Chapter 1

Introduction to the Financial Environment

_____________________________________________________

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Explain the significance of the financial environment and how this environment influences the
decisions of business managers and individuals.
2. Distinguish between financial markets and financial institutions.

3. Identify the major participants in the financial markets.

4. Understand the key aspects of the demand and supply of money

5. Identify the key characteristics of financial assets.

6. Provide examples of investments in financial assets and explain the overall investment process.
7. Demonstrate how the holding period return is calculated.
8. Explain the variability of returns of different assets and identify the determinants of returns.

Preview
Since the book deals with the financial environment (financial institutions and financial instruments such
as marketable securities) we will undertake in this introductory chapter to provide an overview of the
structure and functioning of the financial system where businesses and individual investors operate. As
such, in this chapter we will provide an overview of the financial markets and institutions that mobilize
funds from the savers to the borrowers. We will highlight the changes in the financial landscape and
briefly preview the key features of the major financial assets. Since business and individual investors
expect a certain return from any financial or business investment, we will preview the concepts of time
value of money, holding period returns and expected returns.

Businesses raise and use investment funds from the financial system (the stock, bond or money market),
funds which have been saved by individuals. In turn these investments in capital equipment, in research
and development, in new products and new markets, etc. provide growth prospects for the companies and
income and capital gains prospects to the individuals that have invested in these companies by buying their
stock or debt securities. Here we will preview the major objectives of business and provide the basic
theoretical explanations of why different profit potentials exist in different sectors of the economy.
The Financial System
It doesn’t take much to convince anyone that the financial sector (or system) is vital for the smooth
functioning of the economy since it helps money to be channeled efficiently from savers (or surplus units)
to prospective borrowers (or deficit units). In this way, the financial system makes it easier (1) for firms to
obtain financing for profitable investments opportunities (investments in new technology, capital
equipment, or for acquisition of other companies), and (2) for individuals to borrow against future income
(e.g., to pay for university, to buy a house or car, etc). This fundamental intermediation function of the
financial system is presented graphically in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: The Intermediation Function of the Financial System

Financial
Markets

Savers (surplus units) Borrowers (deficit units)

 Individuals  Individuals
 Firms  Firms
 Government  Government

Financial
Intermediaries

Without financial markets and institutions, borrowers would have to borrow directly from savers. In such a
case it is easy to imagine that not much borrowing would take place since it would be very difficult for
people in need to borrow to find other people able and willing to lend the same amounts and with exactly
the same terms (time, interest rate, collateral, etc). In other words, we need to have “a double coincidence
of wants”. Therefore, we can easily conclude that a well-functioning financial system is necessary for a
well-functioning economy. A schematic structure of the financial system is provided in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Structure of the Financial System

Central Bank

Financial Institutions
(Make available
financial instruments)

Financial Markets
(where financial instruments are
bought and sold)

Financial Instruments
(monetary claims like stocks, bonds, or loans)

Money
Changes in the Financial Services Industry
The financial services industry has undergone, and continues to undergo, dramatic changes in makeup and
operations, facilitated by deregulation, globalization and the revolution in information technology. The
traditional industry boundaries (banking, insurance, investments, brokerage, etc) are increasingly getting
blurry and the financial services industry of today has little resemblance to the makeup and operations of
the industry of 50 or even 25 years ago.

The development of financial supermarkets, chiefly through mergers and acquisitions, which engage in all
aspects of the broader financial sector, has replaced to a large extent the specialized firms that because of
regulation their operations were restricted within their national boundaries or even within their narrower
industry boundaries. Today, there are large financial groups that engage in the full spectrum of activities
including retail, wholesale and investment banking, insurance, brokerage, fund/asset management,
currency and derivatives trading, real estate, etc.

Of course, some firms have decided not to be all things to all people. These are the “boutique”, specialty
operators which seek to provide unique, specialized financial products and services.

Beyond this blurring of industry boundaries, the advances in information technology continue at an
accelerated pace and is certain to continue (as it has so far) to affect and shape how the markets will be
organized and operate in the future. The developments in the computerized trading systems are bound to
introduce numerous additional changes in markets around the world. The development of new,
sophisticated products (so called “financially engineered” products) and new markets will also be
facilitated by more experience and know-how and technological advancements. Direct trading across the
globe 24 hours a day is just one such development.

The financial crisis of 2007-2009 has brought to the surface a number of weaknesses and gaps in the
supervisory function and prudent management of risks by banks and other financial firms (even of central
banks). Since these gaps have been blamed to have caused the financial crisis and the significant economic
downturn around the world, it is certain that the bank regulators and the legislators will introduce
appropriate amendments to the current regulatory regime.

Financial Institutions
Financial institutions are firms that provide access to financial markets, both to savers who want to place
their savings in financial instruments and to borrowers who want to borrow from banks or issue debt
securities. Among other services, financial institutions allow individuals to earn a return on their money
while at the same time avoid (or at least reduce) risk. Financial institutions are called financial
intermediaries (businesses that connect savers with borrowers) since they serve as middlemen between
individuals, firms, and financial markets.

Types of Financial Institutions

We provide below a brief explanation of the various financial institutions that constitute the major players
and make up the structure of a financial system. Their primary function is to provide financial
intermediation.

