Federal Technical and Vocational

Education and Training Institute

English Language and Humanities

Department

Basic Writing Skills

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 Basic Writing Skills

Eng 201

Course Writers:
Abate Abebe
Abebaw Eshetu
Wondu Haile

Course Editors:
Daniel Zewdu
Mulugeta Weldehanna
Tekabe Kassahun

Course Compilers:
Gashaw Shewangizaw
Kebere Mala

Publisher: FTVET Institute,

English Language and Humanities Department,
Addis Ababa. Ethiopia
August 2018

No part of the material can be

reproduced without the prior
permission of FTVET
Institute- English Language
and Humanities Department

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 Table of Contents
UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE ................................................... 1
1.1 Definition ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.2 Constituent Elements of a Sentence ..................................................................................... 2
1.2.1 Simple Subject and Simple Predicate ........................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Complete Subject and Complete Predicate .................................................................. 4
1.2.3 Compound subject and compound predicate ................................................................ 4
1.3 Types of sentences ............................................................................................................... 5
1.3.1 Functional classification of sentences .......................................................................... 5
1.3.1.1 A declarative sentence .............................................................................................. 5
1.3.1.2 An interrogative sentence ......................................................................................... 6
1.3.1.3 An imperative sentence ............................................................................................. 6
1.3.1.4 An exclamatory sentence ......................................................................................... 6
1.3.2 Structural classification of sentences ............................................................................ 7
1.3.2.1 A simple sentence ..................................................................................................... 7
1.3.2.2 A compound sentence ............................................................................................... 9
1.3.2.3 Complex Sentences.................................................................................................... 11
1.3.2.4 Compound-Complex Sentences ................................................................................ 17
Sentence Combining• .................................................................................................................. 19
Writing Better Sentences .............................................................................................................. 19
1. Forming Longer Simple Sentences• .................................................................................... 19
2. Forming Compound Sentences• .......................................................................................... 19
3. Forming Complex Sentences ................................................................................................ 22
4. Forming Compound Complex Sentences .............................................................................. 24
1.4 Common Sentence Faults ....................................................................................................... 25
1.4.1 Sentence Fragments......................................................................................................... 25
1.4.2 Run-on sentences........................................................................................................... 29
1.4.3 Faulty Parallelism ............................................................................................................ 30
1.4.4 Subject-verb Agreement .................................................................................................. 31
1.4.5 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers ................................................................................. 33
1.4.6 Dangling Modifiers ......................................................................................................... 35

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 UNIT TWO: PARAGRAPH WRITING ...................................................................................... 37
DEFINITION ................................................................................................................................ 38
2.1 Features of a Paragraph ........................................................................................................... 39
2.1.1Unity .................................................................................................................................. 39
TOPIC SENTENCE...................................................................................................................... 41
2.1.2 Completeness .................................................................................................................. 42
2.1.3 Coherence ......................................................................................................................... 43
2.1.4 Order................................................................................................................................. 43
2.1 Elements of a Paragraph ......................................................................................................... 45
2.2.1 Descriptive Paragraph ...................................................................................................... 46
2.2.2 Narrative Paragraph.......................................................................................................... 48
2.2.3 Persuasive/ Argumentative/ Paragraph ............................................................................ 49
2.2.3 Expository Paragraph ....................................................................................................... 52
UNIT THREE: ESSAY WRITING .............................................................................................. 59
3.1 Definition ................................................................................................................................ 60
3.2 Differences of an Essay and a Paragraph ................................................................................ 60
3.3 Similarities of an essay and a paragraph ................................................................................. 60
3.4 Elements of an Essay ......................................................................................................... 61
3.4.1 Introductory Paragraph ............................................................................................... 61
1.4.2 Body Paragraph(s) ...................................................................................................... 65
1.4.3 Concluding Paragraph ................................................................................................ 66
3.5 Types of Essays....................................................................................................................... 70
3.6. Sample essays for analysis ..................................................................................................... 71

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 UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE
Objectives of the Unit
Dear trainee,
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
 define what a sentence is
 explain the parts of a sentence
 identify the different types of subject and predicate
 explain different types of sentences based on function and structure
 combine two or more simple sentences using coordination and subordination

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 1.1 Definition

Dear trainee, what do you think is a sentence?

We tend to think of a sentence as a group of words with a period, a question mark, or an

exclamation mark at the end and a capital letter at the beginning, but there is more to it than that.
In order to be a sentence, a word group must be complete enough to stand independently. In
other words, a sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. Additional
definitions for a sentence are given below.

 A sentence is usually defined as a grammatically independent unit made up of a word or

group of words so related as to convey a complete thought.
 A sentence is the basic unit of thought someone uses to express her/himself.

The better we understand how to form and use sentences, therefore, the more effectively we can
express our thoughts to others.

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought.

1.2 Constituent Elements of a Sentence

Every sentence, short or long, is made up of one or more units containing two main parts: subject
and predicate.

Subject is a part of a sentence about which a statement is made. It is a noun or pronoun, with any
of its modifiers.

Predicate is the statement made about the subject. It is a verb or verb phrase, with any modifiers
or words used to complete its meaning.

Example

1) Our football team won the state championship.

Subject: Our football team
Predicate: won the school championship

2) Abebech works in Addis Ababa University.

Subject: Abebech
Predicate: works in Addis Ababa University.
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 3) Science develops through objective analysis.
Subject: Science
Predicate: develops through objective analysis.
4) The climate of Ethiopia varies mainly according to elevation.
Subject: The climate of Ethiopia
Predicate: varies mainly according to elevation
5) The tallest girl in our class is also the cleverest one.
Subject: The tallest girl in our class
Predicate: is also the cleverest one

1.2.1 Simple Subject and Simple Predicate

Every sentence, we said, usually has a subject and a predicate. Look at the following two simple
examples.
 John fights.
 They run

In the first sentence, John, the doer of the action, is a simple subject, and fights, the action, is a
simple predicate.

In the second sentences, the simple subject is they, the doers of the action, and the simple
predicate is run, the action.

Simple subject Simple predicates

Flowers are blooming.
Teachers teach.
Candles burn.
Chaltu laughed.
I slept.
We cried.
In the sentences given above table, the subject has consisted of a single word: flowers, teachers,
candles, Chaltu, I, and we. Such subjects are called simple subjects. The predicate has also
consisted of a single word: bloom, teach, burn, laughed, slept, and cried. Such predicates are
called simple predicates.

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 1.2.2 Complete Subject and Complete Predicate
Complete Subject
When a simple subject is expanded by the addition of modifying words, the subject thus
expanded is called a complete subject.

Examples of expanded form of subject

 The flowers in my garden are blooming.

Flowers, the simple subject, has been expanded by the modifiers. Hence, it is a complete subject.

Complete Predicate
In the same way, when the predicate consists of a single word or a verb phrase, it is called a
simple predicate. But when it is expanded by the addition of other words, then the simple
predicate plus its modifiers, plus any other words that completes its meaning, are called complete
predicate.

Look at the following examples.

 Solomon is walking. (The sentence has a simple predicate.)
 Solomon is walking slowly towards home. (Complete predicate.)

1.2.3 Compound subject and compound predicate

Compound subject
When a subject of a sentence is composed of two or more simple subjects, it is called a
compound subject.

Look at the following examples.

 Aster and her mother went to market.
 Ethiopia and Eritrea made peace after 20 years.
 Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are called the inner planets of the solar system.
 Cats and dogs are nice pets.

Compound predicate
When the predicate of a sentence is composed of two or more simple predicates, it called a
compound predicate.

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 Look at the following examples.
 Martha went market and bought TV.
 He lives and works in the USA.
 I started and finished the job.

1.3 Types of sentences

Dear trainee,
You have learned that a sentence is made up of a subject and a predicate and that it must contain
a complete thought. What more is there?

Now, in this part of the module you will learn about the distinguishing features of different types
of sentences. Besides, you will identify their purposes and use them correctly.

1.3.1 Functional classification of sentences

When you write sentences, you write them for four different reasons. You may want to ask a
question, express a strong emotion, express a command, or simply make a statement. Functional
classification of sentences is based on the function the sentences perform. Accordingly we have
four types of sentences.
1. A declarative sentence.
2. An interrogative sentence.
3. An imperative sentence.
4. An exclamatory sentence

1.3.1.1 A declarative sentence

A sentence that makes a statement or states a fact, wish, intent and feeling is called a declarative
sentence. Most written and spoken sentences are declarative. The majority of sentences in most
stories and essays are declarative. A declarative sentence always ends with a period (.).

Look at the examples below.

 Ketema's children are living in Arbaminch.
 I would rather not cook tonight.
 As the train pulled away, Azeb knew she wouldn’t see him again.
 I would like to be a nuclear physicist.

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 1.3.1.2 An interrogative sentence
An interrogative sentence asks a question. Such sentences always end with a question mark (?).
Look at the examples.
 Did you finish your math assignment?
 Are you going to go to the game tomorrow?
 What time does the movie begin?
 Why is the sky blue?
 Will you marry me?

1.3.1.3 An imperative sentence

An imperative sentence is used to give an order or a command. A period usually ends an
imperative sentence.

At first glance, an imperative sentence looks like it doesn’t have a subject. Because the person
speaking the command is obviously talking to someone who is present. Therefore, the subject of
imperative sentences is always assumed to be you.

Typically, imperative sentences begin with the base form a verb. Look at the examples.
 Leave me alone.
 Stand up.
 Please, sit down.
 Do not touch that bottle.
 Go away.

1.3.1.4 An exclamatory sentence

An exclamatory sentence is used to express strong emotion. An exclamatory sentence usually
ends with an exclamation mark (!).
 What a party we had last night!
 I can't believe you're late again!
 It is a boy!
 What a wonderful goal that was!

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 Activity 1
Label the following sentences as declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.
1. How lucky they were to have won the lottery!
2. Please return your books to the library on time.
3. Remember to put gas in the car before you bring it back, please.
4. Pick a card, any card.
5. Are you taking the train or the plane?
6. Leul was born in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
7. What a view this is!
8. That is fantastic!
9. Seid lives in Dessie.
10. Did you see the new program on Channel 9 yesterday?

1.3.2 Structural classification of sentences

This classification of sentences is based on the number and types of clauses that form a sentence.
The order in which the clauses appear has no effect on type of sentence.

There are three basic forms of sentences: the simple sentence, the compound sentence and the
complex sentence. A fourth kind, the compound-complex sentence is a combination of basic
forms.
1.3.2.1 A simple sentence
Most of the examples you have seen so far in this module have been simple sentences. Simple
sentences contain one independent clause, that is, a group of words with one subject and
predicate combination that can stand alone, but both the subject and the predicate can be simple,
compound or complete. The following are all examples of simple sentences.

Simple sentences with simple subject and simple predicate

The simple subject is the key noun or pronoun or (word or group of words acting as a noun) that
tells what a sentence is about.
The simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase that expresses the essential thought about the
subject of the sentence.

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 Simple subject Simple Predicate

 Haile G/sillassie will run.

 Birds are singing.
 Dogs bark.
 Things change.

Simple sentences with complete subjects and complete predicates

In most sentences the meaning of the simple subject and the simple predicate is expanded or
modified by the addition of other words and phrases.

The complete subject consists of the simple subject and all the words that modify it.

The complete predicate consists of the simple predicate or verb and all the words that modify it
or complete its meaning.

Complete subject Complete Predicate

Ethiopian legend Haile G/sillassie will run a marathon to set a new record.

Black birds with curved beaks were singing outside the mosque.

The black dog barked at the guests.

Simple sentences with compound subjects and compound predicates

A compound subject is made up of two or more simple subjects that are joined by a conjunction
and have the same verb.

A compound predicate has two or more verbs, and both verbs have the same subject.
 Compound means having two or more similar parts.

Compound subject Compound Predicate

Haile and Kenenisa ran and won.
Dogs and cats chased and killed the rats.
Tamirat and his brother played music and watched TV.

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 The aforementioned types of subjects and predicates may also be mixed in simple sentences. For
instance, a simple sentence may have simple subject and compound predicate or complete
subject and compound predicate.

Examples
Girum went to market and bought a television set. (A simple subject and a compound predicate)
The prime minister and his wife came. (A compound subject and a simple predicate)

1.3.2.2 A compound sentence

Dear trainee,
Read the following simple sentences.
 Mahelet is eating her lunch at her desk today. (An independent clause)
 Abel is going to the cafeteria. (An independent clause)
These two simple sentences can be combined into one longer sentence by using one of the co-
ordinate conjunctions, and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so.
 Mahelet is eating her lunch at her desk today, but Abel is going to the cafeteria.
This longer sentence still contains two independent clauses. The two original simple sentences
are now joined by a coordinating conjunction and have become a compound sentence.

Therefore, a sentence that contains two or more independent clauses and no any dependent
clause is called a compound sentence.
Notice that when a coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses, the conjunction is
always preceded by a comma.

Correlative conjunctions, such as not only/but also, neither(not)/nor, and either/or which are
used in pairs to connect parts of compound subject and compound predicate, can also be
used to connect two independent clauses and create a compound sentence.
Notice that the word order may change a little to accommodate the correlative conjunction.
 Not only have I lost my wallet, but also I cannot find my car keys.
 Either Lisa will get a job, or she will move to Fredericton.
 Not many people liked the plan, nor did they remain silent about it.
Two, or more, simple sentences must be closely related in meaning before they can be joined
together to form a compound sentence.

