5.

0 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

Introduction

When a third doped element is added to a crystal diode in such a way that two pn junctions are formed, the resulting
device is known as a transistor. The transistor—an entirely new type of electronic device—is capable of achieving
amplification of weak signals in a fashion comparable and often superior to that realized by vacuum tubes.
Transistors are far smaller than vacuum tubes, have no filament and hence need no heating power and may be
operated in any position. They are mechanically strong, have practically unlimited life and can do some jobs better
than vacuum tubes.

Invented in 1948 by J. Bardeen and W.H. Brattain of Bell Telephone Laboratories, U.S.A.; transistor has now
become the heart of most electronic applications. Though transistor is only slightly more than 58 years old, yet it is
fast replacing vacuum tubes in almost all applications.
A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor between a
pair of opposite types. Accordingly; there are two types of transistors, namely;
(i) n-p-n transistor
(ii) p-n-p transistor
An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin section of p type. However, a p-n-
p transistor is formed by two p-sections separated by a thin section of n-type
In each type of transistor, the following points may be noted:
(i) These are two pn junctions. Therefore, a transistor may be regarded as a combination of two diodes connected
back to back.
(ii) There are three terminals, one taken from each type of semiconductor.
(iii) The middle section is a very thin layer. This is the most important factor in the function of a transistor.

NPN Transistor PNP Transistor

The Transistor Terminals
A transistor (pnp or npn) has three sections of doped semiconductors. The section on one side is the emitter and the
section on the opposite side is the collector. The middle section is called the base and forms two junctions between
the emitter and collector.

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(i) Emitter. The section on one side that supplies charge carriers (electrons or holes) is called the emitter. The
emitter is always forward biased w.r.t. base so that it can supply a large number of majority carriers.
In Fig (i) below, the emitter (p-type) of pnp transistor is forward biased and supplies hole charges to its junction with
the base. Similarly, in Fig (ii), the emitter (n-type) of npn transistor has a forward bias and supplies free electrons to
its junction with the base.
(i) Collector. The section on the other side that collects the charges is called the collector. The
collector is always reverse biased. Its function is to remove charges from its junction with the base. In Fig.
(i), the collector (p-type) of pnp transistor has a reverse bias and receives hole charges that flow in the
output circuit. Similarly, in Fig.(ii), the collector (n-type) of npn transistor has reverse bias and receives
electrons.
(ii) Base. The middle section which forms two pn-junctions between the emitter and collector is called
the base. The base-emitter junction is forward biased, allowing low resistance for the emitter circuit. The
base-collector junction is reverse biased and provides high resistance in the collector circuit.

Facts about the Transistor

(i) The transistor has three regions, namely; emitter, base and collector. The base is much thinner than the
emitter while collector is wider than both emitter and base. However, for the sake of convenience, it is
customary to show emitter and collector to be of equal size.
(ii) The emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number of charge carriers (electrons or holes)
into the base. The base is lightly doped and very thin ; it passes most of the emitter injected charge
carriers to the collector. The collector is moderately doped.
(iii) The transistor has two pn junctions i.e. it is like two diodes. The junction between emitter and base
may be called emitter-base diode or simply the emitter diode. The junction between the base and
collector may be called collector-base diode or simply collector diode.
(iv) The emitter diode is always forward biased whereas collector diode is always reverse biased.
(v) The resistance of emitter diode (forward biased) is very small as compared to collector diode (reverse
biased). Therefore, forward bias applied to the emitter diode is generally very small whereas reverse
bias on the collector diode is much higher.
Working of NPN transistor
Fig. below shows the NPN transistor with forward bias to emitter-base junction and reverse bias to collector-base
junction. The forward bias causes the electrons in the n-type emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes the
emitter current IE. As these electrons flow through the p-type base, they tend to combine with holes. As the base is
lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few electrons (about1-2%) combine with holes to constitute base
current IB. The remainder (about 98-99%) crosses over into the collector region to constitute collector current IC. In
this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It is clear that emitter current is the sum of
collector and base currents i.e.
IE = IB + IC
NB In actual practice, a very little current (a few μA) would flow in the collector circuit. This is called collector cut
off current and is due to minority carriers.
The electrons which combine with holes become valence electrons. Then as valence electrons, they flow down
through holes and into the external base lead. This constitutes base current IB.

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The reasons that most of the electrons from emitter continue their journey through the base to collector to form
collector current are:
(i) The base is lightly doped and very thin. Therefore, there are a few holes which find enough time to
combine with electrons.
(ii) The reverse bias on collector is quite high and exerts attractive forces on these electrons.

Working of PnP transistor.

