materials

Article
A Model to Calculate the Current–Temperature Relationship of
Insulated and Jacketed Cables
Jordi-Roger Riba * and Jordi Llauradó

Electrical Engineering Department, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Rambla Sant Nebridi 22,
08222 Terrassa, Spain
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +34-937-398-356

Abstract: This paper proposes and validates using experimental data a dynamic model to determine
the current–temperature relationship of insulated and jacketed cables in air. The model includes
the conductor core, the inner insulation layer, the outer insulating and protective jacket and the air
surrounding the cable. To increase its accuracy, the model takes into account the different materials of
the cable (conductor, polymeric insulation and jacket) and also considers the temperature dependence
of the physical properties, such as electrical resistivity, heat capacity and thermal conductivity. The
model discretizes the cable in the radial direction and applies the finite difference method (FDM) to
determine the evolution over time of the temperatures of all nodal elements from the temperatures
of the two contiguous nodes on the left and right sides. This formulation results in a tri-diagonal
matrix, which is solved using the tri-diagonal matrix algorithm (TDMA). Experimental temperature
rise tests at different current levels are carried out to validate the proposed model. This model
can be used to simulate the temperature rise of the cable when the applied current and ambient
temperature are known, even under short-circuit conditions or under changing applied currents or
ambient temperatures.

Keywords: insulated cable; polymeric insulation; cable model; temperature rise; simulation; finite
Citation: Riba, J.-R.; Llauradó, J.
difference method
A Model to Calculate the
Current–Temperature Relationship of
Insulated and Jacketed Cables.
Materials 2022, 15, 6814. https://
1. Introduction
doi.org/10.3390/ma15196814 The demand for electrical energy is currently growing worldwide [1–3], so power
systems load levels are increasing. It is of paramount importance to ensure that power
Academic Editor: Jun Yan
cables operate within their thermal limits to not compromise their safe operation. The
Received: 23 August 2022 ampacity of insulated cables can be calculated by applying the method detailed in the IEC
Accepted: 27 September 2022 60287 standard [4]. However, this standard only provides formulas to determine the current
Published: 30 September 2022 rating or maximum permissible current under steady-state conditions and a maximum
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
temperature increase, but it does not develop the heat transfer equation. The same applies
with regard to jurisdictional claims in for the IEC 60853 [5], which develops methods for determining the cyclic and emergency
published maps and institutional affil- current ratings of power cables, but does not provide a method for determining their
iations. temperature evolution. The IEC 60986 [6] standard, which is related to the short-circuit
temperature limits of insulated cables, provides tables with the maximum permissible
short-circuit temperatures to limit the I2 t heating based on the consideration of the range
of limits used by various authorities, but it does not allow the temperature evolution of
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. the cable to be determined. The IEC 60986 recognizes that the values in the tables are
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. safe, but they are not necessarily ideal because there are very little available experimental
This article is an open access article data on actual cables. Given the limitations of the aforementioned standards, this work
distributed under the terms and contributes to this field, since it develops and validates with experimental tests a dynamic
conditions of the Creative Commons
model to determine the current–temperature relationship between insulated and jacketed
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
cables in air. The proposed model includes the core, the inner insulation layer, the outer
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
protective jacket and the air surrounding the cable. The model considers the different cable
4.0/).

Materials 2022, 15, 6814. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196814 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2022, 15, 6814 2 of 16

materials (conductor, insulation and jacket) and the temperature dependencies of their
physical properties.
Current rating calculations on power cables require determining the temperature of
the different cable layers for a specified current or determining permissible current for
a specified cable temperature [7]. Therefore, in order to perform these calculations, it is
necessary to determine the heat generated due to the Joule effect within the conductor and
the rate of its dissipation away from the cable, which depends on the current level, cable
size, composition and laying method. To this end, the heat conduction equation must be
solved by applying numerical approaches [7].
Two- and three-dimensional finite element analysis (FEA) approaches have been
widely used to address this problem [8–11], because FEA simulations are widely accepted
as a powerful and realistic approach to determine the electromagnetic and thermal perfor-
mance of power cables and other devices intended for power systems [12]. For example, the
IEC TR 62095 standard [7] suggests applying FEA methods, when the methods discussed in
the IEC 60287 (steady-state conditions) and IEC 60853 (cyclic conditions) cannot be applied.
However, FEA approaches involve preparing the geometry and mesh of the problem. They
are often memory-intensive and time-consuming due to the number of discretized elements
they require, especially when solving coupled multiphysics problems. FEA approaches
also require the purchase of specific software and the periodic maintenance of expensive
licenses, as well as the involvement of qualified technicians [13].
In [14], a method to calculate the temperature rise of cable systems under steady-state
conditions is presented, which the authors recognize as a simple procedure compared
to the transient case. In [15], an empirical transient cable model is presented, which
neglects radiation losses and changes in conductor resistance, among others. In [16], a
thermal model of bare and insulated conductors is presented, but it does not include the
jacket. In [17], a lumped parameter thermal network for direct current medium voltage
cables is presented. Although this model allows the temperature rise of the cable to be
determined, its accuracy is limited, in part because of the poor level of discretization, and
in part, because it neglects the temperature dependency of the main parameters of the cable
(thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity and electric resistivity). Similar approaches
based on lumped parameter thermal networks are presented in [18–21], with similar
limitations. In [22], an approach to calculate the transient temperature of a single-core
insulated cable using an analytic approach is presented, but the model does not include
the jacket and different simplifications are performed in order to solve the differential
equations arising from the model.
Due to the limitations of FEM-based methods (geometry preparation, meshing, compu-
tational burden or software licenses among others) or the limitations of lumped parameter
methods (poor discretization or not considering the temperature dependency of the cable
parameters), to overcome these drawbacks, it is highly appealing to develop fast and
accurate transient models [23], if possible based on model reduction methods [24].
This paper describes a numerical method developed to determine the radial temper-
ature distribution (from the center of the core to the outer surface) of stranded insulated
and jacketed cables, which is affected by the steady or time-varying electrical current
flowing through the cable and the ambient temperature. The proposed model considers
the temperature dependency of the main cable parameters, such as the electric resistivity
of the conductor and the volumetric densities, thermal conductivities and specific heat
capacities of the different cable materials. The method proposed in this paper may be used
to determine the radial temperature distribution when the current is known or to determine
the temperature of the cable yielding a maximum allowable temperature. Therefore, it
allows the current corresponding to pre-established temperature limits of the cable to be
determined, since it solves the non-stationary heat transfer equation. The proposed model
also allows steady-state, transient and dynamic problems to be solved. The steady-state
problem is applied when the electric current and the ambient and cable temperatures are a
constant value and independent of time. The transient problem occurs when the ambient
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