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  She cooked supper. I washed the dishes.
 She cooked supper, and I washed the dishes.
A third kind of conjunction, called a conjunctive adverb, can be used to join two simple
sentences and create a compound sentence consisting of two independent clauses. The following
are some of the most common conjunctive adverbs:
Also, still , consequently, however , indeed , meanwhile, hence , then, furthermore,
moreover, likewise, thus , instead, nevertheless, therefore, otherwise, in addition, as a result,
nonetheless,

 The road was covered with black ice; therefore, he hit the ditch.
 Olive prepared her speech; meanwhile, Lynn set up the chairs.
 The CDs were blaring; moreover, the TV was at top volume.
 The wind howled at 80 kph; in addition, the temperature dropped to - 30E.
Whenever a conjunctive adverb is used to join two independent clauses, it is
always preceded by a semi-colon and followed by a comma (However, some other adverb
conjunctions like otherwise and then are preceded by a semi colon but not followed by a
comma).
Examples
● Getachew must be sick; otherwise he would be here.
● She made coffee; then she cooked breakfast.

If we overuse short, simple sentences, the structure of the text will be boring and monotonous. It
does not have a smooth flow because it is full of short, choppy sentences.

Read the following paragraph which was written by a learner who used only simple
sentences.
It snowed. Classes were cancelled. There was a huge snowdrift blocking my front door. I could
not open it. I tried the back door. It was also blocked. I called my father. He owns a snow
blower. He lives three houses away. He cleared the snow. I then could open my doors.

The message is understandable, but it sounds boring and choppy. The next example is the same
paragraph, rewritten using compound sentences.

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 It snowed, and classes were canceled. There was a huge snow drift blocking my front door, so I
could not open it. I tried the back door; however, it was also blocked. I called my father. He lives
three houses away, and he owns a snow blower. He cleared the snow, and I then could open my
doors.

As you can see, the sentences flow better; the writing is smoother, and the story seems more
interesting. Not all the sentences were combined. They could have been, but as you will learn in
later modules on paragraphs and essays, writing is more interesting with a variety of sentence
types - simple sentences, compound sentences and complex sentences.
Two, or more, closely related independent clauses may be connected with a coordinating
conjunction (sometimes correlative conjunctions or conjunctive adverbs)to form one
single sentence called a compound sentence.

Activity 2
A. Write 10 pairs of simple sentences that are closely related in meaning.
B. Now combine the pairs to make 10 compound sentences. Use a variety of conjunctions. Also
be sure to use the correct punctuation.
C Write 10 more compound sentences. Use a variety of conjunctions.

1.3.2.3 Complex Sentences

A sentence that contains one independent clause and one, or more, dependent clauses is
called a complex sentence.

Remember dependent clauses? They play a major role in the formation of the third type of
sentence; the complex sentence. Dependent clauses have subject and predicate, but they can’t
stand alone and make a complete sense that is why you need to combine them with independent
clauses.
The most common dependent clauses are listed below:
Meaning Subordinating Conjunction
Cause because, since, as
Time since, as, until, as soon as, before, when, while, once, after, whenever,
as long as, till

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 Condition if, as long as, unless, provided, as though, as if
Contrast/Concession although, even though, though, even if, whereas, while
Result that, so that, in order that
Place where, wherever
comparison as, than, as…..as

Relative Pronouns are also dependent words

who, whom,
which, that
whose

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE DEPENDENT CLAUSE

My friend told me where he was going to buy his tires.
They will drive you back to work today if you do not have a ride already.
I believe that she lost the keys to the car recently
I am a bit confused because I lost the map.
We will give the presents to you if you tell us when Hana is arriving
The man in the hat is wearing the shoes which I gave to the Thrift Store Saturday

Are you confused? Comparing the three types of sentences, that you have seen so far, may help
you understand.
They will drive you to the office.
This is a SIMPLE SENTENCE. It has a subject (they) and a predicate (will drive). It contains
one independent clause.
They will wash and wax the car. This is also a SIMPLE SENTENCE. It has a subject (they) and
a compound predicate (will wash, wax) and one independent clause

They will drive you to the office after the car is washed and waxed. The two simple sentences
have now been joined to form a COMPOUND SENTENCE by using the coordinating
conjunction and.

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 The underlined group of words is a dependent clause because it starts with a subordinating
conjunction. It does not make sense on its own.

The independent clause is combined with dependent clause to form a COMPLEX SENTENCE.
This is the same sentence, but the order of the clauses has been reversed.
Notice that when a dependent clause starts a sentence, a comma follows it. This comma is a sign
to the reader that the most important part of the sentence, the independent (principal) clause is
about to start.

Compare the slight difference in meaning in each of the sentence pairs above and below. The
order in which the clauses are written, does make a small difference in meaning, but the order
does not change the fact that they are a complex sentences.
1. Kuma left because he was angry.
2. Because he was angry, Kuma left.

Now compare the larger difference in meaning when information is shifted from a dependent to
an independent clause.
When the flood hit, the campers were on high ground.
When the campers were on high ground, the flood hit.
If you go to the doctor, you are sick.
If you are sick, you go to the doctor.

Coordination and subordination

Coordination is a method of joining two independent sentences by using coordinators. In
coordination, the status of the sentences is not reduced when they are combined. In other words,
when they are combined, they still remain independent clauses.
The linking devices (coordinators) we use in coordination are:
1.1.1 Coordinating Conjunctions
1.1.3 Correlative Conjunctions
1.1.3 Adverb Conjunctions

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 1.1.1. The most commonly used coordinating conjunctions which are used in writing are
the following.
 For - a more formal word for because, this shows a result- cause relationship between
two independent clauses. It shows logical consequence; it has the same meaning as
because, the reason why
 And - shows the addition of two positive ideas. It has the same meaning as in addition,
along with, moreover, furthermore
 Nor - shows equality of two negative ideas. It shows an addition of a negative point
(Note: you must reverse the normal subject- verb positions in the second clause when
using nor).
 But - shows opposition or contrast between two ideas. It has the same meaning as
however, except, on the other hand
 Or - shows alternatives or choices
 Yet - shows opposition; also shows emphasis (a stronger but)
 So - shows cause and effect relationship. It has the same meaning as therefore, as a result.
X happened, so Y happened.
Examples
 Azeb studied hard, so she scored a good grade.
 You must come early, or you will miss the bus.
 The driver couldn’t control the speed of the car, for the brake was not working.
 The patient didn’t eat his dinner, nor did he eat his lunch.
 Haile is running very fast, so he seems to win the race.
 She studied hard, but she failed the examination.
 Every summer I go to Addis Ababa, and I visit my grandfather.
Activity 3
Combine the following pairs of sentences by using coordinating conjunctions.
1 A. The dog ate the food very fast
B. The dog was very hungry
2. A. The boy sang very well at the Ethiopian Idol.
B. The judges didn’t allow him to pass to the next stage.

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 3. A. Aster didn’t bring her exercise book.
B. Aster didn’t bring her pen.
4. A. The farmer worked all day and night.
B. The farmer harvested a lot of crops.
5. A. Hanna ran after the bus.
B. Hanna could not catch it.
6. A. You can walk from Mexico to Genet hotel.
B. You can take a taxi.

Subordination
Subordination is the joining of an independent clause and a dependent clause in the same
sentence by using subordinators. In subordination, the status of one of the sentences to be
combined is reduced to a subordinate (dependent) clause. As you might recall from the above
discussion, in coordination the status of the sentences to be combined is not reduced; they remain
independent.

Subordinating conjunction is a kind of conjunction that joins subordinate clauses with

independent clauses. Here the subordinate clauses cannot stand alone; they must be joined to an
independent clause to convey a complete thought. They tell when, where, why, how, and to what
extent an action takes place. When a writer wants to emphasize the idea in one clause over the
other, the most important idea is contained within the independent clause, and lesser ideas are
presented in the dependent clauses. More often we use a subordinating conjunction to show a
difference in importance and strength of ideas.

The most important information should always be placed in the independent clause; less
important details belong in the dependent clause. As a writer, your job is to decide which
information is most important and should go in the independent clause. Sometimes the wrong
ideas are placed in the dependent (subordinate clause). Would the following sentences work?
When the toll is 50 Birr, the highway to Hawassa will be finished.
Because the barn burned down, lightning struck.

If you write sentences like these, it is called faulty subordination because the most important
information appears in the dependent clause.

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 Activity 4
Indicate which of the following sentences are simple, which are compound, and which are
complex.
Hint: You may want to start by placing brackets around the dependent clauses and
identifying the type of conjunction.

Example: COMPLEX (After Tewodros called), Alemu phoned for reservations.

1. Many people have a fear of heights, but some can overcome their through therapy or hypnosis.
2. It is almost noon, so I would like to have lunch right now.
3. He added the figures, wrote the total, and then passed it over to me.
4. After she completed her adult high school diploma, Samron applied to the paramedic program.
5. Every Saturday Markos shops for groceries, he cooks a gourmet meal.
6. If you place a piece of the ivy in a pot of water, it will soon sprout.
7. Did they mail the invitations before the post office went on strike.
8. Kidist, Rahel, and Derartu have been friends for many years.
9. Although Worku was born in Gambela, she grew up in Arsi.
10. Bekelech entered a baking contest, and his cheesecake won first place.
Activity 5
Label the sentences as simple, complex, compound and compound-complex.
1. Wait for your mother before you make that decision.
2. The rundown old house on the corner of the Meskel Square was sold yesterday to Ato Zena’s
niece and his ex-wife.
3. We built a snowman, and we went for a sleigh ride.
4. We built a snowman and went for a sleigh ride.
5. We built a snowman before we went on the sleigh ride.
6. Where are the books?
7. As long as the sun was shining, they were on the beach.
8. Honesty is always the best policy.
9. Nighttime on Lake Abayita, Arbaminch is always beautiful, but you should wear warm
clothes.
10. Not only will we buy the package, but also we will subscribe to the magazine.

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 1.3.2.4 Compound-Complex Sentences
The name tells it all. It is a combination of compound and complex sentences. A compound -
complex sentence has two or more main clauses and one or more dependent clauses. In other
words, it requires a minimum of three clauses: two independent and one dependent.

Examine these examples for a better understanding.

The black cat stared at me. The dog barked at me. They didn’t like me

Join the first two simple sentences with a coordinating conjunction. How many clauses are there
now? What kind of clauses are they? What kind of sentence have you created?
The black cat stared at me, and the dog barked at me.
The sentence above is compound. Now attach the third sentence to the compound sentence as a
dependent clause by adding the subordinate conjunction because.
The black cat stared at me, and the dog barked at me because they didn’t like me.
The new sentence is a compound-complex sentence. Compound-complex sentences can also be
formed using relative pronouns.

Examine these sample sentences.

He chopped the wood, and Ali piled it while they waited for supper.
Jagena realized that he was driving too fast, yet he didn’t slow down.
He peeled the apples which he had bought, and he ate them.
Our landlady, who lives downstairs, gave us some packing boxes, so we thanked her.
A RECIPE FOR IDENTIFYING SENTENCES (by structure)
Use the following steps to help identify the kind of sentence by structure.
1. Find all the verbs first.
2. Find the subject of each verb.
3. How many subject/verb combinations did you find? This tells you how many clauses there are in
the sentence.
4. Look for the conjunctions which join each subject/verb combination.
5. Identify the kinds of conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions and
conjunctive adverbs make a compound sentence; subordinating conjunctions and relative pronouns
make a complex sentence.

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 6. How many of each kind of clause did you find in the sentence.
(2 independent clauses, 1 dependent clause)
Now use this chart

Independent Dependent Conjunction Type of Sentence

Clauses Clauses
1 None None Simple
2 or more None co-ordinate Compound compound
sentence correlative
conjunctive adverb
1 or more 1 ( or more) subordinate complex
relative pronoun
2 (2 or more) 1 (1 or more) See above Compound/complex
Mekuria, who plays the flute, said that he would join the new orchestra when it was formed, but
he wouldn’t write any music for them because he was too busy.
 How many subject/verb combinations are there?
 How many clauses are there?
 Which conjunctions are used?
 What type are they?
 How many independent clauses are there?
 How many dependent clauses are there?
 What kind of sentence is this?
When the thief was arrested, he was hiding in the cathedral which was built in the 14th
century, and he was carrying automatic guns.
 What kind of sentence is this?
In last Summer, Hana along with her friends, Kidist and Tariku, visited Lalibela rock
hewn churches.
 What kind of sentence is this?
Tariku went to Hana's office and asked her opinion about his newly published book.

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 Sentence Combining•
A good reason for learning about complete and incomplete sentences, subjects and predicates, as
well as sentence types is to help you write correct and interesting material more easily. You now
have the knowledge tools to look at every sentence you write and decide whether it is written
correctly. As well, you are ready to start consciously composing sentences with a variety of
structures so that your writing will be effective and appealing. Good writers create a variety of
sentences:
1. longer simple sentences
2. compound sentences, using co-ordinate conjunctions, correlative conjunctions
conjunctive adverbs
3. complex sentences, using subordinate conjunctions, relative pronouns
4. compound complex sentences, using a combination of conjunctions

Professional writers revise their first drafts many times before they are satisfied with their work.
Often the revisions consist of combining sentences to make the message as concise as possible.
Concise writing says as much as possible in as few words as possible.

