AC Circuit

AC Circuit Containing Resistance only

Resistance is the opposition that an element offers to the flow of

electric current. It is represented by the uppercase letter R. The

standard unit of resistance is the ohm, sometimes written out as a

word, and sometimes symbolized by the uppercase Greek letter

omega: Ω. The behavior of a resistor is dictated by the relationship

specified by Ohm's law.

Resistor is passive element. Passive element is an

electrical component that does not generate power, but instead

dissipates, stores, and/or releases it.

Consider a circuit consisting of an ac source and a resistor. The

instantaneous voltage across the resistor

vR = v = Vmax sin wt

From Ohm's law

i = v / R = (Vmax sin ωt) / R= Imax sin wt, the instantaneous current

flowing through the resistor.

If Vmax and Imax be the maximum values of the voltage and current

respectively, it follows that: Imax = Vmax / R……… (1)

But the r.m.s. value of a sine wave is 0.707 times the maximum value

so that:

r.m.s. value of voltage = V = 0.707 Vmax

r.m.s. value of current = I =0.707 Imax

Substituting for Vmax and Imax in equation (1)

I/0.707 = (V / 0.707) / R, and I = V / R.

Hence Ohm’s law can be applied without any modification to an a.c.

circuit possessing resistance only.

Phase Relationship between applied voltage and current in

Resistor

 The graph shows the current through and the voltage across

the resistor.

 The current and the voltage reach their maximum values at the

same time.
  The current and the voltage are said to be in phase.

 The direction of the current has no effect on the behavior of

the resistor.

 Resistors behave essentially the same way in both DC and AC

circuits.

This “in-phase” effect can also be represented by a phasor diagram.

Therefore, as the voltage and current are both in-phase with each

other, there will be no phase difference (θ = 0) between them, so the

vectors of each quantity are drawn super-imposed upon one another

along the same reference axis.

Power in a resistive circuit

The instantaneous power in a resistive circuit is given by the

product of instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current. The

instantaneous power is given by

p = vi = Vmax sin ωt * Imax sin ωt

Writing Vmax= Vm and Imax= Im

The average power consumed in the circuit over a complete cycle is

given by

Paverage = =

= = Vr.m.s.Ir.m.s. = VI

In summary Power to a Resistive Load

• p is always positive. From the above equation it is clear that

whatever may be the value of ωt the value of cos2ωt cannot be

greater than 1 hence the value of p cannot be negative. The

value of p is always positive irrespective of the instantaneous

direction of voltage v and current i.

• Power flows only from source to load.

– All of the power delivered by the source is absorbed by

the load.

• This power is known as active power. Power to a pure

resistance consists of active power only.

• Average value of power is halfway between zero and peak

value of VmIm.

• P = VmIm/2

• If V and I are in RMS values

– Then P = VI

• Also, P = I2R and P = V2/R

• Active power relationships for resistive circuits are the same

for ac as for dc.

AC Circuit Containing Inductance only

Inductance is the property of an electrical conductor by which a

change in current through it induces an electromotive force in the

conductor. It consists of a conductor such as a wire, usually wound

into a coil.

An "ideal inductor" has inductance, but no resistance.

When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-

varying magnetic field induces an “e.m.f.” (eL) in the coil, according

to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. According to Lenz's

law the direction of induced "e.m.f." is always such that it opposes

the change in current that created it. As a result, inductors always

oppose a change in current. The instantaneous value of the induced

e.m.f. is given by

Since the resistance of the coil is assumed to be negligible, the whole

of the applied voltage is absorbed in neutralizing the induced e.m.f.,

=
where Imax= Vmax/ωL.

Thus, the current in an inductor lags the applied voltage by an angle

π/2 or 90°. Also, from the expression it follows that maximum value

of the current is Vmax/ωL, i.e., Imax= Vmax/ωL, so that Vmax/ Imax =

ωL= 2πfL.

If V and I are the r.m.s. values, then V/I = 0.707Vmax/0.707Imax =

2πfL = inductive reactance. The term inductive reactance is denoted

by the symbol XL. Hence, I = V/2πfL = V/ XL = V/ ωL. This is

similar to I = V / R.

The inductive reactance is the opposition that an inductor (or coil)

offers to the alternating current. Therefore, ωL plays the same role

as that of a resistor. The inductor impedes the flow of alternating

current in the circuit. Unit of XL is also ohm.

To have a large reactance the coil
(i) Should have many turns as L N.

(ii) Should have an iron-core as L μrμo.

(iii) Length and area of the coil as L area / length.

 (iv) Also, the frequency of a.c should be high.

iv) XL in case of DC (direct current), is zero.

The inductive reactance of an inductor increases as the frequency

increases. Also, as the frequency increases the current flowing

through the inductor also reduces in value.