Materials 2022, 15, 6814 3 of 16

are a constant value and independent of time. The transient problem occurs when the
ambient temperature remains constant but the current undergoes a step change, thus af-
temperature remains
fecting the radial constant butfollowing
temperatures, the currentanundergoes
exponentiala step change,
change. thus the
Finally, affecting the
dynamic
radial temperatures, following an exponential change. Finally, the dynamic problem can
problem can be applied when the ambient temperature and/or current change over time
be applied when the ambient temperature and/or current change over time follows any
follows any pattern. Due to the increase in load levels, cables are often pushed to their
pattern. Due to the increase in load levels, cables are often pushed to their limits. The model
limits. The model developed in this paper can also be a useful tool for cable maintenance
developed in this paper can also be a useful tool for cable maintenance tasks, which can
tasks, which can also disclose the relationship between the current, thickness and material
also disclose the relationship between the current, thickness and material of the insulation
of the insulation and jacket layers, ambient temperature and cable temperature. Finally,
and jacket layers, ambient temperature and cable temperature. Finally, the comprehensive
the comprehensive method here proposed, which fully develops the physical equations
method here proposed, which fully develops the physical equations that govern the heat
that govern the heat transfer problem, can be easily adapted to other cable configurations.
transfer problem, can be easily adapted to other cable configurations.
2. Transient
2. Transient Thermal
ThermalModel
Modelof ofthe
theInsulated
InsulatedandandJacketed
JacketedCable
Cable
Figure 1 shows a cross section of the cable, which includes
Figure 1 shows a cross section of the cable, which includes the the conductor
conductor core
core (orange
(orange
color), the
color), the inner
inner insulation
insulation layer
layer (blue
(blue color)
color) and
and the
the outer
outer insulating
insulating and
and protecting
protecting jacket
jacket
(gray color). It is noted that both the inner insulation and the outer jacket are
(gray color). It is noted that both the inner insulation and the outer jacket are layers of layers of the
the
cable that protect the conductor. Whereas the insulation layer isolates the current
cable that protect the conductor. Whereas the insulation layer isolates the current flow, the flow,
the jacket
jacket is theisoutermost
the outermost
layer,layer,
which which protects
protects the conductor
the conductor corethe
core and and the insulation
insulation from
from chemical deterioration and external
chemical deterioration and external elements. elements.

T3 D3/2 Tair
Jacket

T2
Conductor D2/2
T1

D1/2

Insulation
D: diameter
T: temperature

Figure Cablelayout
Figure 1. Cable layoutincluding
includingthe
the copper
copper core,
core, thethe inner
inner XLPE
XLPE insulation
insulation layer
layer and and the outer
the outer PVC
jacket.
PVC jacket.

The
The temperature
temperatureofofthe thecable
cablemainly
mainly depends
dependsonon
two factors,
two thatthat
factors, is, the self-generated
is, the self-gener-
heating due todue
ated heating the to
Joule
theeffect
Jouleand theand
effect ambient temperature.
the ambient The electric
temperature. Thecurrent
electriciscurrent
confinedis
within the metallic conductor core, which is usually made of copper or
confined within the metallic conductor core, which is usually made of copper or alumi- aluminum strands,
so
numthestrands,
heat flows fromheat
so the the flows
conductorfromto thetheconductor
air passing
to through the inner
the air passing insulation
through layer
the inner
and the outer jacket to the surrounding air.
insulation layer and the outer jacket to the surrounding air.
The
The transient
transient thermal
thermal behavior
behavior of of bare
bare conductors,
conductors, that
that is,
is, without
without insulation
insulation andand
jacket
jacket layers, can be modeled by applying the methods found in the CIGRE [25]
layers, can be modeled by applying the methods found in the CIGRE [25] and
and IEEE
IEEE
Std.
Std. 738
738 [26]
[26] standards,
standards, which
which state
state that
that for
for bare
bare conductors,
conductors, the the heat
heat balance
balance equation
equation
results from the balance between the heat gain and the heat loss terms as,
results from the balance between the heat gain and the heat loss terms as,
2 2r ( T ) = P + P − P + mc ( T ) dT [W/m]
dT
IRMS
I RMS r (T ) = cPc + P
r r − Pss + mc pp (T )
dt [W/m]
(1)
(1)
dt
whereIIRMS
where (A)isisthe
RMS (A) theroot
rootmean
meansquare
squarevalue
valueof
ofthe
thecurrent
currentflowing
flowing through
through thethe conductor,
conductor,
rr (Ω/m)
(Ω/m) is the per unit length electric resistance of the conductor, Pc (W/m) andPPr r(W/m)
is the per unit length electric resistance of the conductor, Pc (W/m) and (W/m)
are,
are, respectively,
respectively,the theperperunit
unitlength
lengthconvection
convectionandandradiation
radiationheat heatloss terms,PP
lossterms, s s(W/m)
(W/m) is
is
the
the term
term due due toto the
the per
per unit
unit length
lengthsolar
solarheat gain,m
heatgain, m(kg/m)
(kg/m) thethe per
per unit
unit length
length conductor
conductor
mass, ccpp(T)
mass, (T) (J/(kgK))
(J/(kgK)) thethespecific
specific heat
heat capacity
capacity of
of copper
copper oror aluminum
aluminum (conductor
(conductor material)
material)
and T the mean temperature of the conductor and t
and T (K) the mean temperature of the conductor and t (s) the time. Since in this paper the
(K) (s) the time. Since in this paper the
tests
tests are
are performed
performed indoors,
indoors, the
the solar
solar heat
heat gain termPPss is
gainterm is not
not considered.
considered.
It
It is
is worth
worth noting
noting that
that the
the resistance
resistance per
perunit
unitlength
lengthdepends
dependson onthe
thetemperature
temperatureas, as,
r ( T ) = r T0 [1 + α( T − T0 )] (2)
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17

