EXCRETION AND HOMEOSTASIS

INTRODUCTION

Organisms carry out various processes that lead to accumulation of wastes in their body cells. If left to accumulate, these
wastes may lead to death of cells.

Organisms, thus, have a system to maintain the conditions in the cells within a narrow range. The maintenance of internal
conditions of the cell constant in spite of external variations is referred to as homeostasis.

Definition of other terms

Excretion: the process by which living organisms separate and eliminate waste products of metabolism from their bodies.

Secretion: release of certain substances by cells of organisms e.g. Enzymes, hormones, mucus, sebum.

Egestion: the process by which organisms eliminate the undigested food substances from their body (alimentary canal)

Metabolism: the sum total of all biochemical reactions taking place in a living organism.

Metabolism involves two processes:

i. Anabolism – involves synthesis (build up) of larger or complex molecules/ substances from simple ones
ii. Catabolism – involves breakdown of more complex substances into simpler ones

EXCRETION IN PLANTS

Unlike animals plants do not have a complex excretory system because:

i. Most of their wastes are not toxic since are mainly from carbohydrates
ii. Some wastes produced are stored in soluble form in dead tissues
iii. Little accumulation of wastes since plants are less active
iv. Some wastes are stored in non - toxic forms in the leaves
v. Some waste products are recycled like CO2 and O2
vi. Some wastes are removed by diffusion

Methods of excretion in plants

▪ Diffusion- removal of gaseous wastes such as oxygen from photosynthesis and carbon IV oxide from
respiration
▪ Transpiration / guttation: removal of excess water
▪ Exudation – in the form of thick fluids eg gum.
▪ Accumulation in old leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds which later fall off eg resins, tannins, calcium oxalate
▪ Leaf abscission/ leaf fall
▪ Storage /deposition in bark which later fall off
▪ Recycling eg CO2 in photosynthesis and O2 in respiration

Some plant excretory products, sources and their uses

a. Tannin (acacia)– treatment of leather / leather tanning

Making ink
b. Caffeine ( tea and coffee)– stimulant/ stimulate the nervous system to increase mental work and reduce
fatigue
It also increases the activity of adrenaline
c. Quinine( bark of cinchona tree) – use to make drugs that treat malaria/ anti- malarial drugs
1
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
 d. Nicotine (tobacco plant) – heart stimulant/ reduce stress
e. Latex / rubber (rubber plant) – manufacture of chewing gum, car tyres and other rubber products
f. Colchicine (crocus plant) – used in genetics in plant and animal breeding research (Induce polyploidy) and in
cancer therapy.
It is carcinogenic i.e. can cause cancer
Can induce genetic mutations in organisms
g. Morphine – cancer treatment
h. Cocaine (coca plant) – used as anesthetic
i. Khat/ miraa (miraa plant) – stimulant
j. Papain (pawpaw plant)– used in food industry as meat tenderizer

N/B: Drugs should only be used for intended purpose, and only under the doctor’s guidance, any other use is labeled as
drug abuse and may lead to addiction and risky behavior such as engaging in activities that leads to contraction of
HIV/AIDS.

Drug abuse – taking drugs without doctor’s prescriptions or overdose and under dose of drugs / Consuming any
illegal drugs such as bhang

EXCRETION IN ANIMALS

1. LOWER/ UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS

Single celled organisms carry out excretion in two major ways:
i. Diffusion – due to large surface area to volume ratio; diffusion is very efficient
As wastes accumulate in the body, they achieve higher concentration than within the surrounding, making
them move out of the body by osmosis.

ii. Formation of contractile vacuole –for example amoeba and paramecium. They inhabit aquatic habitat
that is hypotonic to their body fluids, thus accumulate excess water and dissolved chemicals by osmosis
into contractile vacuole which enlarges and moves to the cell surface where it bursts releasing its contents
to the surrounding. A new contractile vacuole then develops in the cytoplasm.

(draw fig 4.1 klb pg 101)

2. EXCRETION IN HIGHER ANIMALS

Such animals have larger surface area to volume ratio and therefore require elaborate and specialized excretory system.

Common excretory organs and tissues include:

• Flame cells in Platyhelminthes

• Nephridia of Annelida
• Malpighian tubules of insects
• Gills, lungs, liver and kidneys of vertebrates

In this topic we will look at:

• The skin
• The kidneys
• The lungs
• The liver

2
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
THE SKIN

Is the largest organ in the body

Roles of the skin:

➢ Protect underlying tissues from:

a. entry of microorganisms
b. damage by ultra violet rays from the sun
c. physical damage
➢ regulate body temperature (thermoregulation)
➢ excretion of salts, excess water and traces of urea
➢ reception of stimuli such as pain, heat, cold, pressure and touch
➢ synthesis of vitamin D
➢ Storage of fats.