Financial intermediation or indirect finance is the process of obtaining funds or investing funds through
third-party institutions like banks and mutual funds. In the US, the most common method of raising funds
for businesses is indirect finance rather than direct finance.

1. Depository institutions (banks, co-operatives, savings & loan associations). Their main liabilities are
deposits (sources of funds), and their main assets are loans.
2. Insurance companies. They collect premiums (regular payments) from policy-holders, and pay
compensation to policy-holders if certain events occur (e.g., death, fire, theft). They invest the
premiums in securities and real estate, and these are their main assets.
3. Pension funds. They accept contributions from current workers and make payments to retired
workers. Like insurance companies, pension funds invest the contributions in securities and real estate,
and these form their main assets.
4. Securities firms (provide businesses and individuals with access to financial markets):
a. Investment banks: sell new securities for companies. Unlike regular banks, they don't accept
deposits, or make loans.
b. Brokers: buy/sell existing (already issued) securities on behalf of individuals.
c. Mutual fund companies: pool the money of individuals, who buy shares in the fund, and
invest that money in stocks, bonds, and/or other assets.
5. Finance companies. Like banks, they use people's savings to make loans to businesses and
households, but instead of holding deposits, they raise the cash to make these loans by selling bonds
and commercial paper. They tend to specialize in certain types of loans, e.g., automobile or mortgage
loans.

The Role of Money and the Supply of Money

In its simplest form, money is a medium of exchange. It is that universally accepted unit of account for
exchanging goods and services between economic agents (individuals and firms). It has been documented
that during World War II prisoners of war used cigarettes as the unit of account for exchanging goods
amongst them. Money can also be used as a means of deferred payment and as a store of value.

Many transactions (especially for small denominations) are paid with cash, but increasingly most
transactions in modern societies (especially for larger denominations) are paid with checks drawn on bank
accounts, or with credit cards (which combine features of the drawing privileges on a bank account and
credit facilities, albeit temporary, from a financial institution). Money is important to the performance of
an economy, and therefore it is important to be able to identify exactly what money is and to measure how
much of it is in the economy at each time. Economists consider two measures of money: the narrow form
or definition of money (which satisfies mostly the transactions demand for money) and the broader form of
money which incorporates the other two motives for holding money as well.

Definitions of Money

Narrow Money Supply (M1): This includes currency in circulation (coins and paper currency classified
as legal tender), demand deposits (or checking accounts at commercial banks), NOW accounts (which
stands for Negotiable Order of Withdrawal) because these are used as checking accounts, and traveler’s
checks. All these components have a common characteristic: they can readily be transformed into liquid
form for transactions purposes, and are easily accepted as a form of payment.

Broad Money Supply (M2): The components of M 2 are less liquid than M1 but satisfy many of the
attributes of money (store of value, measure of deferred payment, etc). It includes all the components of
M1 plus savings accounts, time deposits, and certificates of deposits (CDs), as well money market mutual
funds which have check-drawing privileges.

Credit and the Role of the Banking System

First, it is important to understand that money and credit are different concepts. Money is a specific,
measurable magnitude (quantity) such as M1 or M 2; credit, on the other hand, is the capacity to borrow
money from a financial institution under certain conditions.

Credit and money, however, are related. The amount of money circulating in the economy limits the
availability and terms of credit extended by financial institutions and private corporations. Conversely, the
broader banking system through its ability to extent credit (to loan out the part of the surplus liquidity that
banks hold for the saving public in the form of demand deposits) facilitates the expansion of the money
supply through the money multiplier process.

The banking system is comprised of the commercial banks and the central bank. Banks play the role of the
middle man (the intermediary) between the surplus units in the economy (those units whose incomes
exceed their expenditures and deposit their savings with a financial institution in return for the interest
rate), and the deficit households which require financing and borrow at the lending rate, to bridge the gap
between their incomes and their expenditures, or the business units which require financing to invest in
order to expand their productive capacity in the future.

The Central Bank & Monetary Policy

In most modern economic systems, the right, power and responsibility to issue legal currency (in the form
of coins and paper money) is delegated to the Central Bank. Aside from issuing currency, the central bank
regulates and supervises the banks (setting rules on the types and composition of assets of banks, the
relationship between deposits and loans, etc). As such, the central bank in any economic system is the key
player in determining the supply of money in the economy. Other functions of the central bank are to be
the banker of the government, to serve as the bank of banks (acting where needed as the lender of last
resort for the banks), to manage the foreign exchange reserves of the country, as well as manage the
payments system (clearing system) between banks.

Essentially, the central bank controls the money supply (M1 and M2) through its power to manage the
monetary base (currency in circulation held by the public, plus currency in banks’ vaults, plus bank
reserves deposited with the central bank). The principal mechanism central banks use to change the
monetary base is open-market operations, the buying and selling of government securities (treasury bills
and bonds). Recall that these securities are IOUs sold by the government to finance government deficits
(expenditures in excess of tax revenues). Individuals, firms and banks buy these securities to earn interest.