r (T ) = rT0 [1 + α (T − T0 )] (2)
Materials 2022, 15, 6814 4 of 16
where T0 (K) is the reference temperature (usually 20 °C or 293.15 K), T (K) is the mean
temperature of the analyzed conductor node and α (K−1) is the temperature coefficient of
T0 (K) is ◦ C or 293.15 K), T (K) is the mean
thewhere
resistance. It the reference
is known temperature
that (usually
with ac supply 20current
the density throughout the cross-
temperature of the analyzed conductor node and α (K − 1 ) is the temperature coefficient of
section of the conductor cannot be uniform due to the eddy current effects [27], but the
the resistance.
measured valueItofis rknown that with
already ac supply
includes such the current density throughout the cross-
effects.
T
section of the conductor 0 cannot be uniform due to the eddy current effects [27], but the
When dealing
measured value of with insulated
r T0 already andsuch
includes jacketed
effects.cables, the analysis is more complex than
that shown
Whenin (1), sowith
dealing a more detailed
insulated and study
jacketedis cables,
required, which isis detailed
the analysis in thethan
more complex next sec-
that In
tions. shown in (1),
this case, so adifferent
three more detailed study
materials areis involved
required, inwhich is detailed
the three layersinofthe
thenext
cable, for
sections.copper
example, In this case,
in thethree differentcore,
conductor materials
XLPEare ininvolved
the inner ininsulation
the three layers
layerofand
the PVC
cable,in the
for example,
outer jacket. Forcopper
moreinaccuracy,
the conductor core, XLPE independencies
the temperature the inner insulation
of the layer andheat
specific PVCcapac-
in the outer jacket. For more accuracy, the temperature dependencies of the specific heat
ities and the thermal conductivities of such materials are considered.
capacities and the thermal conductivities of such materials are considered.
Figure 2 shows the temperature dependency of the specific heat of copper [28], XLPE
Figure 2 shows the temperature dependency of the specific heat of copper [28],
[29] and PVC
XLPE [29] and [30],
PVCwhile Figure
[30], while 3 shows
Figure the the
3 shows temperature
temperature dependency
dependency of of the thermal con-
the thermal
ductivity of copper
conductivity [31],
of copper XLPE
[31], XLPE[32]
[32]and
and PVC [33].ItItisisworth
PVC [33]. worth noting
noting thatthat
thesethese properties
properties
areare
needed to solve the heat transfer equations.
needed to solve the heat transfer equations.
Heat capacity of copper [cp, J/(kgK)]

400

395

390

385

380
20 30 40 50 60 70

Temperature [ºC]
(a)
Heat capacity of PVC [cp, J/(kgK)]
Heat capacity of XLPE [cp, J/(kgK)]

1200
3500

1150

3000
1100

2500 1050

1000
2000
950

1500 900
20 30 40 50 60 70 20 30 40 50 60 70

Temperature [ºC] Temperature [ºC]

(b) (c)
Figure
Figure2. 2.Temperature
Temperatureevolution
evolution ofof the
the specific
specific heat capacitycpcpofofthe
heatcapacity thedifferent
different cable
cable materials: (a)
materials:
Copper [28]. (b) XLPE [29]. (c) PVC [30].
(a) Copper [28]. (b) XLPE [29]. (c) PVC [30].
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Materials 2022, 15, 6814 5 of 16
5 of 17

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17

Cu [k, W/(mK)]
400

399

W/(mK)]
400
398

of Cu [k, of
399
397

conduct.
398
396
397

conduct.
T hermal 395
396

394
Thermal

395
20 30 40 50 60 70

394 Temperature [ºC]

20 30 40 50 60 70
(a)
Temperature [ºC]

T hermal conduct. of PVC [k, W/(mK)]

T hermal conduct. of XLPE [k, W/(mK)]

0.20
0.340 (a)

Thermal conduct. of PVC [k, W/(mK)]

Thermal conduct. of XLPE [k, W/(mK)]

0.20
0.335 0.340
0.15
0.335
0.330
0.15

0.330
0.325 0.10

0.325 0.10
0.320
0.320 0.05
0.315 0.05
0.315

0.310 0.00
0.310 0.00
20 30 40 50 60 70 20 30 40 50 60 70
20 30 40 50 60 70 20 30 40 50 60 70
Temperature
Temperature [ºC]
[ºC] Temperature [ºC]
Temperature [ºC]
(b)
(b) (c) (c)
Figure 3.
Figure
Figure 3. Temperature
Temperatureevolution
3. Temperature evolution
evolution ofof
thethe
of thermal
the conductivity
thermal
thermal k ofkthe
conductivity
conductivity different
k of
of thethe cablecable
materials:
different
different cable (a)
materials:
materials: (a)
Copper [31].
Copper [31]. (b)
(b) XLPE
XLPE [32].
[32].(c)(c)
PVCPVC[33].
[33].
(a) Copper [31]. (b) XLPE [32]. (c) PVC [33].

2.1. Domain
Domain Discretization
Discretization and
and TDMA
TDMAFormulation
Formulation
2.1. Domain Discretization and TDMA Formulation
explained, the
As explained, the temperature
temperatureof
ofan
aninsulated
insulatedcable
cabledepends
dependsonontwo
twomain
mainfactors,
factors,
Asare
which explained, the temperature
the self-generated Joule (I(I22r)r)of
self-generated Joule
an insulated
heating
heating andthe
and
cable depends
theexternally
externally on
ambient
ambient
two main factors,
temperature.
temperature.
which are
Thus, in
in the self-generated
general,
general, heat
heatflows Joulefrom
flowsradially
radially (I r)the
from
2 heating
central
the central and
part the
of
part the
of externally
conductor
the ambient
to to
conductor thethe temperature.
outer part
outer
Thus,
of the
part in general,
ofjacket. TheThe
the jacket. heat
whole flows
wholedomain radially
domain ofofthe from
thecable the central
cableisisdiscretized part of
into many
discretized into the conductor
manydiscrete to the outer
discreteelements
elements
part of the
along theradial
jacket. The whole
dimension
dimension domain
of the
of cable,of
the cable, asthe
as cable
shown
shown inis
in discretized
Figure
Figure 4.4. into many discrete elements
along the radial dimension of the cable, as shown in Figure 4.
Radial direction

Radial direction Air

Center of the
conductor Conductor Insulation Jacket Air
Center 4.
Figure of the
Figure 4. Cable
conductorCable discretization along
alongthe
Conductor
discretization theradial
radialaxis.
axis. Insulation Jacket