The skin has two layers:

➢ Epidermis
➢ Dermis

The epidermis has:

a. Cornified layer – made up of dead cells that have keratin which:

• Protect against mechanical injury and entry of bacteria
• Reduce loss of water by evaporation
b. Granular layer
• Consist of living cells that gives rise to the cornified layer
c. The malpighian layer
• Has actively dividing cells which gives rise to new epidermis.
• Contain melanin pigment which gives blood its colour and also protect the skin from ultraviolet rays from the
sun

The dermis

Comprise of:

• Blood vessels
• Nerve endings
• Lymphatic blood vessels
• Sweat glands
• Hair follicle
➢ The blood vessels are numerous to supply nutrients and oxygen to skin tissues and also remove waste
products. The blood also regulates body temperature
➢ Lymphatic vessels drains excess tissue fluid
➢ The nerve endings are sensitive to stimuli thus detect changes in the external environment
➢ Sweat glands secrete sweat that evaporates; carrying away the latent heat of vaporization; brings about
cooling of the body. The sweat also contains water, salts, uric acid, lactic acid, traces of urea and carbon IV
oxide, thus the skin is an excretory organ.
➢ ‘Growth of hair’ is due to continuous addition of new dead cells at the base of the hair. The hair arise from
epidermis, and is supplied with:
• Nerve endings that increase the sensitivity of the skin to stimuli
• Blood vessels that supply nutrients and remove wastes
3
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
 ➢ Sebaceous glands in the skin secrete sebum which:
• Keeps the hair and epidermis supple, flexible and waterproof
• Contain antiseptic which protect skin against harmful bacteria
➢ The sub- cutaneous layer is a layer of fat below the dermis and it functions to:
• Store fats
• Insulate against heat loss

Quiz

In summary, describe the adaptations of the skin to its functions.

Describe how the skin achieves the following

a) Protection
b) excretion
c) homeostasis

THE LUNGS

Main roles include:

i. Gaseous exchange
ii. Excretion of CO2

Adaptations of the lungs

➢ Has numerous alveoli; that provide large surface area; for gaseous exchange
➢ Epithelial lining between alveoli walls and blood capillaries is thin; to provide shorter diffusion
distance; for easy gaseous exchange
➢ The lung is spongy; and has numerous air sacs/alveoli; that accommodate large volume of gases
(oxygen)
➢ Highly supplied with blood capillaries; that transport oxygen and carbon IV oxide to and from the
body tissues respectively

4
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
 ➢ Its epithelial lining is covered by a thin layer of moisture/ water film; to dissolve oxygen; for easy
diffusion into blood
➢ The lung is connected to tree like system of tubes; (the trachea, bronchi; bronchioles) that supply
oxygen and removes carbon IV oxide from the lungs
➢ The whole lung is covered with pleural membrane; which make the lungs airtight; and also secrete
pleural fluid; that reduce friction during lung movement.

THE KIDNEY

Major roles of the kidney include:

✓ Excretion
✓ Osmoregulation
✓ Ionic balance
✓ Regulation of body pH

Structure ot the kidney

A longitudinal section of mammalian kidney shows 3 distinct regions i.e.

Cortex- Its dark red in colour and found to the outside.

Medulla- Its red in colour and lies to the center of the kidney and extends to form conical structures called pyramids. These
pyramids open into swollen cavity called pelvis.

Pelvis- Its white in colour and narrows to form ureter.

THE NEPHRON

It’s the basic functional unit of the kidney. Each kidney has about 1.25 million nephrons.

Each nephron is made up of two main parts namely;

- Renal tubule
- Glomerulus
5
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
Renal tubules

It has 5 main parts i.e.

- Bowmans capsule-It’s a thin double-walled and cup-shaped structure.

- Proximal convoluted tubule-Its coiled and extends into a U-shaped part.
- Loop of henle-It’s the U-shaped part.
- Distal convoluted tubule- Its coiled and extends into a collecting tubule.
- Collecting tubule- Drains into a collecting duct into which Collecting tubules from several nephrons drain thus
forming an outlet of urine through a pyramid into the pelvis.

Glomerulus

• It’s a fine network of blood capillaries enclosed by the Bowman’s capsule. Is formed from the afferent blood vessel;
that branch from renal artery
• Its composed of blood capillaries enclosed by the bowman’s capsule

Section through cortex and medulla

The role of nephron in excretion

Carried out in two stages:

a) Ultrafiltration
b) Selective reabsorption

Ultrafiltration

Occurs in the glomerulus, and is also known as pressure filtration.

Since blood coming into the kidney from the artery contains both waste substances and useful substances, they must be
separated so that the useful substances are taken back into the blood stream by reabsorption.