Writing Better Sentences

1. Forming Longer Simple Sentences•
Two or more simple sentences can be rewritten to form a longer simple sentence, for example:
Tadi has a jacket. It is new. It is leather. It is brown.
These four sentences can be combined to make a single simple sentence:
Tdi has a new brown leather jacket.

The new sentence is a simple sentence. It consists of one independent clause. The extra
information contained in the other simple sentences has been added to the first in the form of
adjectives. Combining sentences this way packs a lot of information into a few words, and
makes your writing more interesting.

2. Forming Compound Sentences•

Two or more simple sentences (independent clauses) can also be combined to form a compound
sentence. Remember that a compound sentence has two or more simple sentences (independent

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 clauses) joined by a co-ordinate conjunction, correlative conjunctions, or conjunctive adverb.
For example:
David went fishing. He caught four fish.
These two sentences can be combined to make a single compound sentence:
David went fishing, and he caught four fish.
The new sentence is a compound sentence because it contains two independent clauses. Using
compound sentences helps the reader understand the relation between the two ideas. The
following table contains more examples.
Slow down. Pay attention. You may have an Slow down and pay attention, or you
accident. may have an accident.
We went swimming. We went to the town We went swimming at the town pool,
pool. We didn’t stay long. so we didn't stay long.
The movie was dull. The book was The movie was dull, but the book was
fascinating. fascinating.
The bus was nearly full. All of us piled in The bus was nearly full, but all of us in
anyway. anyway.
Gelta and Getahun bought season tickets. Gelta and Getahun bought season tickets, yet
They attended the first game. They went to they attended only the first and they went to
last game. last game.

The independent clauses are joined by a conjunction. In each case, the independent clauses are
separated from each other by a comma (,) placed in front of the conjunction. Two sentences can
also be joined to form a compound sentence without using either a comma or a conjunction. In
special situations, a compound sentence may be formed with the use of a punctuation mark
called a semicolon (;). The two sentences must be very closely related in meaning.
Some eat to live. Others live to eat. Some eat to live; others live to eat.
Lightning flashed. The cubs meowed. Lightning flashed; the cubs meowed.

These pairs of sentences are very closely related. They could be joined with a comma and a
conjunction; however, using a semicolon emphasizes how closely the ideas are related and gives
a much stronger sentence. Think about this example.
I fell down the stairs. I broke my glasses.

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 These two sentences are not necessarily closely related. If there is no relationship between them,
leave them separate. If the two are connected, perhaps as a series of unlucky events or if one is
the result of the other, a semi-colon could be used to join them.
I fell down the stairs; I broke my glasses. (compound sentence)
You could also join them with a co-ordinate conjunction. Notice that they are two separate
events: one is not necessarily the result of the other.
I fell down the stairs, and I broke my glasses. (compound sentence)
Indeed, you could also join them with a subordinate conjunction. The subordinate conjunction
clearly states that one is the result of the other.
I fell down the stairs because I broke my glasses.(complex sentence)
I broke my glasses because I fell down the stairs. (complex sentence)
You can see the meaning of each of these combinations is slightly different, depending on which
information is placed in the dependent clause. As the writer, you know exactly what you want to
say because the idea originated in your head. It’s up to you to decide how to combine these
sentences so that they best reflect the message you are trying to send.
I fell down the stairs. The stairs were slippery.
Both of these sentences refer to the same set of stairs, and the relationship between the two is
obvious. They can be joined either with a conjunctive adverb or a semicolon
The stairs were slippery; therefore, I fell down the stairs.
The stairs were slippery; I fell down them.

Conjunctive adverbs, including however, consequently, therefore, otherwise, nevertheless, and

hence, join the independent clauses in a compound sentence and show the relationship between
the parts. Notice that a semicolon always comes before the conjunctive adverbs and a comma
after it.
Dawit had two strikes; however, he batted a home run on the third pitch.
The weather is hot; therefore, I wore my shorts.
They were late; nevertheless, we waited for them.

Simple sentences (independent clauses) joined by conjunctive adverbs form compound

sentences. Place a semi-colon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after it. Compound
sentences place equal importance on the information in both independent clauses. They break the

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 boring rhythm set up in a series of simple sentences. Because they record events in a casual way
as they occur to the mind or as they happened in time, they can be very useful in storytelling.
Compound sentences have the same pace, reality, and dramatic effect as conversations.

3. Forming Complex Sentences

Two, or more, simple sentences can also be combined to form a complex sentence. Remember
that a complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses, for
example:
David went fishing. He went fishing at the dam. He went fishing at the dam.
These three simple sentences could be combined to make a longer simple sentence.
He caught four fish at the dame.
He went fishing at the dam and caught for fish.

They could also be combined to make a compound sentence:

David went fishing at the dam, and he caught four fish.
David went fishing at the dam, so he caught four fish.

These are all acceptable sentences, but each expresses a slightly different idea.
Now look at another way to combine these same sentences. As well as communicating the ideas,
the writer has guided the reader’s understanding by emphasizing the most important information
catching four fish in the independent clause while inserting the interesting but less important
details about where they were caught into a dependent clause.
David caught four fish when he went fishing at the dam.
The new sentence is a complex sentence because it contains one independent clause and one
dependent clause. Catching the fish is the most important idea and so it is placed in the
independent clause. The place where he caught the fish is less important, so it is placed in the
dependent, or subordinate clause. These two sentences can be joined the other way around, but
notice the difference in what is important.
David went fishing at the dam where he caught four fish.
Another way to join independent clauses uses a relative pronoun like whom, which, or that.

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 The table below gives you some examples to investigate.
The car is in front of the house. It is is blue. The car which is in front of the house blue.
Yordanos was unable to go. She missed the Yordanos who was unable to go missed the
bus. bus.
The man fell beside the bus. He suffered a The man who fell beside the bus suffered a
heart attack. heart attack.
She bought the green coat. The coat matched She bought the green coat which matched her
her shoes. shoes.
The victim had been robbed. I knew the victim The victim whom I knew personally had been
personally. robbed.

Relative pronouns change form depending on how they are used: subjective case (who), the
objective case (whom), the possessive case (whose).
People who think only of themselves are self-centered.
The Japanese tourists whom you met plan a return visit next year.
The couple from whom we bought the dogs live in Deberziet.
Zerihun wrote about a man whose life was threatened by a mobster.

Activity 6
Rewrite the sentences in the chart above to change the emphasis.
Activity 7
A. Rewrite each of these sentences as two simple sentences. You will have to omit the
subordinate conjunction or the relative pronoun.
B. Then combine the simple sentences you wrote into compound sentences.
1. When the lion roared, everyone ran for cover.
2. The road is closed because the bridge was washed away.
3. If you can answer this question, you are smart.
4. Two tourists discovered the body of an ancient man which had been frozen in a glacier for
5, 000 years.
5. Members of our association raised a lot of money when they held a great Run.
6. After the Liberals won the election, the Premier appointed his cabinet.
7. I was nervous even though I knew I could pass the test.

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 8. Since Markos has a job, he can pay for his new bike.
9. While the meat was grilling, the guests played tennis.
10. After he installed the weather stripping, the electric bill did not decrease.

4. Forming Compound Complex Sentences

Compound complex sentences require a minimum of three clauses: two independent and one
dependent. These kinds of sentences are often found in formal writing, but they can be useful in
any circumstance. Compound complex sentences allow writers to pack a lot of detail into one
complete thought. As well, the writer controls the reader’s understanding by making sure that
he/she places importance on the same things the writer does.

When well written, these sentences guide the reader effortlessly through several closely related
ideas by showing which ideas are of equal importance and which are only extra, less important
details.

The independent clauses are joined with co-ordinate conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, or
conjunctive adverbs; the dependent clauses are added with subordinate conjunctions or relative
pronouns. Compound complex sentences do not have to be long sentences.
The tooth which he pulled was rotten, so now I can chew.
Geremew cleared the hurdle which the others had missed, and he won the race.
After Betty got sick, Foziya did the shopping and Seid cooked.

The “trick” to writing good complex and compound-complex sentences is knowing all the ideas
you want to include before you start, so you can place the most important information in the
independent clauses and arrange the lesser details in the dependent clauses.

Activity 8
Combine the following simple sentences into longer, more interesting ones. Indicate the type of
sentences you created.
A. Hot dogs lay on the grill. The hot dogs were sizzling. The grill was hot. The grill was red. The
hot dogs had black stripes. The stripes were from the grill.
B. Yabsira sat in the bathtub. The bathtub was huge. The bathtub was white. Yabsira was stiff.
Yabsira was sore. Yabsira had been working. Yabsira was working in her garden. Yabsira was
reading a book. Yabsira was enjoying the hot water.

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 1.4 Common Sentence Faults
Dear trainee,
As you have learnt in the classification of sentences, placement of punctuation marks, subjects
and predicates, phrases and clauses is governed by rules. Some of the sentence faults you are
about to learn result in the misuse and unnecessary omission of punctuation marks while the
other faults result in misuse of words.

1.4.1 Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence or a dependent clause punctuated as a sentence,
beginning with a capital letter and ending with a period. A fragment may result from incomplete
thought or incorrect punctuation. It is often missing a subject and/or a verb.
Difference between a fragment and a sentence
Sentence Fragment
-expresses a complete thought - doesn’t express a complete thought
-can stand alone and make sense - can’t stand alone and make sense
-has a subject and a verb - is often missing a subject or a verb
-doesn’t leave the reader with - leaves the reader with unanswered
question unanswered question

Fragments resulting from incorrect punctuation

Many sentence fragments occur simply because the writer inserts a period and a capital letter too
soon. This error is called a period fault. As a result of incorrect punctuation, phrases and clauses
can be misused as complete sentences.

Phrases as fragments
A phrase is a part of a sentence; therefore, it can’t stand by itself.
To fragments
Example: I plan on working overtime. To get this job finished.
The underlined word group is a fragment and can be corrected by adding it to the preceding
sentence.
Revised: I plan on working overtime to get this job finished.

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 - Ing fragments
No word ending in the suffix –ing can be a complete verb. If an -ing ending word is preceded by
forms of be ( is am are ,was, were been),the two words together are a verb.
Participle Complete verb
Reading is reading
studying were studying
running had been running
When an –ing word appears at or near the start of a word group ,a fragment may result .Such
fragments often lack a subject and part of the verb.
Example: I spent almost two hours on the phone yesterday .Trying to find a garage to repair my
car.
To correct this sentence add the fragment to the sentence that comes before it.
 I spent almost two hours on the phone yesterday, trying to find a garage to repair my car.
People sometimes write –ing fragments because they think the subject in one sentence will work
for the next word group as well. Thus, in the first example, the writer thinks that the subject in
the opening sentence will also serve as the subject for the second word group. But the subject
must actually be in the sentence.
Activity 9
Correct the following sentences with fragments.
1. At the beginning of this century. Motoring was an adventure.
______________________________________________________________________________
In the first place. He has had no experience.
______________________________________________________________________________
Clauses as fragments
Some word groups that begin with a dependent word are fragments .Here is a list of common
dependent words:
After In order that Even though If/even if
As That Although Wherever/where
Because So that Though Which/whichever
Since Unless Whether Who/whoever
Before How While What/whatever
Until Whose When/whenever

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 Whenever you begin a sentence with one of these words, you must be careful that a fragment
does not result.
Example:
After I learned the price of new cars. I decided to keep my old Land Rover.
As you can see, the underlined clause leaves you with unanswered question.
To correct the fragment, replace the period with a comma and merge the two clauses.
After I learned the price of new cars, I decided to keep my old Land Rover.
Activity 10
Based on the above examples, correct the following faulty sentences.
1. My daughter refused to stop smoking. Unless I quit also.
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Tomas made an appointment. Which he did not intend to keep.
______________________________________________________________________________
Sometimes the dependent words who, that, which or where appear not at the very start but near
the start of a word group. A fragment often results.
Example:
The town council decided to put more lights on South Street. A place where several people have
been mugged.
Revised: The town council decided to put more lights on South Street, a place where several
people have been mugged.
Fragments that lack a subject/Missing subject fragment
Example:
Fragment The boy hated the medication. Wished it would end soon.
The underlined group of words is a fragment because it doesn’t have a subject, so we add a
subject to make it complete.
Revised: The boy hated the medication. He wished it would end soon.

Activity 11
Correct the following.
Fragment: The truck skidded on the rain- slick highway .But missed a telephone pole on the
side of the road.
Revised:______________________________________________________________________

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 Fragment : Saba tried each of the appetizers on the table. And then found that, when dinner
arrived, her appetite was gone.
Revised:______________________________________________________________________
Fragments that lack a complete verb
Example:
Fragment She heard a deafening noise. A car horn behind her.
To correct this you can add a subject and a predicate to it or merge it with the sentence that
precedes it.
 She heard a deafening noise, a car horn behind her.
 She heard a deafening noise. It was a car horn behind her.
Fragment: The boss is appreciative of the employees’ efforts. He motivating them to work hard.
Revised:______________________________________________________________________
Fragments that lack both a subject and a verb
Fragment: Paul finally finished his homework. At ten o’clock.
Revised:______________________________________________________________________
Added detail Fragments
Added detail fragments lack a subject and a verb .They often begin with one of the following
words: also, especially, except, for example, including, such as
Example:
I love to cook and eat Italian food. Especially spaghetti and lasagna.
 Add the fragment to the complete sentence that precedes it.
Revised: I love to cook and eat Italian food, especially spaghetti and lasagna.
The class often starts late. For example, yesterday at a quarter after nine instead of at nine sharp.
 To correct this, you can use the above method or add a subject and a predicate to the
fragment.
Revised: The class often starts late. For example, yesterday at a quarter after nine instead of at
nine sharp.