Fig. below shows the basic connection of a PnP transistor. The forward bias causes the holes in the p-type emitter to
flow towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE. As these holes cross into n-type base, they tend to
combine with the electrons. As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few holes (about 1-2%)
combine with the electrons. The remainder (about 98-99%) cross into the collector region to constitute collector
current IC. In this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It may be noted that current
conduction within PnP transistor is by holes. However, in the external connecting wires, the current is still by
electrons.

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Conventional currents

Transistor Configurations
When a transistor is to be connected in a circuit, we require four terminals; two for the input and two for the output.
This means that we require four terminals but three leads in a transistor emitter, base and collector. This difficulty is
overcome by making one terminal of the transistor common to both input and output terminals.
The output is obtained between the common terminal and the remaining terminal. Accordingly; a transistor can be
connected in a circuit in the following three ways :
(i) Common base connection
(ii) common emitter connection
(iii) common collector connection

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Common Base Connection
In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between emitter and base and output is taken from collector and base.
Here, base of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common base
connection. In Fig (i), a common base NPN transistor circuit is shown whereas
Fig.(ii) shows the common base PnP transistor circuit.

Current amplification factor ( ). It is the ratio of output current to input current. In a common base connection,
the input current is the emitter current IE and output current is the collector current IC.
The ratio of change in collector current to the change in emitter current at constant collector-base voltage VCB is
known as current amplification factor i.e.

The amplification factor is less than unity. This value can be increased by decreasing the base current.
This is achieved by making the base thin and doping it lightly. Practical values of in commercial transistors
range from 0.9 to 0.99.
Expression for collector current.
The whole of emitter current does not reach the collector. It is because a small percentage of it, as a result of
electron-hole combinations occurring in base area, gives rise to base current.
The collector-base junction is reverse biased; therefore, some leakage current flows due to minority carriers. It
follows, therefore, that total collector current consists of:
(i) That part of emitter current which reaches the collector terminal i.e. αIE
(ii) The leakage current Ileakage. This current is due to the movement of minority carriers across base-
collector junction on account of it being reverse biased. This is generally much smaller than αIE
Total collector current, IC = α IE + Ileakage
Common Emitter Connection
In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and emitter and output is taken from the collector and
emitter. Here, emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common
emitter connection.

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Base current amplification factor (β).
In common emitter connection, input current is IB and output current is IC.
The ratio of change in collector current (IC) to the change in base current (IB) is known as base current
IC
amplification factor i.e. β=IB

Relation between β and α

It is clear that as α approaches unity, β approaches infinity. In other words, the current gain in common emitter
connection is very high. It is due to this reason that this circuit arrangement is used in about 90 to 95 percent of all
transistor applications.
Expression for collector current.
In common emitter circuit, IB is the input current and IC is the output current.

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From exp. (iii), it is apparent that if IB = 0 (i.e. base circuit is open), the collector current will be the current to the
emitter. This is abbreviated as ICEO, meaning collector-emitter current with base open.

Leakage Current
In CE configuration, a small collector current flows even when the base current is zero fig (i)]. This is the collector
cut off current (i.e. the collector current that flows when base is open) and is denoted by ICEO. The value of ICEO
is much larger than ICBO.

When the base voltage is applied as shown in Fig.(ii), then the various currents are :

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Analogue Electronics 1/Bipolar Junction Transistor @2019 by Zack Mukindia
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Common Collector Connection
In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and collector while output is taken between the emitter and
collector. Here, collector of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common
collector connection.

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Current amplification factor .
In common collector circuit, input current is the base current IB and output current is the emitter current IE.
Therefore, current amplification in this circuit arrangement can be defined as under:
The ratio of change in emitter current (IE) to the change in base current (IB) is known as current amplification
factor in common collector (CC) arrangement i.e.

Expression for collector current

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Applications.
The common collector circuit has very high input resistance (about 750 kΩ) and very low output resistance (about
25 Ω). Due to this reason, the voltage gain provided by this circuit is always less than 1. Therefore, this circuit
arrangement is seldom used for amplification.
However, due to relatively high input resistance and low output resistance, this circuit is primarily used for
impedance matching i.e. for driving a low impedance load from a high impedance source.