A greater pressure develops in the glomerulus by fact that; (1) the afferent arteriole entering it has wider lumen than the
efferent arteriole leaving it, thus creating greater resistance to blood flow through efferent arterioles and (2) the renal
artery branches directly from the aorta where blood is pumped at high pressure.

6
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
The pressure forces water, mineral salts, and small molecules like glucose, amino acids and urea out of the glomerulus
into the cavity of the Bowman’s capsule. The liquid formed in the Bowman’s capsule is referred to as glomerular filtrate.
The process is ultrafiltration.

The larger molecule the blood like blood proteins and blood cells (WBC, RBC and platelets) cannot pass through the
capillary walls of the glomerulus thus remain in blood and continue to flow to the efferent arteriole.

Selective reabsorption

As the glomerular filtrate passes along the nephron, some useful substances are selectively reabsorbed into blood
capillaries. The filtrate flows into the proximal convoluted tubule: Where all glucose, amino acids and vitamins are
selectively reabsorbed; back into the blood stream; some water is also reabsorbed.
Many mitochondria provide energy for reabsorption of these substances against the concentration gradient by Active
transport;
The Glomerular filtrate flows into the loop of Henle; water in the descending loop moves by osmosis (into the blood
capillaries)
Sodium Chloride is actively pumped from the ascending arm of the loop of Henle into the blood capillaries; by active
transport. Aldosterone hormone- secreted by adrenal glands cortex; regulates the amount of sodium ions reabsorbed.
The filtrate flows into distal convoluted tubule; water is reabsorbed; The filtrate flows into collecting tubule /duct; from
where water is reabsorbed; (into bloodstream)
Antidiuretic Hormone secreted by pituitary gland influences the amount of water reabsorbed (depending on osmotic
pressure of the blood);
The filtrate from the collecting duct now referred to as urine; is emptied into pelvis and ureter into bladder; when the
bladder is full, the sphincter muscles at its base relax to allow urine flow out.
In summary

In the proximal convoluted tubule – all glucose, amino acids are reabsorbed by active transport

Water is reabsorbed in the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, descending loop of Henle and collecting tubule by
osmosis

In the loop of Henle–sodium chloride salt is selectively reabsorbed by active transport. Most water is reabsorbed within the
distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.

Most desert animals have long loop of Henle, to enhance maximum reabsorption of water. Their urea is thus highly
concentrated.

7
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
Adaptations of the kidney tubules for efficient Reabsorption

- The cells lining the tubules have numerous mitochondria to provide energy for reabsorption.
- Long and highly coiled to increase the surface area for reabsorption.
- The tubule lining has microvilli increase its surface area for reabsorption of useful materials
- Highly supplied with a blood capillaries for efficient transport and reabsorption.
- Highly coiled distal and proximal convoluted tubules slow down movement of filtrate to allow more time for
reabsorption.
- The loop of Henle has a counter current flow system ( multiplier counter current effect at the U-bend) of the blood
and glomerular filtrate so as to maintain steep concentration gradient for the diffusion of reabsorbed products

Comparison of composition of urine with that of glomerular filtrate and plasma

8
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
 Kidney Diseases and Disorders

Disorders cause Symptoms Treatment and Control

Nephritis This is a condition which affects the Headaches, fever, Dietary restrictions
glomerulus. It is due to the poisons vomiting and especially salts and
released during infection by certain weakness. proteins.
bacteria called streptococci in various Swelling of the body Administration of drugs.
parts of the body. called oedema.
It can also be caused by small pox, Urine is highly
measles, typhoid and sore throat. coloured and cloudy
The glomeruli become so swollen that due to the presence of
they are unable to carry out fitration of albumen.
the blood.

Kidney Stones Improper balance of diet, lacking certain Increased Take balanced diet with
vitamin and inadequate intake of water. frequency in plenty of water.
Chemical salts in urine eg oxalates, passing out urine. Take hot baths and massage
phosphates, urates and uric acid. These Pain and soreness the back with hot soft
may undergo precipitation and form in the upper back material.
hard deposits or stones in pelvis, ureter side. Dialysis or artificial washing
hence causing blockage of urine. Pain, chills and out of wastes.
fever. Use of laser beams to
Difficulty in disintegrate the stones.
passing out urine. In severe cases, surgical
treatment which may involve
kidney transplant.

Albuminuria This disorder is also called Fluid accumulation in Kidney dialysis

(Protein in proteinuria. It’s a condition in which tissues (oedema). Its -Kidney transplant
urine) protein, mainly albumen, is found in fatal if not treated.
urine.
This is due to increased permeability
of glomerular capillaries which may
be caused by bacterial infections.