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 1.4.2 Run-on sentences
Dear trainee, the other type of sentence fault that you need to avoid in your writing is what we
call run - on. A run on is two complete thoughts that run together with no adequate sign given
to mark the break between them.
Some run- ons have no punctuation at all. Such run –ons are known as fused sentences; they are
fused or joined together, as if they were only one thought.
Fused sentence My grades are very good this semester my social life rates only a c.
In other run-ons, known as comma splices, a comma is used to connect or ‘splice‘ together, the
two complete thoughts. However, a comma alone is not enough to connect two complete
thoughts. Some stronger connection than a comma alone is needed.
Comma splice My grades are very good this semester , my social life rates only a c.
The third type of run-on occurs when a coordinating conjunction alone is used to connect two
independent clauses.
My grades are very good this semester but my social life rates only a c.
There are four common methods to correct run-on sentences.
1. Use a period and a capital letter
My grades are very good this semester. My social life rates only a c.
2. Use a comma and a joining word
My grades are very good this semester, my social life rates only a c.
3. Use a semi colon alone
My grades are very good this semester; my social life rates only a c.
4. Use subordination
My grades are very good this semester though my social life rates only a c.
Correct the following run-ons by using the aforementioned methods.
1. I was happy I scored a very good result.
____________________________________________________________
2. My brother went to Bahirdar last year , he is coming tomorrow.
________________________________________________________________________
3. She was extremely aggressive so I didn’t want to live with her.
________________________________________________________________________

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 4. I studied hard I didn’t pass to grade
________________________________________________________________________
1.4.3 Faulty Parallelism
To communicate with your readers most effectively, you need to write clear, smooth and direct
sentences. When two or more words or group of words are joined in a sentence, they should be
parallel in construction .Each part should have the same grammatical structure and word order.

The coordinating conjunction ‘and’ joins sentence parts of equal weight/value: noun and noun,
verb and verb, phrase and phrase, clause and clause. The constructions are then parallel. If ’and’
is used to join constructions of different kinds there is a lack of parallelism.

Example 1:
The stranger wanted a view of the west and to ride horse back.
Noun Infinitive
In the above example, the coordinating conjunction ‘and’ joins elements of unequal grammatical
value; therefore, we need to make sure that the underlined words have similar structures.

Revised/parallel - The stranger wanted to see the west and to ride horse back.

Now, we have two infinitive phrases joined by ‘and’, so the construction is parallel.

Example 2:
Girma likes playing cards, eating exotic foods , and to watch movies.

The underlined group of words which are joined by a coordinating conjunction are not parallel.
Thus, we apply the same method of making them similar.

Revised/parallel - Girma likes playing cards, eating exotic foods , and watching movies.

Activity 12
The following constructions are not parallel. Correct them.
1. I resolved to lose weight, to study more, and watching less Tv.

Parallel_______________________________________________________________________
2. Kiros enjoys reading and to go to the theatre .

Parallel _____________________________________________________________________.

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 3. No one told Abrham to bring a note and that he has to go to the office.

Parallel ____________________________________________________________________.

1.4.4 Subject-verb Agreement

The fundamental rule is that the subject and predicate (main verb) must agree in number.
The present tense verb form changes in relation to the subject of the sentence. The subject of a
sentence may have two different forms: singular and plural

Basic Rules for Subject-verb Agreement

1. If the subject is a singular noun, the verb ends in s.
Examples: Jack enjoys long walks.
The cat sleeps practically anywhere.
One player needs to stay back in defense all the time.
2. If the subject is plural the verb doesn’t end in s.
Examples: The boys enjoy long walks.
The cats sleep practically anywhere.
Two players need to stay back in defense all the time.
3. When pronouns are subjects, here are the subject-verb agreement rules.

a) With third person singular (he, she, it),the verb ends in s .

Examples: He likes to fish below the dam .

She prefers fishing in the lake above the dam.
It takes a lot of courage to admit mistakes.
b) With all other pronouns (I, you, they, we), the verb doesn’t end in s.

4. Each present tense verb within a compound verb must agree with the subject.

Example: George goes to college during the week and works on weekends.
5. With compound subject use, a plural verb.
Example: The mayor and her husband attend our church.
The mayor attends our church.

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 6. A noun or a pronoun joined to the subject by phrases that act as prepositions rather than
conjunctions is not a subject. Examples of such phrases are along with, together with,
accompanied by, as well as, in addition to, including, no less than
Example: Nuru as well as Ali is going to mosque.
In addition to a BA certificate, three years relevant work experience is required.
7. When two or more subjects are joined by or/nor, either…or, or neither…nor, the verb should
agree with the nearest subject.
Example: Mary or her sisters are going to keep the appointment.
Mary or her sister is going to keep the appointment.
Neither John nor his children are required to attend.
Neither Samson nor his son is going fishing today.
If both subjects are singular, the verb should be singular.
Example: Either Abebe or his friend is to be at the stadium by 1pm.

8. Some pronouns when used as subjects always take singular verbs:

it, each, either, any one, every one, everybody, much, no one, nothing, someone, such,
some body, nobody, etc.

Examples: Each student has lunch money.

Everyone has lunch money.
Much has been written about grammar.
Someone is going to meet us at the airport.
It seems like years since we met.
As a subject each takes a singular verb. But, as an adjective in apposition with a plural subject, it
needs a plural verb.

Examples: John and Mary each are scheduled to meet with the president of the
company.
The girls each receive invitations.
Each of the girls receives invitations.
9. In either…or and neither…nor constructions where one subject is masculine and one subject
is feminine, the pronoun should agree with the antecedent that follows ‘or’ or ‘nor’.

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 Examples: Neither Mary nor John has applied for his visa.
Neither John nor Mary has applied for her visa.
In this example the pronoun ‘their’ would be incorrect because neither is singular. However, the
Phrase for a visa would be better in both cases.

Examples: Neither Mary nor John has applied for a visa.

Neither John nor Mary has applied for a visa.
10. Number, majority, and total are singular if preceded by ‘the’ and plural if preceded by’ a’.
Examples: The number of convictions is increasing.
A number of people were convicted on those charges.
The majority has voted for John.
A majority of citizens agree that the laws should be enforced.

Activity 13
The following sentences’ subjects and verbs do not agree in number. Correct them.
1. He have a dog.
__________________________________.
2. Each of my sisters give me 5000 Birr.
__________________________________________________________________.
3. Neither your brother nor your friend have a wife.
___________________________________________________________________.
4. The number of wounded civilians have increased.
___________________________________________________________________________.
5. Every instructor have a duster.
___________________________________________________________________________.
6. The boys plays football.
_______________________________________________________.
7. You needs to study hard.
_____________________________________________________.

1.4.5 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

Dear trainee, the other sentence faults you need to avoid when you write are faults with the
usage of modifiers. Unless they are used appropriately, modifiers may give unintended meaning.

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 To identify the faults with modifiers, you need to know the definition of modifiers and the
purposes they serve.
What is a modifier?
A modifier is a word or a group of words that describes (adds meaning to) another word or
group of words in a sentence.
1. A modifier may
Identify - the woman in the green coat
- the hat that you just bought
- the boy with the black hat
Locate - the book on the table
Set in time - They arrived at 9 am.
- The roses bloomed in may.
Tell how something happened - John played the piano like a drunken Gorilla.
- Maria combs her hair with great care.
2. As a general rule a modifier should come after the word it modifies:
-The catalog that you just ordered won’t arrive for weeks.
-The seats in the back of the theatre are ours.
3. Occasionally, a modifier is best located directly before the word it modifies.
- Happy and excited, the children played hide and seek.
- Bothered by the hard rain, the gardeners quit working for the day.
5. Misplaced Modifiers
Modifiers that modify the wrong word or seem to modify more than one word in a sentence are
called misplaced modifiers.
Misplaced modifiers are words that because of awkward placement, do not describe the words
the writer wants to describe. Misplaced modifiers often obscure the meaning of a sentence. To
avoid misplaced modifiers, place words as close as possible to what they describe.
The following sentences have misplaced modifiers. Explain the unintended meaning, and rewrite
them so that they can convey the intended message.
Misplaced Modifiers
 I nearly earned a hundred dollars last week. (Unintended meaning - you just missed
earning a hundred dollars but in fact earned nothing.)

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 Revised version - I earned nearly 10,000 Birr last week.
(intended meaning - I earned almost 10,000 Birr)
 Hailu yelled at the howling dog in his underwear. (unintended meaning-the dog wore
underwear. )
Revised version - In his underwear, Hailu yelled at the howling dog.
(intended meaning - Hailu was not wearing clothes except his underwear when he
yelled at the dog.)
 Bahirdar is one of the fastest growing cities in Ethiopia which was established only fifty
years ago. (Unintended meaning - Ethiopia was established only fifty years ago.)
Revised Version - Bahirdar, which was established only fifty years ago, is one of the
fastest growing cities in Ethiopia
Activity 14
The following modifiers give unintended meaning because they modify the wrong words.
Correct them by changing the place of the modifiers.
1. The torn student’s book lay on the desk.
__________________________________________________________.
2. I only contributed 100 Birr to the fund for orphaned children.
_____________________________________________________________________.
3. The dealer sold the Cadillac to the buyer with leather seats.
____________________________________________________________________.
4. The three bankers talked quietly in the corner smoking pipes.
___________________________________________________________________.
5. The teacher said on Monday she would return our essays.
_____________________________________________________________________.

1.4.6 Dangling Modifiers

The dangling modifiers are usually introductory phrases that do not go with the subjects of the
sentences. These phrases are called dangling modifiers because they have nothing to modify.
Dangling modifiers do not logically seem to modify any word in a sentence.
A modifier that opens a sentence must be followed immediately by the word it is meant to
describe; otherwise, the modifier is said to be dangling, and the sentence takes on unintended
meaning.

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 1. Almost all dangling modifiers begin sentences.
2. Almost all dangling modifiers are phrases beginning with an –ing ending word (gerund)
or with an –ed ending word (past participle).
3. If an introductory phrase doesn’t modify the subject of the sentence, it is a dangling
modifier.
D.M- Rushing to class, the books fell all over the stairs. (Books can’t rush to class; therefore,
the phrase ‘ rushing to class’ doesn’t modify the subject books.)
To revise this sentence add a subject and a helping verb to the opening phrase.
Revised - When I was rushing to class, the books fell all over the stairs. (Books can’t rush to
class; therefore, the phrase ‘rushing to class’ doesn’t modify the subject books.)
Activity 15
The following sentences have dangling modifiers. Correct them.
1. Walking to his room in the dorms, the floor was very slippery. (A floor can’t walk .The phrase
‘walking to his room in the dorms’ doesn’t modify the subject ‘floor’.)
Revised_______________________________________________________________________
While smoking a pipe, my dog sat with me by the crackling fire.
(unintended meaning-The dog was smoking the pipe; intended meaning- The writer was smoking
the pipe.)
Revised _______________________________________________________________________
2. Swimming at the lake, a rock cut Sara’s foot.
Revised_______________________________________________________________________
4. While eating my sandwich, five mosquitoes bit me.
Revised_______________________________________________________________________
5.After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing.
Revised_____________________________________________________________________.

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 UNIT TWO: PARAGRAPH WRITING
Objectives of the Unit
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 define what a paragraph is
 understand the reason why people write paragraphs
 explain what the features of a good paragraph are
 express an average length of a paragraph
 describe what the components of a good paragraph are
 demonstrate the steps of writing a paragraph

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 Dear trainee,
In this unit, you will study paragraph writing. This study of paragraph writing prepares you for
other types of writing that you may do in this course and in other courses you are taking.
Developing paragraph writing skills is important to be able to communicate technical subjects
effectively through the written medium. Activities in this unit are meant to help you write
paragraphs that are well unified, fully developed, and coherent. It is believed that you will
benefit a lot by collecting samples of paragraphs written by different writers. So, try to have your
own bank of model paragraphs and use them as examples to write your own paragraphs.

Dear trainee,
Think about the following questions and share your ideas to your partner at your work place or
area
1. What is a paragraph?
2. Have you ever written a paragraph? Why and to whom?
3. Why do people write paragraphs?
4. How do you write a paragraph?
5. What are the features of a good paragraph?
6. What is an average length of a paragraph?
7. What are the components of a good paragraph?
What are the steps of writing a paragraph?

DEFINITION
A paragraph is a group of well-organized sentences dealing with one complete thought that
consists of a number of sentences that focus on a single topic. The paragraph is a basic
component of many larger compositions, such as the essay, the research paper, and the
report.

Dear trainee,
Now you are going to read the Features of a Paragraph. Before that, please find a partner at your
workplace and try to compare your answer what the Features of a Paragraph is.