Responses of Central Banks to Financial Crises

Experience has shown that unless central banks take quick and decisive measures, banking crises evolve
into deep and lasting economic recessions. How did the major central banks (e.g., the Federal Reserve in
the US, the European Central Bank and the Bank of England) respond to the 2007-2009 financial crisis? It
is worth mentioning three central banks interventions that took place:

Regulation and Protection: Central Bank as Lender of Last Resort

Financial panics and loss of confidence in the financial system are to be avoided like the worst epidemic!
Central banks, acting as lenders of last resort, may help to avoid panics by providing the necessary
liquidity. This will normally mean a temporary rise in the money supply, which the Central Bank will
subsequently try to bring back to ‘normal’. In other words, central banks stand ready to lend to any bank
that might temporarily be in trouble, and thus prevent a domino-like loss of confidence in the banking
system. If the trouble at a bank is of a more severe nature, caused by reckless management, a central bank
may use its rules regarding capital adequacy ratios (the required minimum value of a bank’s capital
relative to its outstanding loans and investments).

If a bank’s capital adequacy ratio is low (below 9% by international standards, known as the Basle rules),
the bank has to quickly find new funding to recapitalise itself, and this is usually done by asking the
existing shareholders to supply this capital reserves so that depositors’ money is safeguarded. This is the
situation that Greek and Cypriot banks are facing following the “hair cut” of the Greek Government bond
holdings. They need massive amounts of recapitalisation in order to bring their capital adequacy ratios up
to the required level.
There are, of course, situations where the bank may be in serious trouble and may go bankrupt (such as
occurred in the Barings Bank scandal in the 1990s or the Northern Rock Bank in 2007 in the UK). The
crisis in the USA subprime loans market had shocked the US financial system for much of 2007 and 2008.
In fact, the debt problem in the US had spread to the UK, the EU and all over the World in a “globalized
financial system”.

Timely and Decisive Monetary Easing

One of the problems that a financial crisis creates is a “credit crunch”, a severe shortage of liquidity as
banks and other lending institutions basically no longer provide sufficient lending to the market. So the
market “dries up”.
With the experience of past financial crises (such as during the Great Depression), the major central banks
(the European Central Bank, the Federal Reserve, the Bank of England, etc) provided generous liquidity
support to the banking system. In addition, monetary policy was significantly relaxed to provide growth
prospects to the real economy (consumer spending, business investments, employment growth, etc.) by
reducing interest rates. For example, in Europe, the ECB reduced the interest rate from 4.25% in October
2008 to 1% by mid-2009.

Flexible and Innovative Interventions

Monetary policy, relying largely on interest rate changes to stimulate the economy, takes time to take
effect. But, time was not on the side of central banks. In addition, “conventional” monetary policy is “too
blunt a tool”, according to Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke, to be used to address financial crises. To do this,
monetary authorities need more targeted tools. They need to intervene in the financial markets and provide
the necessary liquidity with measure that supplemented the traditional tools (as discussed in the previous
section).
In the case of the 2007-2009 financial crisis, there was a danger that the credit crunch would paralyze the
financial intermediation role of the banking system and stop the monetary transmission mechanisms from
reaching efficiently the real sector of the economy. So central banks introduced and used new tools and
instruments. New credit facilities were created to provide financing to banks by buying private and public
debt securities.
In the euro area, where banks are dominant, adequate liquidity was injected into the system using
“unconventional” methods that circumvented traditional restrictions, which complemented the more
"conventional" policy measures such as interest rates. Interest rates were already very low, so it was time
for central banks to innovate in the design and implementation of monetary policy.
For the Euro area, the most important shift took place in October 2008, when the Governing Council of the
ECB decided to allocate liquidity to banks in unlimited amounts at the policy rate.

Cooperation and Convergence of Policy Interventions

The financial crisis of 2007-2009 hit the world at about the same time (due to globalization and the free
movement of financial capital). So it became clear early on that the policy measure had to be taken in a
coordinated fashion. For example, on 8 October 2008, the seven major central banks of the world made in
a synchronized fashion the largest reduction in interest rates in history. Because of the existence of an
efficient network of international financial markets, interest rates have converges to very similar rates
around the world.

Types of Financial Assets

A security or financial asset represents a financial claim on an asset that is manifested by some form of
legal documentation. It refers to a claim to receive some future benefits under certain conditions. The task
of security analysis is to provide a quantification of these future benefits (expected returns) under different
risk-return conditions. We discuss traded securities, such as stocks and bonds, in Chapter 6 while in
Chapter 7 we will discuss specialised financial instruments such as derivatives (options and futures).
An indicative list and brief explanation of financial assets, categorized by broad asset classes, is provided
below:

1. Short-term Debt Securities (Money Market Instruments)

This broad asset class comprises cash and cash equivalents or money market instruments, which are
securities that can be converted easily and readily into cash. They are appropriate for investors that
are primarily interested for capital protection, and understand and are ready to accept fairly modest
returns. Bank deposits and Treasury bills are the best known examples.
 Bank savings & time deposits: These are the standard savings accounts at deposit money banks.
Time deposits (or notice accounts) are special savings accounts that have a maturity and cannot be
withdrawn before the expiry of the time (6-month period, 12-month period, etc).
 Treasury bills: These are short-term obligations of the Government. Their maturity is less than 12
months, with the most known maturity being the 90-day (or 3-month) bills. As much as they are
guaranteed by the Government and the maturity is short, they are the closest we can get to a risk-
free security. We will be using this rate as the risk-free rate (RFR) in our discussion in Chapter 18.
 Commercial paper: These are unsecured promissory notes issued by large companies with
maturities of 30, 60 or 90 days (though they may be issued for as long as six months). Commercial
papers are as good as the credit worthiness of the issuers. In other words, to be able to sell
commercial paper, a company has to have a good rating from the rating agencies. Their yield is
comparable to that of large CDs, but usually higher than Treasury bills. The smaller denomination
is usually $25,000.