FigureThe 4. Cable
heat discretization
heat transfer
transfer problem
problem along the radial
isissolved
solved alongalongaxis.
thetheradialradial axisaxis
because the the
because heatheat
is conducted
is con-
through
ducted through this axis. This approach assumes that the central point of any node mean
this axis. This approach assumes that the central point of any node has the has
temperature
The heat
the mean oftransfer
the discrete
temperature theelement
ofproblem discrete iswhere
solved
element it iswhere
placed.
along isThis
itthe assumption
radial
placed. is accurate
axisassumption
This because the since
heata is con-
is accu-
small
ducted spatial
rate since a small
through ∆x isaxis.
stepthis
spatial chosen.
stepThisx is The finite The
chosen.
approach difference method
finite difference
assumes that the (FDM)
method determines
central(FDM)
point theany
determines
of nodal
node has
temperature
the nodal from the
temperature temperatures
from the of
temperatures the two of contiguous
the
the mean temperature of the discrete element where it is placed. This assumption is accu-two left-hand
contiguous and right-hand
left-hand and side
right-
nodes.
hand A tri-diagonal
side matrix describing the nodal temperature arises, so thearises,
temperatures
rate since anodes. A tri-diagonal
small spatial step Δxmatrix is chosen. describing The finite the nodal temperature
difference method (FDM) so the
determines
can be determined
temperatures can bebydetermined
applying the bytri-diagonal
applying thematrix tri-diagonal algorithm (TDMA)
matrix [34], which
algorithm (TDMA) has
the
the nodal[12],
temperature from the temperatures of the two contiguous left-hand and right-
[34],form
which has the form [12],
hand side nodes. A tri-diagonal ai Tj , i−j1+1+matrix
j j +1
bi Tj , i j +1describing
j j +1
+ ci Tj , i+j +11− dthe
j j +1 j nodal temperature arises, (3) so the
i j= 0
temperatures can be determined ai T, i −1 + T, i + ci Tthe
bybiapplying , i +1
−tri-diagonal
di = 0 matrix algorithm (3)(TDMA)
i andwhich
[34], j being,
hasrespectively,
the form the indices related to the spatial and temporal steps, so that
[12],
T j
i and j being, respectively, thetoindices relatedtemperature
to the spatialofand the temporal
i-th nodesteps, so that atTthe
ij
i = T(i∆x,j∆t) corresponds the average calculated
j j +1 j j +1 j j + 1 j
i T i −i1 + bi T, i + ccoefficients.
i , i +1 − d i = 0
= T(iΔx,jΔt)
j-th time step. corresponds j
Finally, ai ,to j , ci a
bi the j average
and j
d are temperature
constant ofTthe i-th node calculated
Equation at the j-th
(4) calculates the (3)
time step. Finally, aij, bij, cij and dij , are constant coefficients. Equation (4) calculates the
i and j being, respectively, the indices related to the spatial and temporal steps, so that Tij
= T(iΔx,jΔt) corresponds to the average temperature of the i-th node calculated at the j-th
time step. Finally, aij, bij, cij and dij are constant coefficients. Equation (4) calculates the
 Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 17

Materials 2022, 15, 6814 6 of 16

nodal temperatures from the temperatures of the neighboring right-hand side and left-
hand temperatures
nodal side nodes. from the temperatures of the neighboring right-hand side and left-hand
side nodes.   b1j c1j a1j  jT+1 1j +
 1
 d1j  
j
b1 c j j j j
j
a1 T j +1   dj j
 j  a1j 2 bj 2 c2 .   1jT+21  d 2 1j 
 a2 b2 ca 2 3 .b3
j j
c3j .  T
 · 2T3 j + 1
= d3dj 2 
 
a j b j c j     
 
j + 1 j
. j · T  =  .d3  (4)
     
 3 3 3 j ctot −1  3 .  (4)
c j ctot−
aj totj 1btotj  T. totj +
1 d j . 
   
 tot   

j j j +1 totj
ctot atot j btot j Ttot dtot
with a1 = ctot = 0
j j
with a1 = ctot = 0

2.2.Conductor
2.2. ConductorDiscretization
Discretization
Theconductor
The conductor part
part(orange
(orangecolor)
color)designated
designatedwith
withsubscript
subscriptAAincludes
includesNNAnodal
nodal
A
elements of thickness x A (m) each, as shown in Figure 5, whereas the elements of the
elements of thickness ∆xA (m) each, as shown in Figure 5, whereas the elements of the
insulation layer
insulation layer are
areshown
shownin inblue
bluecolor.
color. An
An additional
additional node
node isis placed
placed at
atthe
theboundary
boundary
between the conductor and the insulation
between the conductor and the insulation layer.layer.

i=1 i=2 i 1 i i = NA+1

Conductor Insulation

xA Conductor-insulation
xA/2 xB/2 xB
Center of the conductor boundary

Figure5.5.Conductor
Figure Conductordiscretization.
discretization.

To
Toproperly
properlydistribute
distribute the electric
the current
electric currentandand
thethe
electric resistance
electric resistance along eacheach
along division,
divi-
the electric resistivity ρe (Ω·m) and Ji = Ii /SJii =(A/m 2 ) in 2each element are
sion, the electric resistivity ρe (Ω·m)the
andcurrent density
the current density Ii/Si (A/m ) in each element
required, Si and
are required, Ii being,
Si and respectively,
Ii being, the cross
respectively, section
the cross andand
section the thecurrent
currentcorresponding
corresponding to
the i-th element, so the resistance per unit length of the i-th element is r =
to the i-th element, so the resistance per unit length of the i-th elementiis ri e= ρei /Si (Ω/m).ρ /S (Ω/m).
First
Firstnode
node (i(i = 1)
1) analysis.
analysis. AtAtthe
thefirst
firstnode,
node, heat
heat is generated
is generated by by thethe Joule
Joule effect
effect and
and conducted
conducted to adjacent
to the the adjacent
outerouter
nodenode (right-hand
(right-hand side).side). The discretized
The discretized heat transfer
heat transfer equa-
equation
tion can becanexpressed
be expressedas, as,
j +1 T j +1j − T1 j T1 j +j1+−1T2j +1 j+1
 AT
S1,1Ac p , A− 1T1 =
2 I i ri (Tj 1 ) − k A T1
2 j
− Tp21 (5)
ρ A S1,A c p,A t= Ii ri ( T1 ) − k A xA p1 (5)
∆t ∆x A
with,
with,
 π [ x  x+
1 + 0.5xAA 
0.5∆x ]22

1, A =  1
 S=
S1,A
(6)
p1 =p 2π (6)


[ x + 0.5∆x ]
= 21 x + 0.5Ax
1  1 A 
where ρA (kg/m33) is the mass density of the conductor material, cp,A (J/(kgK)) is the specific
where A (kg/m ) is the mass density of the conductor material, cp,A (J/(kgK)) is the specific
heat capacity of the conductor material, ri (Ω/m) is the per unit length resistance of the
heat capacity of the conductor material, ri (Ω/m) is the per unit length resistance of the i-
i-th element of the conductor, kA (W/(mK)) is the thermal conductivity of the conductor
th element
material, andofTithe
j (K)conductor, kA (W/(mK))
is the temperature of theisi-th theelement
thermalcalculated
conductivity of the
at time conductor
t = j∆t (s).
material, and T ij (K) is the temperature of the i-th element calculated at time t = jt (s).
After reorganizing the terms in (5) to match with the TDMA formulation, the TDMA
After reorganizing
coefficients of the first node the result
terms in,
in (5) to match with the TDMA formulation, the TDMA
coefficients of the first node result in,
a1 =

 0
a1 = 0
 ρ A S1,A c p,A p1


 b1 = b = ∆t

 + k A ∆x
A S1, A c p , A p1A
+ k
 1 
p1t A
 xA (7)
c1 = −k A ∆x A


p (7)

c1 ρ=A−

 kA c 1 Tj
S1,A  j

 p,A
x 1 2
d1 = ∆t
A + Ii ri ( T1 )
  A S1, Ac p , AT1 j
d1 = + I i2 ri (T1 j )
 t
Materials 2022, 15, 6814 7 of 16