Kidney The failure of the kidneys to function Due to the drop in If one kidney fails, a person
failure/Renal may occur as a result of a drop in blood pressure, the can still lead a normal life
failure blood pressure due to heart failure, filtration rate in each using the other kidney.
haemorrhage or shock. glomerulus is reduced. However, if both kidneys
Haemorrhage means excessive In some cases the malfunction, the individual
bleeding. blood pressure is so will still survive if treated
low that no urine is promptly.
formed and the kidneys
stop working.

Uremia Presence of excess urea in the blood. Convulsions

(Uraemia) It occurs when the kidneys are not -Coma
working properly and the poisonous -Vomiting
nitrogen-containing waste products -Diarrhoea
accumulate in blood. -Lethargy
-Mental disorientation
and confusion.
-Difficulty in breathing

Gout caused by the absorption of uric acid Its very painful for the Patients are put on
salts into the blood. patient to make any medications that break up
9
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
 In high concentrations, uric acid movements including uric acid into harmless
salts form crystals in joints in the walking. compounds.
toes, fingers and even the kidney They are advised to have a
itself diet low in protein.
Gout is caused by a diet that has too Avoid red meat.
much organ meat eg kidneys or red - Drink plenty of water.
meat.

Pyelonephritis This is a bacterial infection of the The kidney becomes It can be treated with
renal pelvis. The infection may swollen and filled with antibiotics.
spread to the urethra and bladder. pus.

THE LIVER

Is the second largest organ after skin

Excretory roles

• Deamination of excess amino acids. The liver breaks down excess amino acids into ammonia (toxic), which is
then converted to less toxic urea or uric acid for excretion.
• Destroy haemoglobin from worn out red blood cells.
• Detoxification of harmful chemicals such as drugs into less poisonous forms, which are then excreted by
kidney.

Other roles of the liver

• Regulation of blood sugar level

• Formation of plasma proteins
• Regulation of fat / lipid metabolism
• Production of bile
• Excretion of cholesterol
• Inactivation of hormones and drugs
• Thermoregulation through heat production
• Formation of red blood cells in foetus
• Storage of blood
• Storage of vitamins and minerals.

Diseases of the liver

Disease cause Signs and Symptoms Treatment and Control

Liver This disease is also called liver rot. Loss of appetite and There are no drugs for
cirrhosis Its caused by alcoholism i.e. taking indigestion. curing cirrhosis. Most
too much alcohol over a long period Abdominal pain around peopple with severe
causes the liver cells to die and they the location of the liver. cirrhosis die from it.
are replaced by fibrous scar tissue. Haemorrhage evident in If the feet are swollen,
The normal functions of the liver the blood stained vomit. the patient should stop
are greatly reduced. taking salt in the food.
Strict diet containing
easily digestible foods.

Hepatitis B It’s caused by viruses. It’s common Inflammation of the liver. Hygienic processing of
among adults and transmitted Loss of appetite, nausea food.

10
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
 through body fluids eg saliva, blood and fatigue. Proper disposal of
and semen. Also transmitted Abdominal discomfort. sewage.
through dry blood. Jaundice of mucous Treatment of water.
membranes especially in Vaccination against the
the eyes. disease
Proper handling of the
blood products.
Screening of all blood
and blood products to
be transfused .
Use properly sterilised
needles and syringes.

Jaundice increase in bile pigment called bilirubin Patient may have itching
in the blood. This may be due to; caused by retention of bile
-Damage of the liver cells by toxic or salt in the blood.
infectious materials. This blocks the The presence of bile
bile canals in the liver and can not pigment in the blood
be transported to the gall bladder. makes the eyes look
As a result, bile pigments are yellow.
reabsorbed into the blood.
-Excessive destruction of red blood
cells.
-Obstruction of bile flow between
the liver and duodenum. This occurs
when gall stones block the bile duct.
Gall stones are formed as a result of
accumulation of excess insoluble
cholesterol in the gall bladder.

STRUCTURE OF THE LIVER

Lies beneath the diaphragm

It receives more blood per unit of time than any other organ in the body apart from the heart.

Receives blood from two blood vessels: hepatic portal vein from the small intestines (gut) and hepatic artery (branch of
aorta)

Blood flows out through the hepatic vein.

11
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
Adaptations of the liver

• Is a large organ to offer large surface area for metabolic reactions, storage of vitamins and fats;
• Has large veins/ sinuses for storage of blood
• Well supplied with blood/ vascularized for supply of food nutrients, oxygen to liver cells and eliminate wastes
• Has plenty of enzymes to control metabolic reactions eg enzyme Catalase and Arginase
• Numerous mitochondria; to produce energy for endothermic reactions
• Has numerous Golgi bodies for secretion of enzymes and lysosomes
• Has branched bile ducts; to drain and transport bile salts from the liver
• Has specialized phagocytic cells/ kupfer cells; lining the endothelium of veins; to destroy pathogens and old
red blood cells

HOMEOSTASIS

Refers to the maintenance of internal conditions of a cell constant in spite of external fluctuations.