2. Long-term Debt Securities

This asset class comprises bonds and notes of the Government (including state and local authorities)
and of corporations, which are long-term obligations of the issuers. Since they are interest-bearing
securities, they are appropriate for investors that are primarily interested for income, and who are
ready to accept moderate risk. This is because, as we will see in more detail in Chapter 6, the price of
bonds varies inversely with the direction of interest rates. So, there is always the risk of loss of
principal, as seen in the annual returns in Table 1.1. A priori, an investor can get an idea of the risk
involved in a particular bond security by the rating issued by various rating agencies (such as
Standard & Poor’s or Fitch)
 Government securities (Notes, Bonds): These are long-term obligations of governments. Since
the risk of default is low, they represent the lowest risk securities of this asset class. Of, course,
risk is not entirely absent, as explained above because of the variability of interest rates (and the
inverse relationship between interest rates and bond prices). If the maturity is between 2 and 10
years, the securities are called notes, whereas if they maturity is over 10 years they are called
bonds.
 Municipal notes and bonds: These are obligations issued by state and local governments and
related government agencies.
 Corporate bonds: These are debt obligations issued by corporations.

3. Direct Equity Securities

 Common stocks: These equity securities represent part ownership of companies and allow
investors to benefit from the growth potential of the company. The total return is the sum of
distributed dividends plus the potential for price appreciation of the shares. This appreciation
potential depends on the future profitability of the company as well as on the overall market
conditions and sentiment. Stocks are appropriate investment vehicles for growth investors (though
certain stocks, called income stocks, are appropriate for more risk averse investors). We will
discuss the key characteristics of stocks further in Chapter 6, while their risk-return characteristics
will be discussed in many chapters.
 Preferred stocks: Unlike common stocks, preferred stocks do not represent ownership in the
issuing company, and as such preferred stockholders do not vote. Preferred stock pays a stipulated
annual dividend. Thus, as an investment instrument, preferred stock falls somewhere between
bonds and common stock as regards the protective provisions for the investor.
4. Financial Derivatives
These are financial instruments that «derive» their value from the value of the underlying security
(stock, bond, index, commodity, currency, etc). Though not strictly speaking new in the investments
community, their popularity for the average investor grew since the 90s following the financial
liberalization and the «financial engineering» that took place. We will discuss these products
(primarily options) in Chapter 7.
 Options: An option is a contract issued by one party which gives to the other party (the holder or
owner) the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell a security (stock, bond, etc) at a specified
price (the exercise price) within or at a designated time period. Options are typically short-term
instruments (up to a year).
 Forward: An agreement between two parties (firms or individuals), whereby one party agrees to
buy from the other an underlying asset (index, stock, bond, commodity, currency, etc) at a
specified price and future time. They are not traded in organized exchanges. Effectively they are
private contracts.
 Futures: Similar agreements with forwards. But futures are traded in organized derivatives
exchanges, and so have trading prices and the profits or losses are determined daily (marked-to-
market).

5. Indirect Investment Vehicles

These are financial «vehicles» through which individuals can invest indirectly in a particular asset
class or combination of assets classes, without directly owning the individual securities in the
portfolio.
 Mutual Funds & Unit Trusts: These are collective investment companies that pool sums of
money from a large number of (usually) small investors. The investor is issued shares (or units) in
proportion to the funds invested. Professional fund managers actively manage these funds, by
investing these sums in marketable securities according to the stated objective of the fund (growth,
income, stock, bond, balanced, etc). There are, of course, some funds, called index funds, which
are not actively managed.
 Real estate investment trusts (REITs): Similar in concept and functionality to mutual funds or
exchanged trade funds (ETFs). They invest in various real estate assets and their shares may be
traded in organized exchanges like stocks.
 Pension funds and life insurance policies: Individuals can also invest regular sums of money
through their employers or on an individual basis in pension funds or though their life insurance.
These pools of money are then invested in marketable and other assets by professional managers
of the pension fund or the insurance company.

In the remainder of this book, we will examine more fully many of the sub-classes of financial assets.