Generic node (i) analysis. A generic conductor node includes the heat generation
and the heat conduction from the inner (left) to the outer (right) element, thus resulting in,

j +1 j j +1 j +1 j +1 j +1
Ti − Ti j T − Ti Ti − Ti+1
ρ A Si,A c p,A = Ii2 ri ( Ti ) + k A i−1 p i −1 − k A p i +1 (8)
∆t ∆x A ∆x A

where  2 2
 Si,A = π [ xi + 0.5∆x A ] − π [ xi − 0.5∆x A ]
p = 2π [ xi − 0.5∆x A ]
 i −1 (9)
pi+1 = 2π [ xi + 0.5∆x A ]
with 2 ≤ i ≤ NA
After reorganizing the terms above to match with the TDMA formulation, the TDMA
coefficients of the generic node result in,
p
ai = −k A ∆xi−1

A


 bi = ρ A Si,A c p,A + k A pi−1 + k A pi+1


∆t ∆x A ∆x A
p
 ci = −k A ∆xi+1 (10)
 A
 j
 ρ S c T j
di = A i,A∆tp,A i + Ii2 ri ( Ti )


with 2 ≤ i ≤ NA

Boundary node (i = NA + 1). In the boundary node between the conductor and the
insulating layer (see Figure 5), the thermal conductivity is different on each side of the
node, and the Joule effect heat generation is only in the conductor, not in the insulation.

j +1 j j +1 j j +1 j +1 j +1 j +1
Ti − Ti Ti − Ti j T − Ti Ti − Ti+1
ρ A Si,A c p,A + ρ B Si,B c p,B = Ii2 ri ( T, i ) + k A i−1 p i −1 − k B p i +1 (11)
∆t ∆t ∆x A ∆x B
where
Si,A = π [ xi ]2 − π [ xi − 0.5∆x A ]2


Si,B = π [ xi + 0.5∆x B ]2 − π [ xi ]2


p
 i −1

 = 2π [ xi − 0.5∆x A ] (12)
pi+1 = 2π [ xi + 0.5∆x B ]
with i = NA + 1
In the boundary node, the resistance per unit length and current only affect the region
of material A (conductor), so that the current density Ji = Ii /Si (A/m2 ) is required in each
element, Si and Ii being, respectively, the cross section and the current of the i-th element.
The resistance per unit length of the i-th element is ri = ρe /Si,A (Ω/m), where Ii = Si,A Ji .
The TDMA coefficients of the boundary node result in,
p
ai = −k A ∆xi−1

A



 ρ S c p,A ρ B Si,B c p,B p p
 bi = A i,A + + k A ∆xi−A1 + k B ∆x
i +1


∆t ∆t B
p
i +1

 ci = −k B ∆x B
(13)

 j j
 d = ρ A Si,A c p,A Ti + ρ B Si,B c p,B Ti j

+ Ii2 ri ( T, i )

i ∆t ∆t
with i = NA + 1

Although the conductor has already been discretized, as the thermal conductivity
of copper is approximately three orders of magnitude larger compared to that of the
surrounding insulating materials (see Figure 3), a single temperature value can be assigned
to the conductor, as the temperature drop over it is almost negligible.
 Although the conductor has already been discretized, as the thermal conductivity of
copper is approximately three orders of magnitude larger compared to that of the sur-
Materials 2022, 15, 6814 8 of 16
rounding insulating materials (see Figure 3), a single temperature value can be assigned
to the conductor, as the temperature drop over it is almost negligible.

2.3.Inner
2.3. InnerInsulation
InsulationDiscretization
Discretization
The elements
The elements inin the inner insulation
insulation layer
layer (blue
(bluecolor)
color)are
areexpressed
expressedwith subscriptB,
withsubscript
which
B, which includes NBNnodal
includes B nodalelements, as shown
elements, as shownin Figure 6, whereas
in Figure the elements
6, whereas of theofouter
the elements the
jacketjacket
outer are represented in grayincolor.
are represented gray An additional
color. node is node
An additional placedis at the boundary
placed between
at the boundary
the insulation
between layer andlayer
the insulation the outer jacket.
and the outer jacket.

i = NA+1 i 1 i i = NA+NB+1

Conductor Insulation Jacket

xA xA/2 xB/2 xB xC/2 xC

Insulation-jacket boundary

Figure
Figure6.6.Inner
Innerinsulation
insulationlayer
layerdiscretization.
discretization.

Regardingthe
Regarding theinsulation
insulationlayer,
layer,no
nointernal
internalheat
heatsource
sourceexists,
exists,so
sothe
thetemperature
temperatureonly
only
variesalong
varies alongthe
theradial
radialaxis
axis [35].
[35].
Genericnode
Generic node(i). Sinceno
(i).Since noheat
heatisisgenerated
generatedwithin
withinthe
thegeneric
genericnode
nodeofofthe
theinsulation
insulation
layer, the heat transfer equation results
layer, the heat transfer equation results in, in,
j +1 j+1 j +1 j +1 j +1j +1 j +1 j +1
j +1T − Ti T Ti −1−−TTi
j j j+ 1
Ti T − Ti−
 ST c − iT =k pi −1 − k B +1 T
pi+ (14)
ρ B Si,B c p,BB i ,iB p , B it= k B iB−1 xBi pi−1 − k B ixB i +11
p i +1 (14)
∆t ∆x B ∆x B
where
where  22 2
 Si,A S= π=[xi+ 0.5xBB] −
xi +0.5∆x −π x[ x−i − x B  B ]
0.50.5∆x
2

 i, A
p  = 2π [ x − 0.5∆x ]
i

 i−1 pi −1 = 2 i xi − 0.5xBB (15)

pi+1 = 2π [ xi + 0.5∆x B ] (15)
 pi +1 = 2  xi + 0.5xB 
 with NA + 2 ≤ i ≤ NA + NB
with N A + 2  i  N A + N B
The TDMA coefficients of a generic node of the inner insulation layer result in,
 p i −1
The TDMA coefficients
 = −k B ∆x
of aai generic node of the inner insulation layer result in,
B

ρ B Si,B cpp,B

 p i −1 p
+ k i +1

 b =
 i −1 + k
i  ai = − k∆t B ∆x B B ∆x B
x
B
 − k p i +1
ci =
B
  BB S∆x
i,Bc
Bp , B p p (16)
bi = + k B i −1 + k B i +1


 t Tij xB xB

 ρ B Si,B c p,B


di =

∆tp
c = − k i +1 (16)
 i NAB+
with x2B ≤ i ≤ NA + NB

  B Si , B c p , BTi j
Boundary node (i = NA + NBdi+=1). The t heat
transfer equation of the boundary node
between the inner insulation layer and
with the
N A +outer
2  i  jacket
N A + N Bcan be expressed as,

j +1 j j +1 j j +1 j +1 j +1 j +1
Ti − Ti Ti − Ti Ti−1 − Ti Ti − Ti+1
ρ B Si,B c p,B Boundary node
+ ρC Si,C c p,C (i = N A +=NkB B+ 1). The heatpitransfer
−1 − k C equation of pthe
i +1
boundary node
(17)
∆t
between the inner insulation∆t layer and ∆xtheBouter jacket can be∆x C
expressed as,
where
Ti j +1 − Ti j  Ti j +1 − Ti j2 Ti −j1+1 − Ti j +1 2 T
j +1
− Ti +j1+1
 B Si ,Bc p ,B +  p ,C = π [ x i ] =
Sci,B
C Si ,C −k π
B [ x i − 0.5∆x pi −B1 ]− kC i pi +1 (17)
t 
 t xB xC
 S = π [ x + 0.5∆x ]2 − π [ x ]2
i,C i C i
where  pi−1 = 2π [ xi − 0.5∆x B ]

