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Dr M.kalimullah

UNIT-V
RESEARCH DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the
preparation of the design of the research project, popularly known as the research design.
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or
a research study constitute a research design. “A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to
the research purpose with economy in procedure.”1 In fact, the research design is the
conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the
collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the design includes an outline of what
the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the
final analysis of data.

MEANING OF REASEARCH DESIGN

(a) the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made;
(b) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to
be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
(c) the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research design
as under:
(i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research problem.
(ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing
the data.
(iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under
these two constraints.

In brief, research design must, at least, contain—(a) a clear statement of the research
problem;
(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;

(c) the population to be studied; and

(d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

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NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Just as for better, economical and
attractive construction of a house, we need a blueprint (or what is commonly called the
map of the house) well thought out and prepared by an expert architect, similarly we need a
research design or a plan in advance of data collection and analysis for our research project.
Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting
the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the
objective of the research and the availability of staff, time and money. Preparation of the
research design should be done with great care as any error in it may upset the entire
project. Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on the reliability of the results arrived
at and as such constitutes the firm foundation of the entire edifice of the research work.
Even then the need for a well thought out research design is at times not realised by many.
The importance which this problem deserves is not given to it. As a result many researches
do not serve the purpose for which they are undertaken. In fact, they may even give
misleading conclusions. Thoughtlessness in designing the research project may result in
rendering the research exercise futile. It is, therefore, imperative that an efficient and
appropriate design must be prepared before starting research operations. The design helps
the researcher to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him to look for
flaws and inadequacies. Such a design can even be given to others for their comments and
critical evaluation. In the absence of such a course of action, it will be difficult for the critic
to provide a comprehensive review of the proposed study.

FEATURES OF GOOD DESIGH

A good design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient,
economical and so on. Generally, the design which minimises bias and maximises the
reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered a good design. The design which
gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in many
investigations. Similarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides an
opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most
appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems. Thus, the question
of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and also with
the nature of the problem to be studied. A design may be quite suitable in one case, but
may be found wanting in one respect or the other in the context of some other research
problem. One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research problems.
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:

(i) the means of obtaining information;

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(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;

(iii) the objective of the problem to be studied;

(iv) the nature of the problem to be studied; and

(v) the availability of time and money for the research work.

If the research study happens to be an exploratory or a formulative one, wherein the major
emphasis is on discovery of ideas and insights, the research design most appropriate must
be flexible enough to permit the consideration of many different aspects of a phenomenon.
But when the purpose of a study is accurate description of a situation or of an association
between variables (or in what are called the descriptive studies), accuracy becomes a major
consideration and a research design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of
the evidence collected is considered a good design. Studies involving the testing of a
hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables require a design which will permit
inferences about causality in addition to the minimisation of bias and maximisation of
reliability. But in practice it is the most difficult task to put a particular study in a particular
group, for a given research may have in it elements of two or more of the functions of
different studies. It is only on the basis of its primary function that a study can be
categorised either as an exploratory or descriptive or hypothesis-testing study and
accordingly the choice of a research design may be made in case of a particular study.
Besides, the availability of time, money, skills of the research staff and the means of
obtaining the information must be given due weightage while working out the relevant
details of the research design such as experimental design, survey design, sample design
and the like.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