Return of Financial Assets

As we mentioned above in defining investments, individuals buy financial assets so that they have a return
on their investments, either from interest, dividends or capital gains due to an appreciation of the price of
the asset(s) held. Conceptually, the return of an investment is straight-forward to measure. We can view
(or measure) return in two ways:
 Absolute Return (say in Euro or Dollars): The return on an investment measured in dollars that
accounts for all cash flows and capital gains or losses.
 Percent Return (%): The return on an investment measured as a percentage of portfolio value that
accounts for all cash flows and capital gains or losses.
Measuring the return of investments allows us to compare investment alternatives. Throughout the book,
we will deal with a number of different measurement methods, based on the type of security held (e.g.,
stock or bond) and whether we want to measure the historical returns or the expected returns, which take
into consideration risk elements (the probability of occurrence of the outcome). We will briefly discuss
these two measures below.
The Holding Period Return
As we already mentioned, when individuals use their surplus funds for investment purposes, they expect to
receive such a return that they consider sufficient compensation for deferring the current use of their funds.
The return of an investment (real or financial) is measured by the change in the individual’s accumulated
wealth over the period that he/she holds the asset(s). This period is the holding period and the calculated
return over this period is the holding period return (HPR). The formula for calculating the HPR is the
following:
V1  V0
HPR   100%
V0
where V1 = Value of asset or wealth at the end of the period/year. It should be noted that in the ending
value of the asset we include interest, dividends and price appreciation.
V0 = Value of asset or wealth at the beginning of the period/year (purchase price or acquisition
cost)

Example 1.1: Calculation of Holding Period Return

Assume you bought 10,000 stocks of Hellenic Bank at €0.85 at the beginning of 2011. At the end of the
year the share price is €0.40 plus you received dividends of €0.10 per share. What is the HPR? The
acquisition cost of your investment (V0) is €8,500, while the ending value (V1) is €5,000 (€4,000 being the
current market value plus €1,000 dividends you received during the year). So applying the HPR formula
we get:
5,000  8,500  3,500
HPR   100%   41%
8,500 8,500
You say: “Wow! I can lose over 40% of my money in one year?” Yes, you can! After completing this book
you will understand why.

Table 1.1 presents the 30-year historical annual returns (the HPR) of three asset classes in the United
States (stocks, bonds, and Treasury bills) and compares them with the annual inflation rate.

Table 1.1: Annual Returns of U.S. Stocks, Bonds, Treasury Bills, and Inflation (1980-2010)
Common Stocks 10-year Treasury 3-month Treasury Inflation
Year (S&P500) (%) Bonds* (%) Bills* (%) (%)
1980 32.4 -3.95 11.5 12.5
1981 -4.9 1.86 14 8.9
1982 21.4 40.36 10.7 3.8
1983 22.5 0.65 8.6 3.8
1984 6.3 15.48 9.6 3.9
1985 32.2 30.97 7.5 3.8
1986 18.5 24.53 6 1.1
1987 5.2 -2.71 5.8 4.4
1988 16.8 9.67 6.7 4.4
1989 31.5 18.11 8.1 4.6
1990 3.2 6.18 7.5 6.1
1991 30.6 19.3 5.4 3.1
1992 7.7 8.05 3.5 2.9
1993 10.0 18.24 3 2.7
 1994 1.3 -7.77 4.3 2.7
1995 37.4 31.67 5.5 2.5
1996 23.1 -0.93 5 3.3
1997 33.4 15.08 5.1 1.7
1998 28.6 13.52 4.8 1.6
1999 21.0 -8.74 4.7 2.7
2000 -9.1 20.11 5.9 3.4
2001 -11.9 4.56 3.5 1.6
2002 -22.1 17.17 1.6 2.4
2003 28.7 2.06 1 1.9
2004 10.9 7.7 1.4 3.3
2005 4.9 3.05 3.1 3.4
2006 15.8 1.85 4.7 2.5
2007 3.5 9.8 4.4 4.1
2008 -36.6 20.1 1.48 0.1
2009 25.9 -11.12 0.16 2.7
2010 14.9 8.56 0.13 3.6
100-Year Average Returns
Ave 1899-1999 12.0 4.97 4.15 3.31
50-Year Average Returns
Ave 1931-1980 11.7 3.0
Ave 1961-2010 11.3 7.5 5.3 4.2
10-Year Average Returns
Ave. 1961-1970 9.1 1.5 4.4 3.0
Ave. 1971-1980 10.3 4.2 6.8 8.1
Ave. 1981-1990 15.3 12.5 8.5 4.5
Ave. 1991-2000 18.4 10.9 4.7 2.7
Ave. 2001-2010 7.4 6.4 2.1 2.6
*The Treasury bill rate is a 3-month rate and the Treasury bond is the constant maturity 10-year bond.
Source: Council of Economic Advisers, Economic Report of the President, February 2011.

In Figure 1.3 we present the graph of the average ten-year holding period returns for these three asset
classes and the 10-year average inflation rate.

Figure 1.3: Ten-Year Average Returns of Alternative Financial Assets

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2010

Stock Bonds Tbills Inflation

Variability of Returns

Notice that as expected, and as we will explain in many chapters in this book, the long-term return of
stocks is consistently above all the other asset classes. We have shown in Table 1.1 that over the long-term
the return from the stock market (as measured in the US by the S&P 500) has averaged around 10% to
12% annually over the last 100 years. But in any one year, it is not certain that the return will be 10% or
12%. You will have, of course, realized from Example 1.1 as well as have observed from Table 1.1 that on
 an annual basis, the annual HPR of stocks varies significantly, ranging from large positive returns to large
negative returns. The return has varied from as high as 53.8% to as low as -43.4%, One of the worst was in
2008 when the return was -36.6%! Actually, in any given year, the chance of having a down-market is one-
in-four.

This is clearly seen in Figure 1.4, which shows the annual returns of stocks from 1980 to 2010. We will
come to consider this variability as a measure of risk for holding stocks. We briefly refer to risk in the
following sections, but more extensively we deal with the concept and measurement of risk in Chapter 4.