The effect of very low and very high frequencies on the reactance of

a pure AC Inductance as follows:

In an AC circuit containing pure inductance the following formula

applies:

Phase Relationship between applied voltage and current in

Inductor
Phasor Diagram for an Inductor

Power in a Inductive circuit

The instantaneous power delivered to the purely inductive circuit is

obtained by
In the above expression, it is found that the power is flowing in

alternative directions. From 0o to 90o it will have negative half

cycle, from 90o to 180o it will have positive half cycle, from 180oto

270o it will have again negative half cycle and from 270o to 360o it

will have again positive half cycle. Therefore, this power is

alternating in nature with a frequency, double of supply

frequency. As the power is flowing in alternating direction i.e.,

from source to load in one quarter cycle and from load to source

in next half cycle the average value of this power is zero. The
implication is that the inductive element receives energy from the

source during one-quarter of a cycle of the applied voltage and

returns exactly the same amount of energy to the driving source

during the next quarter of a cycle. Therefore, this power does not

do any useful work.

The power associated with an inductance is reactive power.

Energy Stored in an Inductor

If the circuit is purely inductive, energy will be stored in the

magnetic field during quarter of a cycle and is obtained by

integrating power wave p between limits of t = T/4 and t = T/2,

 =

If L is in henrys and Im is in amperes respectively, WL is given in

joule.

AC Circuit Containing Capacitance only

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-

terminal electrical component used to store electrical energy

temporarily in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors

vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates)

separated by a dielectric (i.e. an insulator that can store energy).

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance

C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage

V between them.

The circuit contains a capacitor and an AC source. An inductor

opposes a change in current. A capacitor does the opposite. It

opposes a change in voltage. Pure capacitor has zero resistance.

When an alternating voltage applied across the capacitor, the

capacitor first charged in one direction and then in another

direction. The charge q is given by

q = Cv = CVmaxsinωt

The flow of electrons “through” a capacitor (i.e., the charging

current) is directly proportional to the rate of change of voltage

across the capacitor.

Expressed mathematically, the relationship between the current

“through” the capacitor and rate of voltage change across the

capacitor is as such:
=

Thus, the current in a pure capacitor leads the applied voltage by

π/2 radian or 90°. From the above expression it follows that the

maximum value of the current is ωCVmax or 2πfCVmax.

Vmax / Imax = 1 / 2πfC. If V and I are the r.m.s. values of voltage

and current then

= capacitive reactance. The impeding

effect of a capacitor on the current in an AC circuit is called the

capacitive reactance. The capacitive reactance is expressed in ohms

and is represented by XC.

★ Capacitive reactance decreases with increasing frequency. In

other words, the higher the frequency, the less it opposes (the
 more it “conducts”) the AC flow of electrons and the current

increases.

★ As the frequency approaches zero, XC approaches infinity and

the current approaches zero.

o The capacitor would act as an open circuit, and that is

why capacitor blocks DC.

Capacitive Reactance against Frequency

The effect of very low and very high frequencies on the reactance of

a pure AC Capacitance as follows:

Phase Relationship of applied voltage and current in

Capacitor
 Pure capacitive circuit waveforms

Phasor Diagram for AC Capacitance

Power in a purely Capacitive circuit

In the first-quarter cycle both v and i are positive, therefore the

power is also positive (since p = vi, at any instant). In the second

quarter-cycle v stays positive while i have gone negative,

therefore p is negative. In the third-quadrant both i and v are

negative and so p is positive. Finally, in the fourth-quadrant i is

positive and v is still negative resulting in p being negative. The

power wave is thus a series of identical positive and negative

pulses whose average value over a half-cycle of voltage is zero, also

note that its frequency is twice the frequency of the voltage.

During the first and third quarter-cycles the power is positive means

that power is supplied by the circuit to charge the capacitor. In the

second and fourth quarter-cycles the capacitor is discharging and

thus supplies the energy stored in it back to the circuit, thus p has a

negative value. The minus or plus signs simply indicate the direction

in which the power is flowing. Since this interchange of energy

dissipates no average power no heating will occur and no power is

lost.

The capacitive power does not do any useful work. This power is

also a reactive power.

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The amount of energy received by the capacitor during quarter of

a cycle and is obtained by integrating power wave p between

limits of t = 0 and t = T/4,

Since Im=ωCVm,

Summary
Resistance, Reactance

The following is a summary of the relationship between voltage and

current in circuits:

★ Resistance is the special case when φ = 0.

★ Reactance the special case when φ = ± 90°.

Component Resistor Inductor Capacitor

Difference of Voltage and Current lags Voltage lags
Phase between Current is in behind Voltage behind Current by
Voltage and phase by π/2 π/2
Current
 Ohm’s Law R =V / I XL = V / I = ωL Xc =V / I = 1 /ωC

Memory Aid for Passive Elements in AC

An old, but very effective, way to remember the phase differences

for inductors and capacitors is:

“E L I” and “I C E”

Emf E is before current I in inductors L;

Emf E is after current I in capacitors C.