 (18)

pi+1 = 2π [ xi + 0.5∆xC ]


with i = NA + NB + 1
  Si ,C =   xi + 0.5xC 2 −   xi 2


 pi −1 = 2  xi − 0.5xB  (18)

 pi +1 = 2  xi + 0.5xC 

with i = N A + N B + 1
Materials 2022, 15, 6814 9 of 16

The TDMA coefficients of the boundary node between the inner insulation layer and
the outer jacket result in,
The TDMA coefficients of the boundary node between the inner insulation layer and
the outer jacket result in,  pi −1
ai = − k B x
 B

  pB Si−i ,1B c p , B C Si ,C c p ,C

ai =− k B ∆xB + p p
 bi = + k B i −1 + kC i +1
 t t xB xC


 bi = ρB S∆t
i,B c p,B ρC Si,C c p,C p i −1 p i +1


p + + k B ∆x + k C ∆x (19)

c = − k i +1 ∆t B C
 i
p i +1 C
C
x
ci = −k C ∆x (19)
 B SiC, B c p , BTi j C Si ,C c p ,CTi j



dρi =S c T j +

j

di = B i,B∆tp,Bti + C i,C∆tp,C


 ρ S c t Ti
with i = N A + N B + 1
with i = NA + NB + 1

2.4.
2.4. Outer
OuterJacket
JacketDiscretization
Discretization
The elements in
The elements inthetheouter
outer jacket
jacket (gray
(gray color)
color) are expressed
are expressed with with subscript
subscript C. As
C. As shown
shown in 7,
in Figure Figure 7, it includes
it includes NC nodal NCelements.
nodal elements.
It can beItobserved
can be observed that an additional
that an additional node has
node
been has
addedbeento added to the boundary
the boundary between thebetween
outer the outer
jacket andjacket and the air.
the air.

i = NA+NB+1 i 1 i i = NA+NB+NC+1

Air
Insulation Jacket
xB xB/2 xC xC/2

Figure7.
Figure Outerjacket
7. Outer jacketdiscretization.
discretization.

Generic node (i). Since no heat is generated in the generic node of the outer jacket,
Generic node (i). Since no heat is generated in the generic node of the outer jacket,
the heat transfer equation results in,
the heat transfer equation results in,
j +1 j j +1 j +1 j +1 j +1
T Ti jT+1 − Ti j Ti−T
− j +1
i −−1 − TTi j +1 TT j +1
−T−i +j1+T1 i+1
cC Si ,Cic p ,C i
= k C= kC 1 x i ppi−i −11 −−kkCC i x
i
ρC Si,C pi +1p (20)
(20)
p,C
∆t  t ∆xC C ∆x
C
i +1
C
where
where  2 2
 Si,C =S π [=xi +x 0.5∆x C ] 2 − π [ xi − 0.5∆x 2 C]
 i + 0.5xC  −   xi − 0.5xC 
p = 2π [ x − 0.5∆x ]
i ,C

 i−1 pi −1 = 2i xi − 0.5xCC (21)

pi+1= 2π [ xi + 0.5∆xC ] (21)
p = 2  x + 0.5x 
withNiA+1 + NB +
i
2 ≤ iC ≤ NA + NB + NC
with N A + N B + 2  i  N A + N B + N C
The TDMA coefficients of a generic node of the outer jacket are as follows,
The TDMA coefficientsof a generic node of the outer jacket are as follows,
p i −1
 ai = −k C ∆xC


 b = ρC Si,C c p,C + k pi−1 + k pi+1


i ∆t C ∆x C ∆x

C C
p i +1
 ci = −k C ∆x (22)

 C

 j
 ρC Si,C c p,C Ti
di =

∆t
with NA + NB + 2 ≤ i ≤ NA + NB + NC

Last node (i = NA + NB + NC + 1). The last node is placed in the boundary between
the outer jacket and air, so indoors, only convection and radiation must be considered,

j +1 j j +1 j +1
Ti − Ti T − Ti j +1 j 4
ρC Si,C c p,C = k C i −1 pi−1 − hpi+1 ( Ti − Tair ) − εσpi+1 [( Ti ) − ( Tair )4 ] (23)
∆t ∆xC
where  2 2
 Si,C = π [ xi ] − π [ xi − 0.5∆xC ]
p = 2π [ xi − 0.5∆xC ]
 i −1 (24)
pi+1 = 2πRC
with i = NA + NB + NC + 1
Materials 2022, 15, 6814 10 of 16

where RC (m) is the outer radius of the cable, σ (W/(m2 K4 )) is the Stefan–Boltzmann
constant, and ε = 0.85 (-) is the emissivity coefficient [36,37], whereas h (W/(m2 K)) is the
heat transfer coefficient. Assuming that there is no wind, i.e., the worst condition, the heat
transfer coefficient due to natural convection can be calculated as [26]:

3.645 0.25 −0.25

h= ρ D ( T − Tair )0.25 (25)
π air

Air density ρair (kg/m3 ) changes with the cable elevation H (m), air temperature
Tair (K) and cable temperature T (K) as [26],

1.293 − 1.525 · 10−4 H + 6.379 · 10−9 H 2

ρ air = (26)
1 + 0.00367( Tair + T )/2

Finally, the TDMA coefficients of the boundary node between the outer jacket and air
result in,
p i −1

 ai = −k C ∆x

 C

 bi = ρC Si,C c p,C + hpi+1 + k C pi−1




∆t ∆x C


 ci = 0 (27)
j

 d = ρC Si,C c p,C Ti + hp T − εσp [( T j )4 − ( T )4 ]


i ∆t i +1 air i +1 i air
with i = NA + NB + NC + 1

It is worth noting that (1)–(27) have been programmed and solved in the MATLAB®
environment by the authors of this work.

3. Experimental
3.1. Experimental Setup
A high-current transformer (variable output voltage 0–3 V, variable output current 0–1 kA,
and 50 Hz alternating current) was used to conduct the experimental tests carried out at
AMBER high-current laboratory of the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. To regulate
the output current, the transformer has an input stage that includes an autotransformer. A
loop formed by the analyzed insulated cable was directly connected to the output terminals
of the transformer, as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8b also shows the insertions made in the cable to place the thermocouples.
Table 1 details the main characteristics of the insulated cable used in the experiments.