Figure 1.4: Variability of Annual Stock Returns in the US (1980-2010)

50
40
30
20
10
0
1961

1975

1979

1997
1963
1965
1967
1969
1971
1973

1977

1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995

1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50

We can also get a different picture of the variability of returns by looking at the distribution of annual
returns of US common stocks for the period of 1926 to 2010. These annual returns are shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Distribution of Annual Returns of U.S. Common Stocks (1926-2010)
2006
2004 2009
2000 2007 1988 2003 1997
1990 2005 1986 1999 1995
1981 1994 1979 1998 1991
1977 1993 1972 1996 1989
1969 1992 1971 1983 1985
1962 1987 1968 1982 1980
1953 1984 1965 1976 1975
1946 1978 1964 1967 1955
2001 1940 1970 1959 1963 1950
1973 1939 1960 1952 1961 1945
2002 1966 1934 1956 1949 1951 1938 1958
2008 1974 1957 1932 1948 1944 1943 1936 1935 1954
1931 1937 1930 1941 1929 1947 1926 1942 1927 1928 1933
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Does this distribution resemble anything you are familiar with? What about the bell-shaped normal
distribution? We will come to see that over time investment returns tend to mirror a normal distribution.As
mentioned above, we will discuss the distribution of returns (or variability of returns) as a measure of risk
in Chapter 4.
Determination of the Market Interest Rate
The level of the interest rate is established in the money and capital markets by the forces of supply and
demand as shown in Figure 1.5, just like in the market for any good. In this case, the “good” in question is
money and its “price” is the interest rate, which represents the cost of money. Thus, at any moment in
time, the interest rate is determined by comparing the supply of funds (savings, or money supply)
available to be invested, with the demand for funds for borrowing by the individuals and businesses to
finance spending and investments (capital spending by businesses). The equilibrium level of interest (i*) is
determined at the point where the demand for money ( i.e., borrowing) is equal to the supply of funds (i.e.,
savings) as shown in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Money Market Equilibrium

Interest Rate
Supply of Money (Savings)

i*

Demand for Money (Borrowing)

M* Quantity of Money

The Role of Inflation

In an environment of stable prices, if you can “exchange” or trade-off, with certainty, €100 of current
income for next year’s income of €104, then the rate of exchange, or rate of return, on this presumed risk-
free investment (i.e., the time value of money) is 4%.

Of course, in real life we don’t have price stability (and no certainty!). On the contrary, we usually expect
a certain rate of increase of prices over time (the inflation rate). In such a setting, the modern investor, who
is well aware of the eroding effects of inflation on the purchasing power of savings (or future
consumption), will require a higher rate of return to compensate for it. Thus, if the investor expects an
inflation rate of 2% during the period of investment in the above example, he/she will require a rate of
return by 6% (a 2% higher than the “risk-free” rate of 4%).

Furthermore, if the future payments from the investment are not certain, the investor (who by nature is
averse to risk and uncertainty) will demand a return that exceeds the rate of interest (the pure value of
money) plus the inflation rate. This uncertainty of the future stream of income or payments from an
investment is what we call investment risk, and the extra amount of compensation over and above the
interest rate required by the investor is known as risk premium. We elaborate on the concept of risk
premium and the expected rate of return below (and again in Chapter 4).

The Expected Rate of Return

In an uncertain world, investment decisions have to be made on the basis of expected returns, which may
or may not turn out to be the same as the returns that actually arise. In order to determine what the
expected return would be, an investor or a firm must first assign probability values to all possible outcomes
(returns). These probability values can range from zero to 1. To generalize, the expected return from an
investment may be specified as:

Expected Return = Σ ( Probability of Return ) ( Possible Return )

E(Ri) = Σ ( Pi ) ( Ri )
In other words, the expected value is simply a weighted average of all possible outcomes (returns) of an
investment portfolio. Each of the possible outcomes is weighed by the probability of its occurrence.

Example 1.2: Expected Value of a Future Dividend Income Stream

Let’s use some hypothetical dividend returns as shown in column 2 of Table 1.3 to understand the
expected value concept. In column 3 we assume that the investor is able (at least in a subjective manner) to
assign probabilities to each dividend outcome. Notice that the numbers of the third column add up to 1.0.
The expected values of all dividend income streams over the five years are presented in the last column of
Table 1.3.

Table 1.3: Expected Value of a Stock Portfolio’s Dividend Income Stream

Year Annual Dividend Probability of each Expected value of

Stream (€) dividend outcome dividend income
1 €1000 0.25 250.0
2 2000 0.25 500.0
3 2500 0.20 500.0
4 2500 0.15 370.5
5 3000 0.15 450.0

Adding these weighted values in column 3 would give us the overall expected value of the dividend
income flows over the 5-year period:

Total Expected Value (Return) = E(Ri) = Σ ( Pi ) ( Ri ) = €2070.5

Determinants of the Required Rate of Return

The Real Risk-Free Rate (RFR)

This is the basic interest rate, assuming no inflation and no uncertainty about future flows (that is, before
considering any specific risk for the investment). This is the pure time value of money: the exchange rate
(price) between current goods and future goods. This is the return investors demand for foregoing the
immediate use of their money.