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 2.1 Features of a Paragraph
2.1.1Unity

Unity refers to sameness of ideas in a paragraph. One important feature of an effective paragraph
is unity: all sentences within the paragraph should be related to the main point of the paragraph.

Dear trainee,
In order to understand “unity”, practicing is very important. Now, it is your turn to try the
following questions;

Activity 1
Circle the letter of one sentence in each group that is not clearly related to the topic for that
group of sentences. When you finish compare your answers.
1. Topic: Shashemane is a pleasant place to live.
a. There are three movie theaters in town
b. The people are friendly.
c. There is very little crime.
d. There is a bad smell coming from the town dump.
e. There are many places to shop for clothes.
2. Topic: There are many ways to study for a test.
a. You can review a few hours the night before the test.
b. You can study an hour a night the week of the test.
c. You can study with friends and help each other.
d. You can improve your grades by attending classes regularly.
3. Topic: Registration this term was confusing.
a. Many of the courses I wanted were closed.
b. I had to go to six different buildings to register.
c. I could not find the instructors whose signatures I needed.
d. I had to fill out three different applications.
e. The computer for registration worked very well.
4. Topic: The swimming pool is in bad condition.
a. The tiles are covered with a white film.
b. Algae grows on the steps.
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 c. Bugs and leaves float on top of the water.
d. The plaster is cracking on the bottom.
e. The water is sparkling blue.
5. Topic: Master Abdisa is very strong.
a. He has bulging arm and leg muscles.
b. He can lift eighty-pound sacks of cement easily.
c. He can beat anyone in arm wrestling.
d. He can lift me over his head with no trouble.
e. He is an excellent piano player.
Activity 2
Each of the following paragraphs contains one sentence that is not clearly related to the topic
for that paragraph. Cross out the unrelated sentence so that the paragraph is unified. (The
first sentence in each paragraph expresses the main point.) When you finish, compare your
answers in your group.

1. The dormitory rooms were unusually large. They were sixteen-foot squares with wide
bay windows. The ten-foot-high ceilings added to the feeling of spaciousness, as did the
light-colored walls and the mirrored closer doors. There was space in the rooms for two
double beds, dressers, a console television, and a sofa and chair. The cupboard space was
small and cramped. They looked twice the size of your average dormitory rooms.
2. Math is an easy class. I have got nothing but A's and B's on the quizzes without studying.
Sixty students were enrolled in the class, and not one person has dropped since it is so
easy. The instructor gives two practice tests before the actual test, so everyone knows
exactly what to expect by test time. She also expects us know a lot from our high
school math classes which many students never learned. No student is having any trouble
with the class I have taken in college.
Birru loves to jog. He is slender and has strong legs, so jogging is easy for him. He also has good
natural endurance, so he does not run out of breath easily and his lungs seldom ache. Since he
has loose muscles, he seldom cramps up. He started jogging a year ago to get in shape, but now
he runs because he loves it. He has even run in a few marathons, and he enjoys the competition.
He hated running in the Sydney Olympic last year.

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 TOPIC SENTENCE
Although you were working on paragraph unity in the previous section, you were also
working with topic sentences in your paragraphs without realizing it. In this section, you find
out exactly what a topic sentence is, why it is useful in most paragraphs that you write, and
how it can be worded most effectively.
Here are some important things to know about topic sentences:
1. A topic sentence expresses the main idea of a paragraph.
2. It usually states a definite opinion or attitude.
3. It provides the reader with a clear understanding of what a paragraph is about.
4. It gives direction to a paragraph that both the writer and reader can follow.
5. It often begins a paragraph or is found near the beginning of a paragraph.
6. The final '' wrap-up'' sentence in a paragraph often reinforces the topic sentence.

Dear trainee,
When we want to write a topic sentence, we need to narrow down the topic so that it could
clearly state what to focus on in the paragraph. There has to be a controlling idea that controls
the writer to focus on a specific point.
For example: if the topic HIV/AIDS is given as a topic to write about, we need to narrow it
down so that it focusses on a specific issue. We also need to provide a controlling idea to control
the writer’s view.
“HIV/AIDS can be transmitted in many different ways.” This can make a good topic
sentence. It is a narrowed down one and it has a controlling idea too “many different ways. To
write a paragraph, the writer will focus only on the many different ways that HIV/AIDS can be
transmitted.
Unsafe sexual practice, using unsterilized sharp materials, mother to child during birth and so on.
He has no room to state: when it was first observed, ways of controlling it and the like issues.
Activity 3
Underline the topic sentence in each paragraph: the sentence that expresses the
paragraph's main idea. When you finish, compare your answers in your groups.
a. The sidewalks in our neighborhood are filthy. The melting snow has left a muddy film on the
concrete. Garbage is piled up because of the collectors' strike. Packs of dogs have left their

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 waste everywhere. Old newspapers carpet the sidewalks, and neighborhood drunkards have
left their bottles piled against the buildings. You cannot walk anywhere without stepping on
something.
b. The housing industry in our region is not well. House sales are down 65 percent from two
years ago. The average length a house is on the market before being sold is two years. The
average house price has actually dropped $5,000 these years. There has also been no new
housing construction within the city limits in the last six months. Two building contractors
have gone out of business, and the carpenters’ union has sixty-five unemployed members.
Lumber sales have dropped over 35 percent, and the local mill has sold three logging trucks
and laid off twenty-five workers. It has been the worst period for the housing industry in over
thirty years.

Dear trainee, you should consider that the topic sentence expresses the main idea of a well-
written paragraph. Around the topic sentence, a writer builds the details that support or develop
the main idea. How each paragraph is organized around its primary sentence depends upon what
the content is and how the writer plans to cover it.

2.1.2 Completeness
A paragraph is said to be complete when it is fully developed. This means the paragraph has
all its components including introduction, body and conclusion.
Activity 4
Complete the following paragraphs by providing the missing sentences.
1. ___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________. First, whenever possible the good
listener prepares in advance for the speech or lecture he or she is going to attend. He or she
studies the topic to be discussed and finds out about the speaker and his or her beliefs.
Second, on arriving at the place where the speech is to be given, he or she chooses a seat
where seeing, hearing, and remaining alert are easy. Finally, when the speech is over, an
effective listener reviews what was said and reacts to and evaluates the ideas expressed.
2. __________________________________________________________________. Wealth is
quite often defined as a great quantity or store of money or property of value. However,
wealth can be a great quantity of many other things acquired, not just material items. There

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 are those who have had the good fortune to have seen many beautiful places throughout their
lives. They have acquired many priceless memories. There is the man who is wealthy
because he has many friends who are loyal and true, and to acquire friends like these makes a
man rich. Perhaps the wealthiest man of all is the man who has a loving family around him.
This alone can bring great happiness, which no amount of money can buy. Wealth is so
much more than a great store of money

2.1.3 Coherence
In the previous lesson, you learned effective paragraphs are unified, and have strong topic
sentences. In this section you learn that effective paragraphs are clearly organized and
contain transitional wording.

As you learned, a paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop one main idea. Another
important feature of an effective paragraph is coherence: The sentences within a paragraph
should be logically organized and tied together with words that show sentence relationship to one
another. There are a number of ways that a paragraph may be organized, but the most important
concern is this: The sentences should follow each other in the most sensible order for developing
the main idea of the paragraph.

Using transitional words and phrases to combine sentences keeps paragraphs coherent.

A transitional word or phrase provides a link or a bridge between ideas that may not seem clearly
related.
Look at this example. Without transition:
I ran in a 10 kilometer race.
I slept well. I was sore.
Revised with transitional phrase:
I ran in a 10-kilometer race. That night, I slept well. However the next morning I was sore.

2.1.4 Order
People often write to communicate information for different purposes in their everyday
activities. To do so, they may choose their own ways of putting or ordering the information to
be effective. It can be according to how important the ideas are to the writer as well as to the

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 reader. Writers also follow the time relationship the ideas have.

Sample paragraph. According to Importance

Our apartment needs lots of fixing up. First, we have got to fix the leaky roof before the July
rains come. Next, we need to patch the big holes in the bedroom walls and then strip the peeling
paint off the walls. Then we can repaint the apartment. After the walls are painted, we can work
on replacing the linoleum squares in the kitchen that are loose or cracked. Later, the living room
carpet needs shampooing, and we should replace that old ragged sofa. Then we will not be
embarrassed to have company over once in a while.

The items in the paragraph are ordered according to how important they are to the topic, in this
case from the most important item to the least important.

The paragraph begins with an introductory statement about the number of parts and then explains
each part: often a first, second, third… order.

Sample paragraph. Using time relationship

To produce a rough draft on a computer, follow the steps described here. First, prepare the
computer. To do so, insert the program disk into drive1, insert the text disk into drive 2, and turn
the computer on. Second, enter your text. To do so, choose the "edit" option from the initial
menu, enter your formatting specifications, type in your text, and ‘‘save’’ it to your text disk.
Third, print out a copy. To print, return to the initial menu and choose the "run-off" option.
Check your formatting specifications and adjust them if necessary. Make sure the printer is
plugged in and turned on, and instruct the computer to "print" the file. Finally, turn off the
computer. To do so, remove your disks from the drives and store them, and click the shutdown
button. Then, turn off the power to the computer and printer.
In the paragraph above, the writer stated the steps one has to follow to produce a rough draft.
The steps one has to follow are stated using: first, second, third…. In each step, what has to be
done is clearly stated. This is one way to keep coherence in a paragraph using time relationship.

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 2.1 Elements of a Paragraph
Any paragraph should have a topic sentence, body sentences and concluding sentence. As
discussed above in 2.1 section, the topic sentence should be a narrowed down idea which states
the main idea of the paragraph. The body sentences consist of the major and minor supporting
ideas. The major supporting ideas support what is stated as a topic sentence and the minor
supporting ideas are detail examples and specific instances about the major supporting idea. As
a writer, we have to provide enough to our readers to meet their expectations. The concluding
sentence gives a final remark and is more general than the specific details.
A paragraph has to be concluded. Otherwise, it is to leave the readers aloof in the air expecting
more to come. Writers conclude a paragraph to show that they have completed what they want
to say about the main idea and to leave in the readers’ mind the final statement of the
paragraph’s main idea. When we conclude a paragraph, we can summarize or restate the main
idea of the paragraph in a different language (paraphrasing it). We don’t have to raise a
different issue which is not treated in the paragraph. If we do so, we end up confusing our
readers.
In the following sample paragraphs see how the topic sentence, the body (major and minor) and
concluding sentences are developed.

Read the following sample paragraph and see how the body parts are developed.
College students must be mature enough to assume responsibility for their own education. First,
they must make themselves attend class (1). Many college instructors do not take roll, and many
others do not penalize students for not going to class (1a). A student who would rather sit in the
lounge than go to class has the option to do so (1b). A student must be mature enough to realize
that he/she needs to go to class (1c). Second, college students have to make themselves do their
assignments (2). Many students are away from home and their parents are not there to ask if
their reading is finished (2a). No college teacher chases a student for his homework (2b).
Teachers simply put down zero and say nothing (2c). It is up to the student to get the work done
(2c). Finally, college students are responsible for taking the required exams (3). A student who
misses a test can’t expect an instructor even to mention it (3a). It is totally the student’s
responsibility to arrange/ to be ready for exams (3b). Only students mature enough to accept
these responsibilities are ready for college (4).

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 Now answer the following questions based on the information in the paragraph.
1. Why do you think the writer numbered the sentences in the above paragraph?
2. Which sentences directly support the general idea of the writer?
3. Which sentences give or add specific details to the argument?
4. What is the topic sentence?
5. What is the concluding sentence?
Reread the paragraph and observe how the topic sentence is formulated; how the major and
minor supporting ideas are developed and how the paragraph is concluded.
A. Paragraph writing
Below you are given the topic sentence, the major supporting ideas, the minor supporting ideas
and the concluding sentence. Write your paragraph using the information provided. The major
and minor supporting ideas should be made well developed sentences so that they could support
one another and the topic sentence to keep the paragraph meaningful.
Topic Sentence: There are at least three major advantages of joining FTVETI.
1. It enables me to develop my skills.
 Lots of practical activities
 Experienced and well educated trainers in my field
2. Better life standard after graduation
 salary increment
 involvement in business
3. Further education opportunity
 study master’s degree
 study other fields
Conclusion: I will take all these advantages of joining the institute and make a better life.

2.2 Types of Paragraphs

There are four major types of paragraph writing in English. They are discussed below.

2.2.1 Descriptive Paragraph

Descriptive writing is giving the reader a picture of something or someone in words. To
make the word picture as vivid as possible, the writer must observe and record specific

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 details that appeal to his readers’ senses (sight, hearing, touch, etc.).
We can write a description of
a) a process
b) a procedure
c) a physical entity

Sample paragraphs on process description.

Read the sample paragraphs below carefully and observe how they are developed:
Paragraph 1
To produce a rough draft on a computer, follow the steps described here. First, prepare the
computer. To do so, insert the program disk into Drive1, insert the text disk into Drive 2, and
turn the computer on. Second, enter your text. To do so, choose the "edit" option from the
initial menu, enter your formatting specifications, type in your text, and save it to your text
disk. Third, print out a copy. To print, return to the initial menu and choose the run-off
option. Check your formatting specifications and adjust them if necessary. Make sure that
the printer is plugged in and turned on, and instruct the computer to print the file. Finally,
turn off the computer. To do so, remove your disks from the drives and store them. Then
select the shutdown button. Finally turn off the power to the computer and printer.