Processes involved

• Osmoregulation
• Thermoregulation
• Ionic regulation
• Regulation of blood sugar
• pH regulation (Acid- Base balance)

Principle of homeostasis

Homeostasis works on a feedback mechanism. There are two types of feedback;

i) Negative feedback – is a corrective feedback which seeks to lower or increase a state back to normal.
ii) Positive feedback – is where a change below or above the normal is not corrected leading to further and
undesirable change.

Internal environment External environment

Immediate surroundings of body cells Immediate sorrounding of the organism

12
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
Role of hypothalamus in thermoregulation

Hypothalamus is a small region between the cerebrum and cerebellum part of the brain. It acts as a thermoregulatory
centre. It has numerous temperature receptor cells which detect the slightest changes in the body temperature.

The external temperature affecting the body is determined by the thermoreceptors in the skin. Thermoreceptors relay the
impulse to the hypothalamus through the sensory nerves.

The internal temperatures are detected by the hypothalamus as the blood flows in the brain.

ROLE OF THE SKIN IN HOMEOSTASIS

Salt and water balance (osmoregulation)

Skin has sweat glands which secrete waste products of metabolism such as water, mineral salts especially sodium chloride.
These waste products are lost in the form of sweat through the pores in the skin.

About 99% of the sweat is water while the remaining 1% is mainly mineral salts. The water and mineral salts lost in the
sweat contribute to osmotic changes of the body cells and fluids.

On a hot day, the body loses a lot of water and mineral salts resulting in a sensation of thirst being felt due to tissue
dehydration. The osmotic balance is however restored by drinking large volumes of water and intake of mineral salts in the
diet.

Temperature regulation (thermoregulation)

Internal temperature changes are detected by thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus as the blood flows over it. The
hypothalamus sends feedback impulses to the skin that responds appropriately

Parts of the skin concerned with thermoregulation

Sweat glands

They are coiled tubular glands in the dermis. When the body temperature increases, the sweat glands increase the rate of
sweat production. Water in the sweat evaporates by absorbing heat (latent heat of vapourisation) from the body and a
cooling effect results.

NB (i) Birds do not have sweat glands.

(ii) Dogs only have them on the pads of the feet

13
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
 Hair and Erector pili muscles

When the body temperature lowers, Erector pili muscle contract and pull the hair follicles. This way, the hair is raised/
stands erect thus trap a layer of air which is a good insulator against heat loss by radiation and convection.

When it is hot, the Erector pili muscles relax, hair lies flat on the skin thus trapping little air hence encourage heat can
be loss from the body surface.

Blood vessels

When the body temperature lowers, the blood vessels in the skin constrict (vasoconstriction) and blood is diverted to
a shunt system. This reduces the blood flow to the skin and more blood is stored in the spleen as an adaptation to lose
less heat.

When the body temperature is too high there is Dilation of blood vessels (vasodilation) increasing blood flow to the
skin thus encouraging heat loss.

Subcutaneous fat

It’s a good insulator against heat loss. Animals in cold areas have thick cutaneous fatty layer for this purpose.
Organisms in warm areas have thin fatty layer to encourage more heat loss to the environment.

Once the temperature changes have been detected by the hypothalamus, the hypothalamus sends impulses to the
appropriate responding tissues of the skin.

When the hypothalamus fails to register an increase in the body temperature above normal level, a further rise in body
temperature occurs. This causes fever in humans.

14
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
 If this condition is not corrected, abnormally high body temperature occurs (Hyperthermia). This leads to death if body
temperature goes above 43ºC.

If a decrease in body temperature below normal continues, without correction due to the failure of homeostatic
mechanisms, abnormally low body temperature occurs (Hypothermia). Death occurs if body temperature falls below
26°C.

BODY SIZE AND HEAT LOSS

Small animals such as rats have a large surface area to volume ratio hence they tend to lose heat at faster rate than the
large animals.

Large animals e.g. elephants have a small surface area to volume ratio hence they tend to retain most of their body
heat. Hence small animals eat a lot of food to increase their metabolism. This produces heat which replaces the lost
heat.

Homeotherms/Endotherms- They are organisms whose body temperature is maintained at a constant despite the wide
fluctuations in the temperature of the external environment.

Poikilotherms/Ectotherms- Their body temperatures fluctuates with that of the external environment.

THERMOREGULATION IN HUMANS

Heat loss

The body loses heat to the environment when it’s in a cold environment. The heat is lost by;-Radiation; Conduction;
Convection; Evaporation

Heat loss occurs through;

-Sweating and breathing

-Passing out of urine and faeces.

-Mammals such as cats lose heat by licking fur on their limbs and bellies.