Two factors influence this exchange price: one subjective and one objective. The subjective factor is the
time preference of individuals for the consumption of current income. The objective factor is the set of
investment opportunities available in the economy, as determined by the long-run real growth prospects of
the economy (see Footnote 1). When an economy is growing rapidly, there are more and better
opportunities to invest funds and experience positive rates of return; hence the required rate of return is
higher. Therefore, there is a positive relationship between the real growth potential of the economy and the
RFR.

Nominal Risk-Free Rate: The Impact of Inflation

One of the basic premises in economics and finance is that the rational investor does not suffer from
“money illusion.” In other words, ultimately people are concerned with the true purchasing power, the real
value, of their money. Therefore, to get the real RFR (that is after explicitly considering the inflation risk),
we need to subtract the anticipated inflation rate from the nominal RFR. In other words, r = i – π. It should
be noted that though this is the common method (“rule of thumb”) to calculate the real interest rate, the
exact value is derived using what is referred to as the Fisher equation as follows:1
1 i
r 1
1 

1
Note that inverting the Fisher equation and solving to find i (the nominal interest rate) we get the following equation:
i  1  r 1     1
where i = nominal RFR
r = real RFR
π = inflation rate

Example 1.3: Calculation of the Real and Nominal RFR

Scenario 1: Consider an investor who requires a nominal rate of return without any risk of 5% (expressed
as 0.05) and the anticipated rate of inflation is 3% (expressed as 0.03). As mentioned above, a common
practice is to use a “rule of thumb” method whereby we simply subtract the inflation rate from the nominal
rate to get the real RFR (5% - 3% = 2%). To get an exact value, we use the Fisher equation, which gives us
a value of 0.0194 ( r  1  0.05  1  1.94 ). In other words, the real RFR is approximately 2% (as we
1  0.03
found by the rule of thumb method). Thus, the real RFR of 2% applies to any investment as the minimum
required rate of return to provide the investor with a 5% nominal return (before adjusting for inflation), but
after any risk considerations (the risk premium).

Scenario 2: Consider now an investor who requires a real risk-free rate of return of 2% and as in Scenario
1 the anticipated rate of inflation is 3%. Using the formula in Footnote 2 we find that the nominal RFR is
0.0506 (or 5%), which is the minimum required rate of return to provide the investor with a 2% real return
(after adjusting for inflation).

Risk Premium
We defined a risk-free investment as one for which the investor is certain of its outcome, that is, of the
amount and timing of the expected return, E(R). Though some investments may exhibit returns that meet
or approach this pattern, the typical investment (financial investment, business venture, real estate asset)
does not. Neither the amount of the return nor the timing of receiving the return is known with certainty.
The higher the uncertainty level, the higher the return over the RFR required by investors to be
compensated for. This difference of the required rate of return over the nominal RFR is the risk premium.
We summarize the components of required return in Figure 1.6.

The risk premium will be different for different investments. For example for a short-term government
bond (such as Treasury bills) the risk premium is close to zero and this return approaches our definition of
the nominal RFR (the real rate of return plus expected inflation). For an investor considering to invest in a
certain portfolio, he/she would presumably require a return that incorporates a risk premium over the RFR
of a few percentage points.

Like the real rate of return and the anticipated inflation rate, the risk premium is not constant, but rather
changes over time as economic and business conditions change causing the level of uncertainty to change.

Figure 1.7: Components of Required Return

Real Risk-Free
Rate of Return

+ Common to all
Total Investments
Required Anticipated Inflation
Return

+
Specific to each
Risk Premium Investment
Sources of Risk and Uncertainty

The major sources of uncertainty which determine the risk premium are the following:

Business risk
This is the uncertainty of income flows caused by the nature of the firm’s business.

Financial risk
This is the uncertainty related to the methods and ability of the firm to finance its investments. Debt
financing (loans, bonds, debentures, etc) increases a firm’s leverage ratio and thus the cost of financing
expansion.

Liquidity risk
This is the uncertainty relating to how easy and at what price is possible to dispose of an asset (in the
secondary market).

Exchange rate risk

It measures the uncertainty of returns of an investment denominated in a currency other than the investor’s
base currency.

Country risk (also known as political risk)

This is the uncertainty of returns associated with the possibility of major changes in the political, social
and economic environment of a country where the asset is held. This includes, but is not limited to war,
rebellion, civil strife, foreign exchange restrictions on the repatriation of capital or profits, expropriation or
nationalization of assets, barriers to trade, etc)

These risk premia (or determinants) can be considered as an investment’s fundamental risk because they
are the intrinsic factors that should affect an investment’s standard deviation (σ) of returns over time. The
standard deviation, as you recall, is a measure of the investment’s risk.

___________ ___________

Study Questions
Multiple Choice Questions

1. Financial markets promote economic efficiency by

A) channeling funds from investors to savers.
B) creating inflation.
C) channeling funds from savers to investors.
D) reducing investment.

2. You borrow money. Your cost (expressed as % per year) is commonly referred to as the
A) inflation rate.
B) interest rate.
C) exchange rate.
D) aggregate price level.
3. The primary function of banks and other financial institutions is:
A) sound investment.
B) financial intermediation.
C) anticipation of market trends.
D) facilitation of mergers.