Paragraph 2

The process of in-vitro fertilization, which is sometimes referred to as “test tube pregnancy,”
has made it possible for women with certain types of reproductive problems to become
pregnant. In this process, eggs are removed from the woman’s ovary and placed in a
laboratory where they are fertilized by sperm from her husband. Three to six days later, one
of the fertilized eggs is implanted in the woman’s uterus where it develops into a normal
fetus. (From: Mark Jenkins Writing P. 15)

It is also possible to produce a descriptive type of paragraph based on data from a table or
graph. Look at the data in the table below and read the paragraph developed on that basis.
Then develop your own paragraph based on the information your instructor is going to give
you.

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 Table 1: Awareness of family planning methods among women of child-bearing age
(15-49) in Ethiopia.
Source: World Health Organization (1984).
All women 15 – 49 years old 63 %

Women in urban areas 15 – 49 94 %

Women in rural areas 15 – 49 57 %
The above data show that there is a high level of awareness of family planning. One can
conclude from the table that 63 % of the women of child-bearing age, that is to say from 15
to 49 years, reported that they are aware of contraceptive methods. However, knowledge of
contraceptive methods is greater in urban areas than in rural areas. In urban areas, 94 % of
women know contraceptive method(s) whereas in rural areas only 57 % know the method(s).
It has to be noted that women in rural areas need awareness in the area of family planning.
(Source: Flen 102, P. 55)

2.2.2 Narrative Paragraph

Narration can simply be defined as storytelling. It is a recounting of an incident or event. In
the story, the writer presents the details in the order in which they happened. While writing
narrative stories, one should give the setting, when and where the story took place.
Following this, set the scene so that readers would visualize it. If you try to give a little
description about the character of your story, it makes your narration more meaningful. Then
put the events relating them one to the other. Finally, try to give the outcome of the story.

Look at these examples. The first one is taken from the 1997 Report of the Ethiopian
Women’s Affairs Office and slightly revised and the second from Panorama P. 16.
Story One
W/ro Atnafalem was a widow with three children, a son and two daughters. She was the only
female head of household in Amba Giorgis kebele in the Amhara Region. After her husband’s
death, she soon took charge and started paying land tax, and they lived without any problems
until nine years ago, when her son died. After the death of her son, the Kebele took half of her
land to use as a forestry site for the Kebele, and she was allowed to use the other half without
paying tax. Until 1999, she faced no problem. She was then asked to pay tax, which she did,

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 becoming the legitimate owner of her plot of land. However, she felt that the men in the
community didn’t accept her status as a landowner. One night, five months ago, a neighbor set
fire to the pile of ‘teff’ outside her home. Along with the “teff’, she lost birr 2500 that she had
received from her ‘equb’ because it was hidden in the pile of ‘teff’. In the morning, she reported
the case to the Kebele council and the Woreda Administration. The Woreda Administration
ordered the Kebele to find the criminal and make him pay for the damage. However, the Kebele
has not taken any action. She perceived that it was very difficult “these days” for a woman to get
any help or support, because women are not represented in the administration.

Story Two
Malaria at one time infected 90% of the population of Bureau. In 1955, the World Health
Organization began a DDT spraying program which virtually eliminated malaria. But other
things began to happen. Besides killing mosquitoes, the DDT also killed other insects that lived
in the houses, such as flies and cockroaches. These insects were the favorite food for small
lizards. And so when the lizards ate the dead insects, they died from DDT poisoning. Similarly,
the house cats ate the dead lizards and they died too. As a result, the rat population rose sharply,
and the human population of Bureau began to die from a type of plague carried by fleas on rats.
In order to deal with the emergency, thousands of cats were parachuted into the Island, in what
was called ‘Operation Cat Drop”.

Activity 5
Now write a narrative paragraph of your own on any topic using the sample paragraphs above.
Then show it to your group members. In your groups choose the best narrative story and submit
it to your instructor for feedback.

2.2.3 Persuasive/ Argumentative/ Paragraph

The purpose of an argumentative writing is to persuade the reader to your way of thinking
or understanding. The topic for an argumentative writing must be an issue that has two
sides (no for some and yes for others).
When you write argumentatively, you need to check:
 If there are people who disagree about the topic;
 If you as a writer feel strongly about the topic;

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  If you have enough to say about the topic to persuade others to accept your
position.
Here are the distinct parts of an argumentative writing.
a) The introduction states the writer’s position and the opponent’s position
objectively.
b) Support sentences include statistics and authorities, if any in the field, to
support each point in the argument.
The conclusion includes a restatement of the writer’s position.

Look at this sample Paragraph.

Putting young lawbreakers into prison is an unsatisfactory way of dealing with those who break
the law for two reasons. First, it does not deter an individual from committing crimes again once
he/she leaves prison. Young prisoners often meet more experienced criminals and learn more
from them. Moreover, prisoners themselves are sometimes victims of crime in prison. As the
annual report of the Addis Ababa Police Commission indicates, more than 65 % of all the young
prisoners break the law again after their release from prison. Second, imprisonment may be an
ineffective form of punishment. In some cases, prisoners are allowed visitors and have access to
education and sport facilities. In addition, they can work and earn a small sum of money.
Therefore, alternative methods for dealing with lawbreakers must be explored.

Grammar review in Argumentative Paragraph

In organizing and keeping the coherence of your argumentative writing, use such language
expressions as:
For these reasons, As a result, Thus, Finally, In my opinion, I can argue, I believe
It is also possible to write an argumentative paragraph to refute the argument of someone else by
pointing out the weak sides of the writer’s case. The opinions that are refuted are often
introduced as reported speech using a phrase or a verb like:
Some people argue that
Say, assert, believe, claim, contend, are of the opinion
You have to present or introduce your counter argument by phrases showing disagreement such
as:

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 This is unlikely because ------
This is doubtful ….
There may be another explanation for this fact…...
For example……
These views are open to doubt……..
Serious doubts can be raised against this………
However,
This does not give sense……
When pointing out opposing arguments:
Opponents of this idea claim / mention that …
Those who disagree / against these ideas may say / assert that …
Some people may disagree with this idea that…….
When stating specifically why they think like that:
They put forward this idea because …
They claim that …
When refuting the opposing idea, we may use the following strategies:
They have a point in thinking like that but, ……
To a certain extent they are right. However, ……
completely disagree:
After seeing this evidence, there is no way we can agree with what they say.
Say that their argument is irrelevant to the topic:
What we are discussing here is not what they are trying to prove.
Their argument is irrelevant.
Avoid strong language that may put off readers with opposing views. Statements like these
will keep readers from reading your paragraphs:
“Xyz is immoral and unethical. You should not do it.”
“Premarital sex is unnecessary, immoral, and unhealthy. We need to defeat desire.”

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 2.2.3 Expository Paragraph
Methods of developing Expository type of paragraphs.
Expository paragraphs can be developed in many different ways. (Comparison/contrast,
classification, cause-effect, problem-solution…). Let us see some of them.
Comparison/ contrast Development:
Comparison and contrast are two different concepts. We use ‘comparison’ to identify similarities
between two persons, places, things or ideas. On the other hand, we use ‘contrast’ to identify
‘differences’.

A comparison or contrast paragraph can serve a variety of purposes. The most common one is
that it clarifies the unknown by placing it next to something more familiar to determine in what
ways the two are alike and in what ways they are different. For example, a paragraph comparing
rugby (less understood) with football (well-known) could serve this purpose. Once the lesser
known rugby is explained in light of how it is like or unlike the better known football, rugby can
be better understood.

There are two methods of developing a comparison or contrast paragraph.

1. Point-by point organization

Organizing a paragraph in such a way that points of similarities/differences between two persons,
places etc. are discussed side by side. That is, the paragraph first discusses ‘X’ and then discusses
‘Y’ consecutively.
2. Subtopic/Block organization
Organizing the paragraph by first discussing all the relevant points associated with one subtopic,
then discussing those of the second subtopic.

Activity 6
Read the following sample paragraphs developed through point-by-point organization to show
the similarities of two towns and in the second paragraph, to show the difference of a high school
senior and a college freshman. Then rewrite them using subtopic/block organization. State
about one of them all in all first and then about the other.

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 Paragraph 1.
My home town and my college town
My home town and my college town have several things in common. First, both are small rural
communities. For example, my home town, Mizan has a population of about 10,000 people.
Similarly, my college town Haromaya, consists of about 11,000 local residents. The second way
in which these towns are similar is that they are both located in rural areas. Mizan is surrounded
by many acres of farmland which is devoted mainly to grow corn and soya beans. In the same
way, Haromaya lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise cattle and grow khat.
Thirdly, these towns are similar in that they contain university campuses. Mizan, for instance, is
home to Mizan University. Likewise, the town of Haromaya has a beautiful campus of
Haromaya University. In conclusion, one can visit these places to observe the common things
they share.
Paragraph 2. A high school senior and a college junior
The high school senior and the college freshman are as different as day and night. A high school
senior is at the top of his school, and he doesn’t care who knows it. In contrast, a college
freshman is at the bottom just starting all over again. A high school senior knows everything and
everybody at his school but the college freshman knows little and very few people. A high
school senior is always busy with activities and surrounded by people. On the other hand, the
college freshman is busy with studies and is usually lonely. Although there may be only a
difference of one year, a high school and a college freshman are ages apart.
Vocabulary aid:
The following are common cohesive devices used to develop a paragraph through
comparison/contrast.
COMPARISON
Similarly, likewise, too, also, as well as, both, like
CONTRAST
on the other hand, in contrast
correspondingly however
yet nevertheless
unlike in spite of
despite but
instead although

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 Activity 7
Contrast the activities of the following two companies depending on the information given
in the table and develop your own paragraph.
Ethiopian Metal Factory M3 Steel Industry
Products Standard, good quality Poor
Not satisfactory (e.g. workers always
Salary Paying, encouraging complaining)
Profit per year More than 1 million Birr In debt of more than 1,000,000 Birr at the
every year moment
Future Plan Increase productivity and Change the industry into another sector.
quality,

Activity 8
As a home work write a comparison/ contrast paragraph about “your home town and Addis
Ababa.
2. Classification type of development
Classification type of paragraph development is a process of dividing a subject into classes,
groups, branches, types, categories, etc. When you write in such a way, you need to organize
related bits of information about a subject into separate types or groups, also known as
categories, groups and parts so that it can be discussed logically and systematically.

Activity 9
Read the following sample paragraph developed through classification.
Husbands
Most husbands can be classified into three general categories. The first group of husbands
consists of men who see themselves as the heads of households. They believe that wives should
not work outside the home and that the primary responsibility of married women is to care for
husbands and children. The second group comprises men who consider themselves liberated. For
them, marriage is a partnership in which each spouse shares equally. They are likely to be
cooking dinner while their wives iron clothes. However, the majority of men are more realistic
than those in either group. They realize that most women must work outside the home, and they

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 share many household chores. At the same time, they continue to take on tasks that have
traditionally been done by men.
Activity 10
Now write a paragraph of not more than 100 words using the following Topic Sentence.
My department is classified into two major fields.
3. Cause –effect relationship
Join the following pairs of sentences using the possible cause-effect connectives.
(therefore, consequently, hence, as a result, for this reason, because, since, because of,
due to, so, as)

1. I don’t have a driving license. / I would better not drive.

_________________________________________________________________
2. I have to buy razor blades. / I want to shave my beard.
_________________________________________________________________
3. She took the necessary training. / She made a 100% copy of the product.
_________________________________________________________________
4. The air craft couldn’t land. / The bad weather.
_________________________________________________________________
5. She was taken to a hospital. / Her severe sickness.
_________________________________________________________________
In cause-effect type of writing, events or actions are normally linked with their causes and
effects. A cause-effect paragraph usually answers the question “why?” or provides the reason.
The relationship usually begins with a significant cause of the situation/ condition that arrives at
a logical effect.
Now see how the following paragraph has developed stating cause-effect relationship. The
topic sentence and the outline for the major supporting ideas have been stated for your
better understanding.
Topic sentence: Carless human activities can help in spreading diseases.
Outline: -
 Forest clearance
 Road building through forest

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  The building of new dams
 Rubbish heaps every where
Careless Human Activities
Careless human activities can help in spreading diseases. For example, forest clearance can
change the habitat of certain insects that carry diseases. As a result, the insects move to new
areas where the people may have no resistance to the diseases. Road construction through forests
creates many pools of water. Due to this, malaria carrying mosquitoes can breed easily.
Moreover, people usually build dams for their daily water consumption. Consequently, this can
increase the spread of water-borne diseases such as bilharzias and river blindness. Another
example of human carelessness is the way people do not bury the rubbish. Therefore, rubbish
heaps everywhere could be excellent breeding places for flies which carry serious diseases such
as diarrhea and dysentery. If people are educated and develop the awareness of the negative
effects of their careless activities, at least, the diseases which are deadly to human beings will be
minimized sooner or later.
Based on the sample paragraph given, write a paragraph in cause- effect development.
Topic sentence: “There are many problems that shortage of electric power cause.”
Outline:
 Less productivity
 Poor quality product
 Less income tax
VI. Problem-Solution development
We use problem-solution paragraph development:
1. When we wish to discuss a problem that concerns us
2. When dealing with a subject that is concerned with problems and their solutions
3. To express our concern clearly,
While doing so, we must answer four basic questions for our readers.
1. What is the problem?
2. What is the cause /what are the causes of the problem?
3. What is the effect or result of the problem?
4. What is/ has been /might be the solution to the problem?