Heat gain

The body gains heat from metabolic activities such as respiration and by muscle contraction.

The body uses physiological and behavioural means to regulate the temperature.

When cold

Physiological mechanisms

Decrease in sweat production-This leads to less heat lost through the latent heat of vapourisation.

Shivering- It involves the rapid contraction of skeletal muscles to generate heat.

Increased metabolism yields heat to raise the body temperature. Increase in secretion of the hormone Thyroxin
raises metabolism and heat production.

15
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
 Arterioles beneath the skin constricts which decreases the blood flow to the skin hence less heat is brought close to
the skin surface and this reduces heat loss. This is called vasoconstriction. White people appear pale/white during
vasoconstriction.

The liver and spleen store some of the blood which should be in the general body circulation. Thus heat is retained in
the body.

Erector pili muscle contract and pull the hair follicles. This way, the hair is raised to trap a layer of air which is a good
insulator against heat loss.

Behavioural mechanisms

✓ Dressing in warm heavy clothing enables the body to conserve heat.

✓ Basking in the sun or warming of the body using a source of heat.
✓ Increased muscular activity such as rubbing hands and stamping feet

NB Some animals hibernate i.e. go into deep sleep due to cold conditions.

When hot

Physiological mechanisms

Increase in sweat production- It leads to heat loss through latent heat of vapourisation.

Arterioles beneath the skin dilate and this increases the blood flow to the skin hence more heat is brought close to the
skin surface. This increases heat loss to the atmosphere. This is called vasodilation. White people appear pink.

Erector pili muscles relax and this makes the hair to lie flat on the skin. This way, air is not trapped beneath the hair
and a lot of heat is lost to the environment

Behavioural mechanisms

✓ Dressing in light clothes which do not retain much heat.

✓ Moving to a shade to avoid exposure to direct sunshine.
✓ Some homeotherms such as elephants have large ears which are flapped vigorously to create air currents
which take heat away from the body of the animal.
✓ Some animals aestivate i.e. a state of inactivity by some animals that occur during prolonged period of heat e.g.
Bats and lungfish. Some animals are only active around sunrise, sunset and at night.

16
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
ROLE OF KIDNEY IN HOMEOSTASIS

Osmoregulation

It’s the mechanism of regulating water in the body. It attempts to maintain an optimum osmotic pressure in the body
tissues and fluids that is favourable to normal functioning of cells.

When the osmotic pressure of the body rises as a result of dehydration, the hypothalamus is stimulated and sends impulses
to the pituitary gland which releases a hormone called Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) /vasopressin into the blood.on
reaching the kidney, the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting tubules become more permeable to water which is then
reabsorbed into the bloodstream thus lowering the osmotic pressure of the blood. This leads to the production of little
urine.

When the osmotic pressure of the blood falls due to large intake of water, pituitary gland is less stimulated. This leads to
reduced release of ADH into the bloodstream. The kidney tubules become less permeable to water and less reabsorption of
water into the bloodstream takes place. The osmotic pressure of the blood rises and dilute urine is produced.

Diabetes Insipidus

When pituitary gland releases very little ADH or fails to release it completely, the kidney nephrons are unable to reabsorb
the required amounts of water. This leads to the production of excessively large volumes of dilute urine. This is known as
diuresis. Patients may excrete upto 20 litres of urine per day.

The urine can also be described as ‘tasteless’ or insipid thus the name Diabetes Insipidus.

Symptoms

✓ Frequent urination .
✓ excretion of a lot of urine.
✓ Production of dilute urine.
✓ Frequent thirst sensation.

Treatment

Administration of synthetic or natural ADH.

17
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
Regulation of ionic content

A hormone called aldosterone which is produced by the adrenal glands regulates the level of sodium ions.

When the level of the sodium ions is low in the blood, adrenal glands are stimulated to release aldosterone into the blood
which then stimulates loop of Henle of the kidney and the gut to reabsorb sodium ions into the blood. As sodium ions are
reabsorbed into the blood, chloride ions follow passively to neutralize the charge on sodium ions

If the sodium concentration in the blood rises above the optimum level, adrenal glands produce less aldosterone into the
blood and less amount of Na+ are reabsorbed.