Table 1. Conductor dimensions and characteristics.

Characteristic Value
Designation Barrinax U-1000 R2V
Rated voltage [kVRMS ] 0.6/1.0
Max voltage [kVRMS ] 1.2
Max continuous service temperature [◦ C] 90
Short circuit temperature [◦ C] 250
Inner insulation material XLPE
Inner insulation wall thickness [mm] 1.1
Outer jacket material PVC
Outer jacket wall thickness [mm] 1.5
Effective copper cross section [mm2 ] 70
Outer conductor diameter [mm] 9.5
Copper resistivity 20 ◦ C [Ohm·m] 1.85 × 10−8
Temperature coefficient of resistivity [K−1 ] 0.0043
Number of strands [-] 14
Per unit length mass of the conductor [kg/m] 0.584
Ambient temperature [◦ C] 19
 3.1. Experimental Setup
A high-current transformer (variable output voltage 0–3 V, variable output current
0–1 kA, and 50 Hz alternating current) was used to conduct the experimental tests carried
out at AMBER high-current laboratory of the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. To
Materials 2022, 15, 6814 regulate the output current, the transformer has an input stage that includes an autotrans- 11 of 16
former. A loop formed by the analyzed insulated cable was directly connected to the out-
put terminals of the transformer, as shown in Figure 8.

(a)

(b)
Figure 8.Figure
Experimental setup: (a)
8. Experimental Transformer
setup: and cable
(a) Transformer loop loop
and cable usedused
in the
in experiments. (b)(b)
the experiments. Details
Details of the
of the insertions (conductor-insulation and insulation-jacket) made in the cable to place the thermo-
insertions (conductor-insulation and insulation-jacket) made in the cable to place the thermocouples.
couples.
To eliminate any hot spot or heat sink, the length of the cable was 4 m, which is in
Figure 8b alsowith
agreement shows the the insertions made
recommendations in the
found in cable to place
different the thermocouples.
international standards [38–40].
Table 1 details the main characteristics of the insulated cable
The current circulating through the cable loop was measured used in the experiments.
using a Rogowski coil
(ACP1000 GMC-I, 1 mV/A, ±1%, DC to 10 kHz, PROsyS, Skelmersdale, UK), which
Table 1.provides
Conductoradimensions
voltage that andis characteristics.
linear with the electric current in the loop. The temperature in
the different parts of the insulated cable (conductor-insulation boundary,
Characteristic Value insulation-jacket
boundary and jacket-airDesignationboundary) was measured using Barrinax low-thermal inertia welded-tip
U-1000 R2V
Rated voltagewith
T-type thermocouples [kVRMSa] diameter of 0.2 mm. T-type thermocouples 0.6/1.0 were selected
because they are among the most accurate thermocouples, with an 1.2
Max voltage [kV RMS]
accuracy up to 0.5 ◦ C. An
Max continuous service temperature [°C] 90
OMEGA USB-2400 acquisition card was used to acquire the temperatures with a sampling
Short circuit temperature [°C] 250
frequency of 10 Hz. The ambient
Inner insulation material
temperature was maintained at a
XLPE
constant value during
the tests. Before the tests, it was
Inner insulation wall thickness [mm] ensured that the cable was at room1.1 temperature.
Experimental errors
Outer jacket mainly depend on the accuracy of the
material PVCRogowski coil used to
measure the current and the T-type thermocouples used to measure the temperature.
Outer jacket wall thickness [mm] 1.5
SpecialEffective
care must copper
becross
takensection
when [mm 2]
performing the insertions made70in the cable (conductor-
Outer conductor diameter [mm] 9.5
insulation and insulation-jacket) to place the thermocouples, which are shown in Figure 8b.
Copper resistivity 20 °C [Ohm·m] 1.85 × 10−8
Finally, the values of different geometric
Temperature coefficient of resistivity [K−1]
conductor parameters (diameter
0.0043
and wall thickness
of the insulation and jacket
Number of strands [-] layers) as well as the physical properties
14 of the materials
(volumetric mass density, resistivity,
Per unit length mass of the conductor [kg/m] specific heat capacity or thermal
0.584 conductivity) also
influence the accuracy
Ambient of the[°C]
temperature simulation results. 19

To3.2. Experimental
eliminate Results
any hot spot or heat sink, the length of the cable was 4 m, which is in
agreement with the recommendations
Experimental temperature found in different
rise tests international
were conducted standards
to validate [38–40].
the thermal model of
the conductor. These tests consist of applying current steps up to close the rated current to
the cable loop during a certain time interval, during which the cable heats up in different
stages. The applied current levels and durations of each current level are summarized in
Table 2.
Figure 9 shows the experimental and simulated temperature profiles in the three
measured points of the cable (conductor-insulation boundary, insulation-jacket boundary
and jacket-air boundary) corresponding to the five current levels.
 the conductor. These tests consist of applying current steps up to close the rated current
to the cable loop during a certain time interval, during which the cable heats up in differ-
ent stages. The applied current levels and durations of each current level are summarized
in Table 2.
Materials 2022, 15, 6814 12 of 16
Table 2. Conductor of 70 mm2. Realized temperature rise tests.
Step Current (ARMS) Duration (s)
#1 of 70 mm2 . Realized temperature
Table 2. Conductor 120 rise tests. 1950
#2 145 1950
Step
#3 Current
170(ARMS ) Duration
1500 (s)
185 #4 1850
120 #1 1950
212 #5 1350
#2 145 1950
#3 170 1500
Figure 9 #4
shows the experimental and185 simulated temperature profiles
1850 in the three
measured points
#5 of the cable (conductor-insulation
212 boundary, insulation-jacket
1350 boundary
and jacket-air boundary) corresponding to the five current levels.