4. When a bank helps to channel funds from savers to borrowers it engages in

A) barter.
B) indirect finance.
C) financial intermediation.
D) philanthropy.

5. Financial intermediaries
A) act as middlemen between those with excess funds and those that need to borrow funds.
B) play an important role in the money supply process.
C) enhance the efficiency of the economic system.
D) of the above.
E) (A) and (C) only.

6. Commercial banks are different from non-bank businesses because their assets and their liabilities
are:
A) not liquid.
B) mostly financial.
C) only in real estate.
D) owned by the government.
E) regulated.

7. Which of the following is a depository institution?

A) a commercial bank
B) an life insurance company
C) a pension fund
D) a hire-purchase finance company

8. Which of the following are examples of financial intermediaries.

A) Commercial banks
B) Insurance companies
C) Investment companies
D) Credit unions
E) All of the above

9. Firms that specialize in helping companies raise capital by selling securities are called
A) commercial banks
B) investment banks
C) savings banks
D) credit unions
E) all of the above.

10. Investment bankers perform the following role(s)

A) market new stock and bond issues for firms
B) provide advice to the firms as to market conditions, price, etc
C) design securities with desirable properties
D) all of the above
E) none of the above

11. Important trends changing the contemporary investment environment are

A) globalization.
B) securitization.
C) information and computer networks.
D) financial engineering.
E) all of the above

12. Markets in which funds are channeled from the surplus units (those who have excess funds) to the
deficit units (those who have a shortage of funds) are called
A) commodity markets.
B) financial markets.
C) derivative markets.
D) real estate markets.

13. Financial intermediaries

A) act as middlemen between those with excess funds and those that need to borrow funds.
B) are not needed because they don’t really produce anything of value.
C) help promote a more efficient and dynamic economy.
D) all of the above.
E) (A) and (C) only.

14. Financial assets

A) directly contribute to the country's productive capacity
B) indirectly contribute to the country's productive capacity
C) contribute to the country's productive capacity both directly and indirectly
D) do not contribute to the country's productive capacity either directly or indirectly
E) are of no value to anyone

15. Which of the following are examples of financial assets?

A) bonds
B) houses
C) stocks
D) all of the above
E) (A) and (C) only

16. Financial assets permit all of the following except:

A) consumption timing
B) allocation of risk
C) separation of ownership and control
D) elimination of risk
E) all of the above

17. The securities that represent debt of governments or companies and pay periodic interest to
investors as well as promise to repay the loan are:.
A) mortgages
B) common stocks
C) bonds
D) commercial paper
E) none of the above

18. Investment banks

A) underwrite and sell new issues of stock and bonds on behalf of issuing firms
B) buy and sell securities on behalf of clients
C) design securities with desirable properties
D) all of the above
E) (A) and (C) only

19. The modern financial (and business) environment is changing due to

A) globalization.
B) securitization.
C) revolution in information and communications technologies.
D) financial engineering.
E) all of the above

20. Commercial banks, credit unions, and savings and loan associations that accept deposits that can be
withdrawn with a check or a debit card:
A) create money in concert with the FED.
B) print U.S. currency.
C) directly buy and sell stocks.
D) are called thrift institutions.
E) invest all deposits in mortgage loans.

21. The major economic purpose of any financial system is to:

A) channel savings to their most productive uses.
B) collect taxes to support government spending.
C) generate monopoly profits for Wall Street.
D) provide checking and savings accounts.
E) balance surpluses between business and government.

22.Financial institutions facilitate economic efficiency primarily because:

A) laissez faire markets handle asymmetric information poorly.
B) corporate ownership must be stabilized.
C) they channel funds from individuals or organizations with surplus funds to those with shortages of
funds.
D) market forces determine fair interest rates.

Essays, Problems and Applications

1. What is the role of financial intermediaries in an economy?

2. Describe in each of the following situations the concept, institution or instrument involved:
a. Channeling funds from savers to borrowers.
b. Market participants are price takers.
c. Issuing loans for business investments or housing by individuals.
d. Supervision of the banks that they follow prudent banking practices.
e. The discount rate that banks pay to borrow from the Central banks influences the market interest
rates.

3. Describe briefly the role of the following institution in the intermediation process:
a. Depository institutions.
b. Insurance companies.
c. Pension funds.
d. Securities firms
e. Finance companies.
4. Discuss the recent developments in the financial system and indicate what are the major financial
innovations over the last 25 years.

5. Critically discuss the role and responsibilities of the financial system in the recent financial crisis and
the severe economic recession.

6. Discuss the role of the following global change drivers on the financial system and on the field of
investments: globalization, liberalization, financial engineering, securitization, ICT revolution,
7. Discuss the following ongoing trends as they relate to the field financial environment:
globalization, financial engineering, securitization, and computer networks

8. Identify and explain the various sources of uncertainty which affect the level of risk of various
investments.

9. You bought 10,000 shares of Bank of Cyprus (BOCY) at the beginning of 2011 at €2.50 each share.
The Bank distributed dividends during the year of 20 cents per share. The share price ended the year at
60 cents. What is the holding period return for the year?

10. An investor requires a nominal rate of return of 12% over the next year, and expects the inflation rate
to be 4%. Using the Fisher equation, calculate the real required rate of return.