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 In developing a problem-solution type of paragraph, try to follow the following pattern.
1. State the Situation (General background )
2. Show the Problem and finally,
List the Possible solutions

Read the following sample paragraph developed in problem-solution type.

Dogs’ attacks
Because more people use dogs for protection, there are increasing reports of dog attacks on
children. A survey conducted in South Africa revealed that of cases examined, the majority of
children bitten were attacked by the dogs they knew. Nearly half of those were victims of
neighbors’ dogs. Stray dogs accounted for only ten per cent of the attacks. Often the victim,
perhaps without realizing it, had provoked the dog in some way. Evidently, many dog attacks can
be avoided if dog owners and parents take some basic precautions such as training the child and
the dog. Children should be taught to treat animals kindly. They should be taught never to tease a
dog and dogs should be trained to obey basic commands. Dogs should be made used to being
hugged. Overall, the causes for the attacks are children themselves. By all means, aggressive
games with dogs should be avoided.
Now examine the paragraph above based on the outline given on that basis.
Situation:
 Dogs that are supposed to protect are increasingly attacking children.
Problems:
 Many children are bitten by dogs they knew: their own dogs and neighbors’ dogs.
Solutions:
 Generally taking precautions can help to avoid dog attacks.
 No teasing.
 Dogs should be taught basic commands.
 Avoiding aggressive games with dogs.
Activity 11
Identify the problems and solutions found in the paragraph below and complete the outline.
The problem of aching feet is serious enough in the United States to keep thousands of foot
specialists in business. After reviewing more than 2000 foot operations, he performed over a 14

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 year period, Dr. Michael Coughlin, an orthopedic surgeon, made a surprising discovery.
“Incredibly,” he says, “I found that nearly all these operations were on women.” A survey of 356
women found that almost nine out of ten wore shoes that were, on the average, more than a full
size too narrow for their feet! Part of the problem lies in the way women’s shoes are made. Shoes
are no longer made with a narrow heel and a wider forefoot. Squeezing the front part of the foot
into a narrow toe box seems bad enough. Though considered fashionable, a high heel puts all the
pressure on the ball of the foot, and it forces the foot forward into a toe box that may already be
too narrow. High heels can damage the wearer’s feet, ankle, calves, knees and back. When
buying, women should then make sure that the heel is comfortable and that the length, width and
height of the padding of the toe box is sufficient. With high heel shoes, women should use
leather insoles for further padding. They should also consider wearing heels only part of the
time, switching to lower heels occasionally throughout the day.

Out line:
State the situation:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
What are the problems?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
What solutions are stated?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Activity 12
Write a problem-solution type of paragraph about: “Global warming and its effects”.
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 UNIT THREE: ESSAY WRITING
Objectives of the unit
After successfully completing this unit, you will be able to:
 describe the similarities and differences of a paragraph and an essay;
 write a thesis statement to write an essay;
 use different strategies to develop eye catching information /hook/ for introductory
paragraphs of essays;
 develop body paragraphs of essays;
 write concluding paragraphs of essays;
 produce essays of different types; and
 analyze essays.

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 Activity 1
Think about the following questions and give your answers by writing them down on your
notebook.
1. What is an essay for you?
2. How long is an essay?
3. Can you see any difference between a paragraph and an essay? state their differences.
4. What is their similarity?
Dear student, now read the following note about an essay.

3.1 Definition
Essay is an expanded form of a paragraph because all the features and elements needed for
writing a paragraph are required for essay writing. Both a paragraph and an essay are
purposeful, reader-centered, orderly, unified, coherent and correct. In both forms, the writer
presents an argument and provides the evidence to support the validity of the argument.
However, the main difference is their length. Essay is composed of several paragraphs,
minimally three (introduction, support paragraph(s), and a conclusion). Although every essay
must have at least one of each of the three paragraphs, many essays have more than one
support paragraph.

3.2 Differences of an Essay and a Paragraph

Depth is the basic difference between a paragraph and an essay. In an essay, each major
supporting idea makes an independent body paragraph treated in detail. In a paragraph, however,
the major supporting ideas are backed by minor supporting ideas in limited sentences to
strengthen the idea raised. Furthermore, each body paragraph of an essay is not concluded
separately. This is because the essay consists of a separate concluding paragraph, which
concludes the whole essay. On the other hand, an independent paragraph is concluded separately.
To add, an essay is an expanded paragraph, where as a separate paragraph is abridged essay.

3.3 Similarities of an essay and a paragraph

Unlike their differences, essays and paragraphs are similar in many ways. For one thing, it is
only one major idea treated in both an essay and a paragraph. Second, both have similar elements
to consider. As there is a topic sentence for a paragraph to show what the paragraph is all about,
there is a thesis statement for an essay which also shows the writer’s opinion, attitude and so on

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 about the subject to be treated. As the details are treated in the body part of a paragraph, an essay
has as many body paragraphs to deal with the details. Furthermore, both a paragraph and an
essay have to be concluded at sentence and paragraph level respectively to help readers land
showing that the writer has exhaustively treated his/her opinion or attitude about the subject.
Finally, both a paragraph and an essay are purposeful, reader-centered, orderly, unified, coherent,
complete and correct.

3.4 Elements of an Essay

It is understood that an essay has a minimum of three paragraphs (introductory paragraph, body
paragraph(s) and a concluding paragraph. In the following part of the module, we shall discuss
some helpful ways of writing each of these parts of an essay.

3.4.1 Introductory Paragraph

The introductory paragraph of an essay is composed of two things: eye catching information
which is termed as hook, and a thesis statement. Reading the introductory part of an essay,
readers should feel that it is worth reading the whole of the essay. To make readers interested in
what they are about to read, writers should make them attracted in what they read. That is putting
eye catching information/ hook in the introductory paragraph of the essay. This can be done
using different ways.

Writing an Effective Introductory Paragraph:

Guidelines
The introductory part of an essay consists of two major things.
 A thesis statement which states the main idea of the essay; and
 Eye catching information (some writers call it a hook)
The following suggestions can help you to write an effective introductory paragraph to the thesis
statement. A thesis statement is the sentence that presents the writer’s opinion, attitude or
argument to the reader. It might not be the first sentence in the introduction but its main function
is to indicate that you should begin your middle writing stage by developing it.

Like the topic sentence in a paragraph, a good thesis statement is developed with the following
characteristics:
a) it is a complete sentence

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 b) it is general enough to incorporate all the specific details in the essay, but it is limited
enough in scope to be developed within an essay of the size assigned.
c) it is stated precisely, not vaguely or loosely, and the language is sufficiently qualified
that the reader cannot mistake the exact dimension of the idea being introduced.
d) it states the writer’s point of view or attitude towards the subject.
Look at the sentence which reads, (The lectures, the laboratory, and the tests made my weeks in
this course a true struggle.), in the introductory paragraph of sample essay one below. It clearly
indicates the three major difficulties that the student encountered to pass the course General
Biology. If it were to write a paragraph, the topic sentence would have been: Three major
difficulties have made my weeks in the course General Biology a true struggle. The points: (the
lectures, the laboratory, and the tests) were considered as major supporting ideas if it were to
write a paragraph; however, they make the main issues for the body paragraphs when it is to
write an essay and that they were discussed in the middle paragraphs one after the other.
Therefore, the thesis statement limits the discussion by letting the readers know exactly where
they are going.

Sample essay one

This essay was written by one of the students at Science Faculty, Addis Ababa University.

Cutting open a frog and removing its insides bit by bit is one of the most unpleasant activities
that I have ever had to perform. This was only a small part of what I had to do to pass General
Biology last semester. The lectures, the laboratory, and the tests made my weeks in this course a
true struggle.

The class lectures in General Biology were more of a hindrance than a help to me. The first
problem was that the instructor was completely disordered. He would take up one point, drop it,
move on to something else, and then drift back again. A second difficulty was that the lectures
were always on the things I already understood, not on materials I had problems with. To top it
all off, the professor always talked at ninety miles an hour. No one could possibly take notes at
the rate he lectured.

Another major problem for me was the laboratory requirement attached to this course. It lasted
for four long hours every Wednesday afternoon and consisted of experiments that I never

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 understood. At the beginning of the semester we were told that we did not need to take notes for
the lab, but I discovered after the first test that simply was not true. Information that had been
given only in the lab was included, and I, of course, didn’t have it in my notes to study.

The test gave me the greatest difficulty. Usually these tests were five or six pages long, and each
one covered eight chapters at a time. The final was seven pages long, covered everything we
had all semester, and was all multiple choice. I spend three hours taking that exam and left
feeling awful.

Imagine my surprise when I discovered that my long hard battle with General Biology has
resulted in a victory for me. Thereon my grade repot was a bright, shining C. That C is
certainly not the best grade I have ever made, but I am more proud of it than any other. I really
earned it.

Activity 2
Write thesis statements for the following topic sentences.
1. In-service study has several advantages over regular studies.
___________________________________________________________________________
I have several duties to accomplish when I go back to my institute next June.
___________________________________________________________________________
My home town and my college town have several differences.
___________________________________________________________________________
In the earlier discussions we have seen what a thesis statement is and have tried to produce some.
Following this, we shall see the second thing we have in an introductory part of an essay: Eye
catching information/hook.

Another function of the introductory paragraph is to capture the readers’ attention urging them to
continue reading. Many writers use a hook as their first sentence to pull the reader in
immediately. The thesis statement usually follows this hook. Look at the introductory paragraph
of sample essay one. You could see how the writer has tried to astonish his readers stating some
rather very difficult points for a reader than what he has put as more difficult for him in that very
course. Cutting open a frog and removing its insides bit by bit is one of the most unpleasant
activities that I have ever had to perform. Looking at this sentence, readers would feel ‘what
else would be more difficult than this’ and develop interest to read the remaining part of the

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 essay. There are many ways of writing a hook based on the writer’s creative ability. Here are a
few different examples of a hook to try. Choose the one that suits your audience as well as your
purpose in writing. The hooks you choose should relate to your point of argument and require
your creative ability in producing.

1. Ask a question: Engage your reader by asking a provocative or controversial question

related to your subject. Here is one example.

What is love? How do we know we are really in love? When we meet that special person, how
can we tell that our feelings are genuine and not merely infatuation? And if they are genuine,
will these feelings last? Love as we all know, is difficult to define. But most people agree that
true, lasting love is more than mere physical attraction. It involves mutual respect, the desire to
give rather than take; and the feeling of wholly at ease.

In this sample introductory paragraph, the last sentence makes the thesis statement and the
remaining part is used as a hook. You could see from the thesis statement that (mutual respect,
the desire to give than take and the feeling of wholly at ease) are three points in the thesis
statement that make the body paragraphs of the essay.

2. Begin with a story: The story must illustrate or relate to your thesis statement.
Early Sunday morning the young mother dressed her little girl warmly and gave her a candy bar
and a picture book. Together, they drove downtown to a church. There, the mother told the little
girl to wait on the stone steps until children began arriving for Sunday schools. Then the young
mother drove off abandoning her five year old because she could not cope with being a parent
any more. This incident is one of the thousands of cases of child neglect and abuse that occur
annually. Perhaps, the automatic right to become a parent should no longer exist. Would-be
parents, instead, should be forced to apply to licenses granting them the privilege of raising
children.

In this sample introductory paragraph, the writer put a story or personal experience that relates to
his point of argument. The statement which reads: ‘Would-be parents should be forced to apply
to licenses granting them the privilege of raising children’, is the thesis statement of the
argument. The writer is to argue that would parents should get a license before they give birth.

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 3. Use a quotation. An amusing or shocking quotation or one by a well-known person that
will attract your readers’ attention.
“Fish and visitors,” wrote Benjamin Franklin, “begin to smell after three days.” Last summer,
when my sister and her family came to spend their week vacation with us, I became convinced
that Franklin was right. After only three days, I was thoroughly sick of my brother -in-law’s
corny jokes, my sister’s endless complaints about her boss, and their children’s constant
invasion of our privacy.

Here the writer used a quotation by a prominent figure to grab her reader’s attention. In this
sample introductory paragraph, “After only three days, I was thoroughly sick of my brother -in-
law’s corny jokes, my sister’s endless complaints about her boss, and their children’s constant
invasion of our privacy,” is the thesis statement and the writer is going to tell us how tired she
was of the three points she mentioned in her sister and her family’s visit.

4. State a misunderstood fact or misconception. Explaining why it is incorrect can lead to

a statement of your thesis. Start with an idea of a situation that is the opposite of the one
you will develop. This approach works because your readers will be surprised, and then
deceived by the contrast between the opening idea and the thesis that follows it.

When I decided to return to school at age thirty-five, I was not worried all about my ability to do
the work. After all, I was a grown woman who had raised a family, not a confused teenager fresh
out of high school. But when I started classes, I realized that those “confused teenagers” sitting
around me were in much better shape for college than I was. They still had all their classroom
skills in bright, shiny conditions, while mine had grown rust from neglect. I had totally forgotten
how to locate information in a library, how to write a report and even how to speak up in class
discussions.