ROLE OF THE LIVER IN HOMEOSTASIS

Regulation of blood glucose

The normal amount of glucose in blood is about 90mg/100. Fluctuations may occur due to high intake of glucose in
carbohydrate rich meals or reduce due to minimal supply. The fluctuations are detected by the interstitial cells of the
pancreas in the islets of Langerhans (alpha cells secrete glucagon, and beta cells secrete insulin)

Increase in blood sugar; is detected by cells of the pancreas which secrete insulin
Insulin stimulates the liver cells to:
✓ Convert excess glucose to glycogen
✓ Convert glucose to fats for storage until the normal blood sugar level is attained
✓ Inhibit conversion of glycogen to glucose.
✓ Excess glucose is oxidized to carbon IV oxide, water and energy (respiration)

Decrease in blood sugar level below normal level; is detected by the pancreas, which secretes glucagon which
stimulates the liver to:
✓ Convert glycogen to glucose until the normal sugar level is attained
✓ Convert fats to glucose
✓ Reduce oxidation of glucose

Another hormone with homeostatic effect on glucose is adrenalin produced by the adrenal glands at the adrenal medulla.
In high concentration it causes increased hydrolysis of glycogen thus increasing blood sugar. The hormone is released
during emergencies to increase available glucose for respiration and release of energy.

18
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
Diabetes mellitus (sugar disease)

From Greek –meaning sweet urine.

This is a condition in which the pancreas fails to produce insulin or produces inadequate amounts. This may be due to
hereditary reasons or disease affecting the islets of Langerhans.

A person with Diabetes mellitus has an abnormally high level of glucose in the blood (hyperglycaemia). The kidney
eliminates some glucose in the urine, a condition called glycosuria (sweet urine).

Symptoms

✓ Passing large amounts of urine.

✓ Excessive excretion of glucose in the urine.
✓ Loss of body weight due to the breakdown of proteins and fats.
✓ Chronic starvation.
✓ Feeling of thirst.

Treatment and Control

✓ Eating foods with less carbohydrate.

✓ Taking tablets that activate islets of Langerhans in the pancreas to produce sufficient insulin.
✓ Administering injections of insulin every day.

NB insulin cannot be taken by mouth because it is a protein and hence will be digested in the alimentary canal before
reaching the liver.

Avoid excessive intake of alcohol.

NB when a higher than normal amount of insulin is introduced in the blood, the patient;

✓ Feels hungry

19
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
 ✓ Sweats
✓ Becomes irritable
✓ Has double vision

Deamination
Excess amino acids are deaminated by the removal of amino group in the liver
The amino group is converted to ammonia
The Ammonia (toxic) is taken into the ornithine cycle which is a series of reaction where it combines with carbon IV oxide
to form urea (less toxic) under the influence of enzyme Arginase. The urea is released into the blood stream and is
excreted in urine through the kidney; and the remaining carbon skeleton oxidized to carbon IV oxide and water; this
process leads to release of energy. The carbon skeleton may be converted to glucose to be used during respiration;

The process of deamination

20
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
 NB
✓ Reptiles and birds need to conserve their water. Their ammonia is converted to uric acid that does not need water
to eliminate. They are refered to as uricotelic organisns and they produce white droppings instead of urine. The
uric acid makes birds light for flight, since they don’t consume a lot of water.
✓ Animals that excrete mainly ammonia live in aquatic environments. CO2 and the toxic ammonia can be diluted to
harmless concentrations with plenty of water hence refered to as ammonotelic eg fresh water fish.
✓ Terrestrial animals produce more urea since it does not need to much water for dilution hence refered to as
ureotelic eg mammals.

Detoxification
Poisonous substances are converted to less harmful compounds
For example: elimination of hydrogen peroxide and ammonia in the liver. Ammonia from the process of deamination is
converted in the liver into urea; which is less toxic. Bacterial toxins are converted to less toxic substances by liver cells;

2H2O2 catalase 2H2O + 02

Hydrogen peroxide water oxygen

Thermoregulation
Regulation of body temperature
Heat is generated in the liver by chemical activities which are both endothermic (heat consuming) and exothermic (heat
producing)
The heat is distributed throughout the body by the blood.

Regulation of plasma proteins;

The liver produces most of the proteins found in blood; fibrinogen and prothrombin which play a role in blood clotting.
Albumin and globulins are also produced by the liver. Globulins act as antibodies;. Albumin contributes to the maintenance
of osmotic pressure in the body; Non-essential amino acids are synthesized by the liver;

Haemoglobin is broken down into haem and globin. Globin is digested into amino acids and enters the amino acid pool
while the haem group is changed into biliverdin and bilirubin and taken to the gall bladder. These are later released into
the gut as bile and then passed out through the faeces. These two substances give faeces its characteristic brown colour.

Regulation of fat metabolism;

When carbohydrates are in short supply in the body, fats in different parts of the body are mobilized and taken to the liver;
The fats are oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide and water with the production of energy or modified and sent to tissues for
oxidation;

Why is homeostatic control necessary?

This provides a constant internal environment so that the cells of the body have the optimum (best) condition for their
survival

Why is constant body temperature maintained by mammals?

