the well-being of individuals and the
society in which we live.

In their Credo, there are four ethical principles of communication that are especially relevant for students today.

Firstly, they “advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of communication”
(NCA, 1999). Nowadays, social media and speeches in public have been so filled with black propaganda and whitewashing
that there is a call to reiterate the need for truth and honesty. It is important to be accurate when we communicate, and to have
facts and figures to prove our assertions. It is important to be reasonable, rather than to be too emotional or threatening when
we communicate.

Secondly, the NCA also endorses “freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve
the informed and responsible decision-making fundamental to a civil society” (NCA, 1999). In certain political climates, people
may feel threatened to the point that they no longer feel that it is safe to express what they feel or think. This is not a good
environment to live in. We fully agree with the NCA that to have a vibrant democracy, we must be able to hear different
perspectives and have a high tolerance for views that are different from ours. It is important to foster an environment where
people feel safe enough to express what they think and feel, and for these expressions to be met with reasonable dialogue
and debate, rather than outright censure or violence.

Thirdly, the NCA (1999) states that they “condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through
distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression of intolerance and hatred” (1999). This
condemnation is important because it safeguards society from racism, sexism, and violence against oppressed peoples.
History has shown us that a tolerance for hate speech, as well as speeches that incite violence and the act of killing, have often
instituted such violence in society, whether this is in the context of slavery, colonialism, or misogyny.

Lastly, the NCA (1999) states that communicators should accept responsibility for the short- and long-term
consequences of or own communication and expect the same of others.” All too often, there have been people who do not feel
accountable for their actions. Therefore, if one risks to communicate maliciously, spread false news, or incite hatred or violence,
he or she should be ready to face the consequences of such actions. States are beginning to realize this, especially in the
porous medium of social media.

Every time we communicate, we should consider the consequences of our actions. If people were more responsible
in their use of communication, there would be less conflict in this world. Even though the four principles above are short and
concise, they are important, because they help us discern the difference between ethical and unethical communicators.

References

Admin. 2017, February 15. Principles, Theories and Methods of Effective Communication (Written and Oral) in
General, and in a Management Context. Health Knowledge. Retrieved from
www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/ organisation- management/ 5aunderstanding-
itd/effective-communication.

Communication Models. n.d. Retrieved from https://www.communicationtheory.org/category/ communication-

MDT Training. 2010. Effective Communication Skills. Retrieved from http://promeng.eu/downloads/ training-
materials/ebooks/soft-skills/effective-communication-skills.pdf.

Nordquist, R. 2020. The basic elements of the communication process. Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-communication-process-1689767.

4
 Module in Purposive Communication GE5

Uychoco, M. & Santos, M. 2018. Communication for society: Purposive Communication. 1st ed. Quezon City:
REX Printing Company.

[@adah_fairy]. 2020, June 2. Made this art piece as to show my support. Im TIRED of black ppl getting killed bc
of their skin [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/adah_fairy/status/ 1267505709194723329/photo/1.