Commonly Used Transistor Connection

Out of the three transistor connections, the common emitter circuit is the most efficient. It is used in about 90 to 95
per cent of all transistor applications. The main reasons for the widespread use of this circuit arrangement are :
(i) High current gain. In a common emitter connection, IC is the output current and IB is the input
current. In this circuit arrangement, collector current is given by: IC = β IB + ICEO. As the value of
β is very large, therefore, the output current IC is much more than the input current IB. Hence, the
current gain in CE arrangement is very high. It may range from 20 to 500.
(ii) High voltage and power gain. Due to high current gain, the common emitter circuit has the highest
voltage and power gain of three transistor connections. This is the major reason for using the transistor
in this circuit arrangement.
(iii) Moderate output to input impedance ratio. In a common emitter circuit, the ratio of output
impedance to input impedance is small (about 50). This makes this circuit arrangement an ideal one for
coupling between various transistor stages. However, in other connections, the ratio of output
impedance to input impedance is very large and hence coupling becomes highly inefficient due to
gross mismatching.
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS
Characteristics of Common Base Connection

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Input characteristic.
It shows how IE varies with VBE when voltage VCB is held constant. The method of determining this characteristic
is as follows. First, voltage VCB is adjusted to a suitable value with the help of R1. Next, voltage VBE is increased in
a number of discrete steps and corresponding values of IE are noted from the milliammeter connected for the
purpose.
When plotted, we get the input characteristic shown below. Both curves are exactly similar to the forward
characteristic of a P-N diode which, in essence, is what the emitter-base junction is.
This characteristic may be used to find the input resistance of the transistor. Its value is given by the reciprocal of its
slope. Rin= VBE / IE — VCB constant.

Output Characteristic

It shows the way IC varies with VCB when IE is held

constant. The method of obtaining this characteristic is as
follows: First, movable contact, on R2 is changed to get a
suitable value of VBE and hence that of IE. While keeping
IE constant at this value, VCB is increased from zero in a
number of steps and the corresponding collector current IC
that flows is noted.
Next, VCB is reduced back to zero, IE is increased to a
value a little higher than before and the whole procedure is
repeated. In this way, whole family of curves is obtained, a
typical family being shown below

Features of the curves

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 (i) The reciprocal of the near horizontal part of the characteristic gives the output resistance R out of the
transistor which it would offer to an input signal. Since the characteristic is linear over most of its
length (meaning that IC is virtually independent of VCB). Rout is very high, a typical value being 500
kΩ.
(ii) It is seen that IC flows even when VCB = 0. For example, it has a value = 1.8 mA corresponding to
VCB = 0 for IE = 2 mA. It is due to the fact that electrons are being injected into the base under the
action of forward-biased E/B junction and are being collected by the collector due to the action of the
internal junction voltage at the C/B junction. For reducing IC to zero, it is essential to neutralize this
potential barrier by applying a small forward bias ac-ross C/B junction.
(iii) Another important feature of the characteristic is that a small amount of collector current flows even
when emitter current IE = 0. It is it is collector leakage current ICBO.
(iv) This characteristic may be used to find αac of the transistor.
(v) Another point worth noting is that although IC is practically independent of VCB over the working
range of the transistor, yet if VCB is permitted to increase beyond a certain value, IC eventually
increases rapidly due to avalanche breakdown.
Current Transfer Characteristic
It shows how IC varies with changes in IE when VCB is held constant. For drawing this characteristic, first VCB is
set to a convenient value and then IE is increased in steps and corresponding values of IC noted. A typical transfer
characteristic is shown Fig( a) below. Fig. (b) Shows a more detailed view of the portion near the origin

Common Emitter Test Circuit

Input Characteristic
It shows how IB varies with changes in VBE when VCE is held constant at a particular value.
To begin with, voltage VCE is maintained constant at a convenient value and then VBE is increased in steps.
Corresponding values of IB are noted at each step. The procedure is then repeated for a different but constant value

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of VCE. A typical input characteristic is shown above. Like CB connection, the overall shape resembles the forward
characteristic of a P-N diode. The reciprocal of the slope gives the input resistance Rin of the transistor.

Due to initial non-linearity of the curve, Rin varies considerably from a

value of 4 kΩ near the origin to a value of 600 Ω over the more linear part of the curve.

Common emitter Output characteristic

It indicates the way in which IC varies with changes in VCE when IB is held constant. For obtaining this
characteristic, first IB is set to a convenient value and maintained constant and then VCE is increased from zero in
steps, IC being noted at each step. Next, VCE is reduced to zero and IB increased to another convenient value and
the whole procedure repeated. In this way, a family of curves (Fig below) is obtained.

It is seen that as VCE increases from zero, IC rapidly increases to a near saturation level for a fixed value of IB. As
shown, a small amount of collector current flows even when IB = 0. It is called ICEO. Since main collector current
is zero, the transistor is said to be cut-off. It may be noted that if VCE is allowed to increase too far, C/B junction
completely breaks down and due to this avalanche breakdown, IC increases rapidly and may cause damage to the
transistor.
When VCE has very low value (ideally zero), the transistor is said to be saturated and it operates in the saturation
region of the characteristic. Here, change in IB does not produce a corresponding change in IC.
This characteristic can be used to find βac at a specific value of IB and VCE. It is given by βac
 IC /IB.

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