✓ Most enzymes in the body function within a narrow range of temperature
✓ High temperature denatures enzymes
✓ Low temperature inactivates and inhibits enzymes

Explain the advantage gained by possessing a constant body temperature

21
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
 ✓ Animals remain active despite fluctuations in environmental temperature
✓ Higher chances of survival in various environments ie they colonize various environments
✓ Chemical processes in their body continues at an optimum rate

Why does body temperature of a healthy person rise up to 37oC on a hot humid day?
Sweat evaporation is reduced hence cooling is less therefore more heat is retained in the body causing temperature to rise

Explain why individuals with smaller sizes require more energy per unit body weight than those with larger sizes.
Surface area to volume ratio is higher in smaller individuals than larger ones; therefore heat is lost faster by smaller ones
than larger ones and thus they require more energy per unit body weight to maintain body temperature
What is the meaning of osmoregulation?
Mechanism which regulates osmotic pressure of internal environment of an organism the regulation /maintenance of
salt/solute-water balance of an internal environment

State the importance of osmoregulation

- Maintenance of constant level of water and salts (osmotic pressure) for optimum/suitable conditions for metabolism
suitable for cellular functions

State the ways by which desert mammals conserve water

✓ Fewer glomeruli to reduce ultrafiltration
✓ Longer loop of Henle to maximize reabsorption of water
✓ Excretion of dry feaces or concentrated urine thus more water is conserved
✓ Some have hump for fat to be metabolized to give metabolic water for use eg camels
✓ Some are nocturnal, burrow, aestivate or hibernate
✓ Sweat glands few or absent to reduce water loss

Explain why some desert animals excrete uric acid rather than water
Uric acid is less toxic than ammonia, hence elimination of uric acid requires less water than ammonia therefore more water
conserved; uric acid being less toxic is safer to excrete where there is less water/desert

Explain why eating a meal with too much salt leads to production of a small volume of concentrated urine
The concentration of salts in the blood rises leading to production of more ADH hence higher rate of water reabsorption by
kidney tubules

Explain how marine fish regulate their osmotic pressure

✓ Swallow plenty of sea water to increase amount of water in the body
✓ Have chloride excretory cells in their gills to remove excess salts
✓ Eliminate nitrogenous wastes in form of trimethylamine oxide which requires little water for elimination
✓ Few/small glomeruli thus slow filtration rate in the kidneys
✓ Retain nitrogenous wastes in form of urea to raise osmotic pressure of body fluids

What is the biological significance of maintaining a relatively constant sugar level in a human body?
Body cells are surrounded by tissue fluids that are isotonic/same osmotic pressure as cytoplasm
If sugar level is high/ hypertonic, cell will lose water by osmosis to the surrounding, thus increasing the concentration of
the contents thus, changes the physiology of the cell
If the blood sugar is lower than the normal, the cytoplasm gains water by osmosis, diluting the cell contents, thus altering
the physiology of the cell and cells may haemolyse.

22
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.
Explain the part played by antidiuretic hormone in homeostasis
Produced when there is less water (high osmotic pressure above normal level of salt concentration) in the blood.
It acts on kidney tubules (nephron) increasing its permeability; thus increasing water reabsorption from tubules to the
blood stream, thus restoring osmotic pressure
When there is more water(lower osmotic pressure) or decreased salt concentration in blood, little or no ADH is produced,
less water reabsorbed hence water loss in urine (more dilute urine) hence raising the osmotic pressure in body
fluids/blood

What is the role of blood clotting in homeostasis?

When a blood vessel is cut, there is exposure of blood platelets to the air; this triggers fibrinogen to be converted to fibrin;
the fibrin forms a clot that prevents body fluids e.g. blood from being lost; therefore the clot conserves water and salts in
the body
Why does glucose not normally appear in urine even though it is filtered in the mammalian Bowman’s capsule?
Glucose molecules are selectively and actively reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubules

When is glycogen which is stored in the liver converted into glucose and released into the blood?
✓ After activity/when blood sugar (glucose) falls below normal
✓ During starvation
How would one find out from a sample of urine whether a person is suffering from diabetes mellitus?
In a test tube put equal amounts of urine sample and Benedict’s solution and boil.
Positive result i.e. orange or red precipitate is formed
Positive result is an indication of diabetes mellitus

QUIZ

1. Explain why:

a. Birds excrete their nitrogenous waste in the form of uric acid (2mks)
b. Fresh water fish excrete ammonia (2mks)
c. Pregnant women excrete less urea compared to the non-pregnant ones (2mks)
d. Pregnant women tend to urinate more frequently towards the last stages of pregnancy (2mks)

2. Discuss the role of the following hormones in blood sugar control

a. Insulin (5mks)
b. Glucagon (5mks)
3. Describe the diseases of the liver and the kidney

4. Explain why dogs pant more frequently

23
ASUMBI SCHOOL FORM II BIOLOGY NOTES BIOLOGY FOR LIFE OCHIENG S.K.