40
212 A

185 A
35
Temperature [ºC]

170 A

30
145 A

25 Conductor-insulation (measured)
120 A Insulation-jacket (measured)
Jacket-air (measured)
Conductor-insulation ((simulated)
20 Insulation-jacket (simulated)
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW Jacket-air (simulated) 13 of 17
0 2000 4000 6000 8000

Time [s]

4
Conductor-insulation
Insulation-jacket
Relative difference [% ]

2 Jacket-air

-2

-4
0 2000 4000 6000 8000

Time [s]
Figure
Figure9.9.Conductor mm.2Experimental
Conductorofof7070mm
2
. Experimentalversus
versussimulated
simulatedtemperature
temperaturerise
riseprofiles
profilesininthe
thethree
three
measured points of the cable (conductor-insulation boundary, insulation-jacket boundary
measured points of the cable (conductor-insulation boundary, insulation-jacket boundary and jacket- and
jacket-air boundary) and the relative difference between the experimental and simulated tempera-
air boundary) and the relative difference between the experimental and simulated temperatures.
tures.
Results presented in Figure 9 show great agreement between experimental and simu-
Results presented
lated data, since in Figure
the mean error is9 less
show great
than 1%,agreement between
thus proving experimental
the suitability of theand sim-
proposed
ulated data,
cable model. since the mean error is less than 1%, thus proving the suitability of the pro-
posedThecable model.
proposed model also allows other parameters of the cable to be determined, such
The
as the proposed
radial model also
temperature allows other
distribution parameters
or the of the
components of cable to be
the heat determined,
balance such
equation, as
asshown
the radial temperature
in Figure 10. distribution or the components of the heat balance equation, as
shownItin is Figure 10.
worth noting that using an Intel® CoreTM i7-1185G7 CPU@ 3.0 GHz with 32 GB
RAM (Intel, Santa Clara, CA, USA) with a time step of 10 s and nine nodes for each material,
the software requires 0.7 s to run a simulation consisting of five current steps (see Figure 9)
between t = 0 s and t = 8600 s.
 Results presented in Figure 9 show great agreement between experimental and sim-
ulated data, since the mean error is less than 1%, thus proving the suitability of the pro-
posed cable model.
The proposed model also allows other parameters of the cable to be determined, such
Materials 2022, 15, 6814 13 of 16
as the radial temperature distribution or the components of the heat balance equation, as
shown in Figure 10.

(a)

(b)

Figure 10. Conductor of 70 mm2 : (a) Temporal evolution of the temperature along the radial axis
considering 28 nodal elements. (b) Temporal evolution of the components of the heat balance equation.

3.3. Additional Experimental Results

To further validate the accuracy of the cable model, a second cable of 4 m length was
tested, its characteristics are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3. Dimensions and characteristics of the second conductor.

Characteristic Value
Designation H07RN-F TITANEX 1 × 150
Rated voltage [kVRMS ] 0.6/1.0
Max voltage [kVRMS ] 1.2
Max continuous service temperature [◦ C] 90
Short circuit temperature [◦ C] 250
Inner insulation wall thickness [mm] 2.0
Outer jacket wall thickness [mm] 2.5
Effective copper cross section [mm2 ] 150
Outer conductor diameter [mm] 15
Copper resistivity 20 ◦ C [Ohm·m] 1.85 × 10−8
Flexibility class 5
Per unit length mass of the conductor [kg/m] 1.74
Ambient temperature [◦ C] 23.5

As with the first cable, experimental temperature rise tests were conducted to validate
the proposed model of the conductor. They consist of applying five current steps to the
cable loop during a certain time interval. The applied current levels and their durations are
summarized in Table 4.
Materials 2022, 15, 6814 14 of 16

Table 4. Conductor of 150 mm2 . Realized temperature rise tests.

Step Current (ARMS ) Duration (s)

#1 130 766
#2 163 554
#3 220 850
#4 305 530
#5 405 400

Figure 11 shows the experimental and simulated temperature profiles in the three
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 17
measured points of the cable (conductor-insulation boundary, insulation-jacket boundary,
and jacket-air boundary) for the five current levels.

40

405 A

35
Temperature [ºC]

305 A

30
220 A

163 A
130 A Conductor-insulation (measured)
25 Insulation-jacket (measured)
Jacket-air (measured)
Conductor-insulation ((simulated)
Insulation-jacket (simulated)
Jacket-air (simulated)
20
0 1000 2000 3000

Time [s]
2
Conductor-insulation
Relative difference [% ]

Insulation-jacket
1 Jacket-air

-1

-2
0 1000 2000 3000

Time [s]

Figure
Figure11.
11. Conductor of 150
Conductor of 150mm
mm22.. Experimental
Experimentalversus
versus simulated
simulated temperature
temperature riserise profiles
profiles inthree
in the the
three measured points of the cable (conductor-insulation boundary, insulation-jacket boundary and
measured points of the cable (conductor-insulation boundary, insulation-jacket boundary and jacket-air
jacket-air boundary) and the relative difference between the experimental and simulated tempera-
boundary) and the relative difference between the experimental and simulated temperatures.
tures.
Results presented in Figure 11 show great agreement between experimental and
Resultsdata,
simulated presented in Figure
since the 11 show
mean error great
is also agreement
less between
than 1%, thus experimental
proving andof
the accuracy sim-
the
ulated data, since the
proposed cable model. mean error is also less than 1%, thus proving the accuracy of the
proposed cable model.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
This paper has presented a model for determining the current–temperature rela-
This between
tionship paper hasinsulated
presentedand a model for cables
jacketed determining the current–temperature
in air, which fully develops therelation-
physical
ship between
equations insulated
governing theand
heatjacketed
transfercables
problem.in air,
The which
model fully develops
solves the physical
the transient equa-
heat transfer
tions governing
equations throughthethe
heat transferlayers
different problem.
of theThe model
cable, solves
namely, thethe transientcore,
conductor heat the
transfer
inner
equations
insulationthrough theouter
layer, the different layers of
insulating andtheprotective
cable, namely,
jackettheandconductor core, the inner
the air surrounding the
cable. To this
insulation layer,end,
thethe model
outer discretizes
insulating and the cable injacket
protective the radial axisair
and the and applies a finite
surrounding the
difference
cable. method
To this approach
end, the model to calculate the
discretizes the cable
temperatures in allaxis
in the radial nodes
andofapplies
the discretized
a finite
difference method approach to calculate the temperatures in all nodes of the discretized
domain by considering the contiguous left-hand and right-hand side nodes. Since this ap-
proach leads to a tri-diagonal matrix, it is solved by applying the tri-diagonal matrix al-
gorithm (TDMA). Experimental temperature rise tests performed by applying current
Materials 2022, 15, 6814 15 of 16

domain by considering the contiguous left-hand and right-hand side nodes. Since this
approach leads to a tri-diagonal matrix, it is solved by applying the tri-diagonal matrix
algorithm (TDMA). Experimental temperature rise tests performed by applying current
steps of different magnitudes show the accuracy of the proposed method. The approach
presented in this paper can be applied to determine the temperature rise of the cable once
the applied current and ambient temperature are known, even under short-circuit condi-
tions or under changing applied currents or ambient temperatures. The method proposed
here can be easily adapted to other cable configurations.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.-R.R.; methodology, J.-R.R. and J.L.; software, J.L.;
validation, J.-R.R. and J.L.; investigation, J.-R.R. and J.L.; resources, J.-R.R.; writing—original draft
preparation, J.-R.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación de España, grant number
PID2020-114240RB-I00 and by the Generalitat de Catalunya, grant number 2017 SGR 967.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to show our gratitude to Mecatraction (SICAME group)
for providing the materials required for this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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