The writer of this introductory paragraph used a misconception about her ability to perform at
school as a hook for her essay. The last statement makes the thesis statement of the essay.

1.4.2 Body Paragraph(s)

The support paragraphs of an essay are the middle writings that provide detailed information
about the topic of discussion in the thesis statement.

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 If we see the sample essay above, each of the three middle paragraphs has its own topic sentence
and support sentences for details. The topic sentences are developed from the thesis statement in
the introductory paragraph. Hence, the paragraph that follows the introductory paragraph
discusses about the class lecture in General Biology, the second paragraph describes the
difficulty that the student faced in fulfilling the lab requirement attached to the course. The
fourth paragraph also presents the problems related with the tests for General Biology. Also
notice the way the writer moved from one paragraph to another by using transitional phrases
(Another major problem ---) to keep the coherence of his ideas.

Note that each of the body paragraphs is not concluded. This is because the essay as a whole is
concluded finally.

Activity 3
Develop three body paragraphs for the topic, “In-service study has several advantages over
regular studies”, a topic sentence you have used earlier to write a thesis statement.

1.4.3 Concluding Paragraph

Like the introductory part of the essay, a conclusion also plays an important role in reminding
the reader of the points raised in the thesis statement, giving the reader a sense of completeness,
and relating the middle ideas logically to the introductory paragraph.

 The concluding paragraph of an essay doesn’t have a topic sentence. Rather it has a
restating sentence and one or more withdrawing sentences. The restating sentence
repeats the argument (the thesis) in a different language. However, a conclusion should
not mechanically repeat every point of the support for the argument nor should it suggest
new ideas on different subjects.
Here, examine how the writer carefully concluded sample essay one.
Imagine my surprise when I discovered that my long hard battle with Introduction to General
Biology had resulted in a victory for me. There on my grade report was a bright shining ‘C’.
That ‘C’ is certainly not the best grade I have ever made, but I am more proud of it than any
other. I really earned it.

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 In this concluding paragraph, the writer indirectly repeated the main idea of his writing by saying
“… my long hard battle with Introduction to General Biology...” with carefully chosen words
and thought.

The last two sentences in this conclusion are taking the writer out of his business showing that he
has said enough to fulfill his promise in the introduction.
 An essay can also be concluded by suggesting a new direction for further thought.
Raise a related issue that you did not address in your essay, or ask a series of questions.
The sample essay below on “Lengthening the School year” uses this strategy of writing
the concluding paragraph raising a related issue which is not addressed in the essay.

Sample essay Two

Lengthening the school year
If I were given two months of vacation each year, I know exactly what I would do. I would visit
family, catch upon house hold chores, and do everything I haven’t had time to do over the past
year. Students do get two months of vacation each year, but they haven’t any idea how to use it.
Extending the school year will make children value their time, make their summer meaningful,
and improve their academic skills.

One major reason to lengthen school year is to help children value their time. This summer I
watched my children closely. They would stay up late watching television and sleep late the next
morning. When I asked my son why he did, he said, “There is nothing to do in the morning, so I
kill the morning by sleeping”? His answer rang in my head. He is killing time. No one should kill
time; life is too valuable. Attending school in the summer will give him and other children
something to do with their time. They come to value free time instead of looking for ways to kill
it.

Another reason for lengthening the school year is that, the two month vacation is no longer
needed. Some years ago, children were needed during the summer to work on the family farm.
Summers included hard work, but they were meaningful. Children made a contribution to the
family income and felt needed. Now most children do not want to live on farms and are not
ready to work. In fact, children in town are left to invent their own meaning for the summer days.
However, they end up spending their time in the streets, watching and hearing too much of

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 what’s wrong with the world. The extended school year will make summers meaningful once
again.

Perhaps the most important reason for lengthening the year is to improve our children’s
academic skill. Compared to many other countries, our children are falling behind, especially in
Science and Math. And we hear about increasing illiteracy and declining exam scores, as well.
Education is like many other things-the more time you spend at it, the better you become.
Increased time in school will give children more time for instruction and practice. Hopefully, this
will help them catch up and develop the skills they need to function in this world.

Those who opposed to lengthening the school year say it will cost too much. However, what
could we buy that would be worth more than the education of our children? What is the meaning
of our survival after all?

Here is another model essay which is meant to show you the development of an essay.
The essay below demonstrates the principles of writing a basic essay. The different parts of the
essay have been labeled. The thesis statement is in bold, the topic sentences are in italics, and
each main point is underlined. When you write your own essay, of course, you will not need to
mark these parts of the essay unless your teacher asks you to do so. They are marked here just so
that you can more easily identify them.

Sample essay Three

"A dog is man's best friend." That common saying may contain some truth, but dogs are not the
only animal friends whose companionship people enjoy. For many people, a cat is their best
friend. Despite what dog lovers may believe, cats make excellent house pets as they are good
companions, they are civilized members of the household, and they are easy to care for.

In the first place, people enjoy the companionship of cats. Many cats are affectionate. They will
snuggle up and ask to be petted, or scratched under the chin. Who can resist a purring cat? If
they're not feeling affectionate, cats are generally quite playful. They love to chase balls and
feathers, or just about anything dangling from a string. They especially enjoy playing when their
owners are participating in the game. Contrary to popular opinion, cats can be trained. Using
rewards and punishments, just like with a dog, a cat can be trained to avoid unwanted behavior
or perform tricks. Cats will even fetch if trained!

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 In the second place, cats are civilized members of the household. Unlike dogs, cats do not bark
or make other loud noises. Most cats don't even meow very often. They generally lead a quiet
existence. Cats also don't often have "accidents." Mother cats train their kittens to use the litter
box, and most cats will use it without any failure from that time on. Even stray cats usually
understand the concept when shown the box and will use it regularly. Cats do have claws, and
owners must make provision for this. A tall scratching post in a favorite cat area of the house
will often keep the cat content to leave the furniture alone. As a last resort, of course, cats can be
declawed.

Lastly, one of the most attractive features of cats as house pets is their ease of care. Cats do not
have to be walked. They get plenty of exercise in the house as they play, and they do their
business in the litter box. Cleaning a litter box is a quick, painless procedure. Cats also take care
of their own grooming. Bathing a cat is almost never necessary because under ordinary
circumstances cats clean themselves. Cats are more particular about personal cleanliness than
people are. In addition, cats can be left home alone for a few hours without fear. Unlike some
pets, most cats will not destroy the furnishings when left alone. They are content to go about
their usual activities until their owners return.

Cats are low maintenance, civilized companions. People who have small living quarters or less
time for pet care should appreciate these characteristics of cats. However, many people who have
plenty of space and time still opt to have a cat because they love the cat personality. In many
ways, cats are the ideal house pet.

Sample essay four

Effects of computers on Higher Education
People have always created conveniences to make life easier. One such modern invention is the
computer, which has improved many aspects of our lives. One example is in the field of
education. Because of computer technology, higher education has three major conveniences:
lecture variety, easy research and time saving writing.

One important effect of computer technology on higher education is the availability of lectures
from different sources. As a result of the development of computer network, we can access
lectures from many universities in real life. We are now able to sit down in front of a digital

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 screen and listen to a lecture being given at another university. In addition, by using interactive
media, we can question the lecturer and exchange opinions with other students via e-mail. Such
computerized lectures give us access to knowledge that previously we did not have because we
can learn from professors in specialized fields, regardless of where they are teaching.

The development of computers also makes it possible for us to have access to more information
via the internet and database. Consequently, when we search a topic, we do not necessarily have
to go to the library to find information because the computer has many resources. It is easy to use
the internet and database since all we have to do is type in key words and wait a few moments. In
addition, we can do this research at home, making it convenient for busy students.

One more effect of computer technology on higher education is time-saving writing technique.
E-mail assignments are becoming more common at universities. As a result, the assignments are
much quicker and easier to finish than before. When it is time to hand in our assigned papers or
home works, we simply send them via e-mail to our professors. This method is beneficial for
students and convenient for teachers, who will not risk losing their students’ work in mountains
of papers. Another time saving device is the word processor. Because of word processing
programs, we have the added benefit of spell checking and grammar checking programs. If we
type a grammatically incorrect sentence, one of these programs highlights the incorrect parts of
the sentences and corrects them. In addition, without using a dictionary, we can write papers that
have no spelling mistakes. As a result of these two functions, e-mail and word processing, both
teachers and students can save a great deal of time.

In conclusion, computer technology has three main positive effects on higher education; lecture
variety, easy research, and time saving writing. Because of the advantages of computer in
education, we can advance our knowledge and save our precious time. Academic life will never
be the same!

3.5 Types of Essays

Like a paragraph, an essay can be developed in different ways (descriptive, narrative, persuasive
and argumentative).

1. Description: When you want to tell how something looked, sounded, felt, smelled, or
tasted, you use description. you write to make your reader vividly aware of what you

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 have described.
2. Narration: When you want to tell your reader what happened, you use narration. you
usually wish to give a sense of what happened and how it happened in time.
3. Persuasion: When you want to convince your reader to think something or to do
something, you use persuasion. To convince the reader, you may use logic, emotional
appeals, or combination of the two.
4. Exposition: When you write to inform your reader, you used exposition. You may wish
to give facts, to explain something, to define something, or to give directions.
The practices you had in writing paragraphs of different types will help for essay writing too.
The only difference is depth. Therefore, pick different topics for you to practice and try to write
as many essays using the different ways. Mind you it is the topic that determines whether to
write it descriptive, narrative, argumentative or expository.

3.6. Sample essays for analysis

Read the following essays and analyze the development answering the questions that
follow.

Essay one
The Turkish government is planning to open 15 new universities in developing provinces of
Turkey. This is a response to pressure coming from local MPs who in turn voice the demands of
their constituencies. However, while the already existing 85 universities are wrestling with
academic and financial difficulties, it does not seem to be a good idea to add new universities to
the system of higher education.

First of all, the new universities will experience staffing problems. That is, they will have
difficulty finding faculty that is qualified to teach in these budding universities. In our country
the number of academicians who meet the academic requirements is limited. New universities
will have two choices: either to draw from the existing pool or to employ under qualified people.
To attract those instructors from other universities they will have to offer attractive incentives.
However, since these will be state universities they will not have the necessary funds and most
academics will be unwilling to go to small town universities where academic and life standards
are below par. The only venue open to these universities will be to employ local professionals or
under qualified instructors. The inevitable result will follow: a drop in the quality of education.

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 In addition to recruitment problems, small town universities will have financial difficulties. The
funds allocated to them by the state will not be enough to build from scratch all the facilities that
make a university a "real university". A university is more than a few classrooms. Students will
need dorms, gyms, cafeterias, sports facilities, labs and computers for their academic and social
development. How many new universities can claim to have only a few of these facilities on
their campuses? The result will be a small town "university" which consists of a sole building
that houses classrooms and offices, and nothing more.

It is argued that the establishment of a university in a developing town will contribute to the
development of local culture, community and economy. However, if a university is wrestling
with staff recruitment problems, or if it cannot solve its financial difficulties it means that it
cannot be of any help to the local community or economy either. It will only employ a few
locals, provide substandard education to a few local youth, and it will not fulfill the aim for
which it was initially established.

Universities are institutions of higher education and they need to provide education to satisfy
certain standards. In order to provide such quality education they need to have qualified teachers
and must provide minimum social and academic facilities. Since funds are limited, we should
raise the standard of our existing universities first. Only after that, should we invest in
establishing new ones.

Activity 4
Examine the organization of the essay answering the questions below.
1. What strategies does the writer use to hook the readers’ attention?
2. What is the thesis statement stated?
3. What is the topic sentence of body paragraph one?
4. What is the topic sentence of body paragraph two?
5. What is the topic sentence of body paragraph three?
6. What are the examples stated to support the topic sentence?

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 Essay two
What Can Space Exploration Do for Me?

Whether we realize it or not space exploration has changed our lives in dramatic ways. People
have walked on the moon, and robots have traveled to Mars. These exciting events have created
history, but they are also important because they have provided many practical benefits for
humans here on earth.

The importance of space programs can be seen in the technology we use every day. Satellite
technology allows people to watch TV shows and listen to radio programs from everywhere on
earth. Also, many of the advances in computer technology were first invented to support space
exploration. For example, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has
contributed to the creation of software that people use every day in manufacturing and design.
Robotic technology is another famous example. Engineers designed robots to work on the
International Space Station, but now robots are being developed to do jobs here on Earth. Even
with all these advances, some people say that space exploration is an expensive luxury that takes
money away from important programs such as health care and education. However, if they
considered how space technology has improved life on Earth, they would see that space
exploration is actually important to civilization.

Space exploration creates a need for technological advances. Later, these advances are used in
other ways that help people. Wonderful new inventions such as satellites and computers are just
a beginning. In the future, space exploration will provide useful and amazing new inventions that
we cannot even imagine in the present.

Activity 5
Examine the organization of the essay answering these questions.
7. What strategies does the writer use to hook the readers’ attention?
8. What is the thesis statement stated?
9. What is the topic sentence of the body paragraph?
10. What are the examples stated to support the topic sentence?

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