Before describing the different research designs, it will be appropriate to explain the various
concepts relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood.
1.Dependent and independent variables: A concept which can take on different quantitative
values is called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples
of variables. Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the
presence or absence of the concerning attribute(s). Phenomena which can take on
quantitatively different values even in decimal points are called ‘continuous variables. But all
variables are not continuous. If they can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-
continuous variables or in statistical language discrete variables. Age is an example of
continuous variable, but the number of children is an example of non-continuous variable. If
one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a
dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed
as an independent variable. For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then
height is a dependent variable and age is an independent variable. Further, if in addition to
being dependent upon age, height also depends upon the individual’s sex, then height is a
dependent variable and age and sex are independent variables. Similarly, readymade films
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and lectures are examples of independent variables, whereas behavioural changes, occurring
as a result of the environmental manipulations, are examples of dependent variables.
2.Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the
study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose
the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s
gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an
independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence
may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of
the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable.
Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is
technically described as an ‘experimental error’. A study must always be so designed that the
effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent variable(s), and
not to some extraneous variable or variables.
3.Control: One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise the
influence or effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we
design the study minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables. In
experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to restrain experimental
conditions.
4.Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables
is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
5.Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by
scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a
predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a
research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable.
Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the relationships that are
assumed but not to be tested, are not termed research hypotheses.
6.Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: When the purpose of
research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research. It can
be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design. Research in which the
independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’
and a research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-
experimental hypothesis-testing research’. For instance, suppose a researcher wants to
study whether intelligence affects reading ability for a group of students and for this purpose
he randomly selects 50 students and tests their intelligence and reading ability by calculating
the coefficient of correlation between the two sets of scores. This is an example of non-
experimental hypothesis-testing research because herein the independent variable,
intelligence, is not manipulated. But now suppose that our researcher randomly selects 50
students from a group of students who are to take a course in statistics and then divides
them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the usual studies programme,
and 25 to Group B, the special studies programme. At the end of the course, he administers
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a test to each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training programme on the
student’s performance-level. This is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research
because in this case the independent variable, viz., the type of training programme, is
manipulated.
7.Experimental and control groups: In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a
group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is
exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’. In the
above illustration, the Group A can be called a control group and the Group B an
experimental group. If both groups A and B are exposed to special studies programmes, then
both groups would be termed ‘experimental groups.’ It is possible to design studies which
include only experimental groups or studies which include both experimental and control
groups.
8.Treatments: The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put
are usually referred to as treatments. In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are
the usual studies programme and the special studies programme. Similarly, if we want to
determine through an experiment the comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on
the yield of wheat, in that case the three varieties of fertilizers will be treated as three
treatments.
9.Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment
to examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two
types viz., absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If we want to determine the
impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we want
to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer,
our experiment then will be termed as a comparative experiment. Often, we undertake
comparative experiments when we talk of designs of experiments.
10.Experimental unit(s): The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments
are used, are known as experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected
(defined) very carefully.

DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS

Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them as: (1)
research design in case of exploratory research studies; (2) research design in case of
descriptive and diagnostic research studies, and (3) research design in case of hypothesis-
testing research studies.

We take up each category separately.

1.Research design in case of exploratory research studies: Exploratory research studies are
also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose of such studies is that of
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formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working

hypotheses from an operational
point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights.
As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in
research design is needed because the research problem, broadly defined initially, is
transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may
necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant data. Generally, the
following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are talked about;
(a) the survey of concerning literature;
(b) the experience survey and
(c)the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples.
The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of
formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypotheses stated by
earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further
research. It may also be considered whether the already stated hypotheses suggest new
hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done
by others, but in cases where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to review
the available material for deriving the relevant hypotheses from it.
Besides, the bibliographical survey of studies, already made in one’s area of interest may as
well as made by the researcher for precisely formulating the problem. He should also make
an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in different research contexts to the
area in which he is himself working. Sometimes the works of creative writers also provide a
fertile ground for hypothesis- formulation and as such may be looked into by the researcher.

Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience with the
problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the relationships
between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem. For such a survey people
who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents
to ensure a representation of different types of experience. The respondents so selected
may then be interviewed by the investigator. The researcher must prepare an interview
schedule for the systematic questioning of informants. But the interview must ensure
flexibility in the sense that the respondents should be allowed to raise issues and questions
which the investigator has not previously considered. Generally, the experience- collecting
interview is likely to be long and may last for few hours. Hence, it is often considered
desirable to send a copy of the questions to be discussed to the respondents well in
advance. This will also give an opportunity to the respondents for doing some advance
thinking over the various issues involved so that, at the time of interview, they may be able
to contribute effectively. Thus, an experience survey may enable the researcher to define
the problem more concisely and help in the formulation of the research hypothesis. This
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survey may as well provide information about the practical possibilities for doing different
types of research.
Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples is also a fruitful method for suggesting hypotheses
for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve as a
guide. This method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon
in which one is interested. For this purpose, the existing records, if any, may be examined,
the unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other approach may be adopted.
Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher to
draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the main features which
make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights.
2.Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies: Descriptive
research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of
a particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research studies determine the
frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else. The studies
concerning whether certain variables are associated are examples of diagnostic research
studies. As against this, studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts
and characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are all examples of descriptive
research studies. Most of the social research comes under this category. From the point of
view of the research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common
requirements and as such, we may group together these two types of research studies. In
descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly,
what he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a
clear cut definition of ‘population’ he wants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and
accurate information in the said studies, the procedure to be used must be carefully
planned. The research design must make enough provision for protection against bias and
must maximise reliability, with due concern for the economical completion of the research
study. The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on
the following:

(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it
being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will
be adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)

(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time
period should the data be related?)
(e) Processing and analysing the data.

(f) Reporting the findings.

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In a descriptive/diagnostic study the first step is to specify the objectives with sufficient
precision to ensure that the data collected are relevant. If this is not done carefully, the
study may not provide the desired information.
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The difference between research designs in respect of the above two types of research
studies can be conveniently summarised in tabular form as under.

Type of study
Research Design Exploratory of Formulative Descriptive/Diagnostic

Overall design Flexible design (design must Rigid design (design must make
provide opportunity for enough provision for protection
considering different aspects of against bias and must maximise
the problem)
reliability)

(i) Sampling design Non-probability sampling design Probability sampling design

(purposive or judgement (random sampling)
sampling)
Pre-planned design for analysis
(ii) Statistical
No pre-planned design for
design Structured or well thought out
analysis
instruments for collection of
(iii) Observational
Unstructured instruments for data
design
collection of data
Advanced decisions about
(iv) Operational
No fixed decisions about the operational procedures.
design
operational procedures

3.Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies: Hypothesis-testing

research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those where the researcher
tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. Such studies require
procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing
inferences about causality. Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we talk
of research design in such studies, we often mean the design of experiments.
Professor R.A. Fisher’s name is associated with experimental designs. Beginning of such
designs was made by him when he was working at Roth Amsted Experimental Station
(Centre for Agricultural Research in England). As such the study of experimental designs has
its origin in agricultural research. Professor Fisher found that by dividing agricultural fields or
plots into different blocks and then by conducting experiments in each of these blocks,
whatever information is collected and inferences drawn from them, happens to be more
reliable. This fact inspired him to develop certain experimental designs for testing
hypotheses concerning scientific investigations. Today, the experimental designs are being
used in researches relating to phenomena of several disciplines. Since experimental designs
originated in the context of agricultural operations, we still use, though in a technical sense,
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several terms of agriculture (such as treatment, yield, plot, block etc.) in experimental
designs.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs: (1) the Principle
of Replication; (2) the Principle of Randomization; and the (3) Principle of Local Control.

According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated more than
once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing
so the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased. For example, suppose we are to
examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we may divide the field into two
parts and grow one variety in one part and the other variety in the other part. We can then
compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply
the principle of replication to this experiment, then we first divide the field into several
parts, grow one variety in half of these parts and the other variety in the remaining parts.
We can then collect the data of yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by comparing
the same. The result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we
draw without applying the principle of replication. The entire experiment can even be
repeated several times for better results. Conceptually replication does not present any
difficulty, but computationally it does. For example, if an experiment requiring a two-way
analysis of variance is replicated, it will then require a three-way analysis of variance since
replication itself may be a source of variation in the data. However, it should be
remembered that replication is introduced in order to increase the precision of a study; that
is to say, to increase the accuracy with which the main effects and interactions can be
estimated.
The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we conduct an experiment,
against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization. In other words, this principle
indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the variations
caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the general heading of “chance.”
For instance, if we grow one variety of rice, say, in the first half of the parts of a field and the
other variety is grown in the other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be
different in the first half in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our results would not
be realistic. In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in different
parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling technique i.e., we may apply
randomization principle and protect ourselves against the effects of the extraneous factors
(soil fertility differences in the given case). As such, through the application of the principle
of randomization, we can have a better estimate of the experimental error.

The Principle of Local Control is another important principle of experimental designs. Under
it the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as
wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it
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causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. This means that
we should plan the experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of
variance, in which the total variability of the data is divided into three components
attributed to treatments (varieties of rice in our case), the extraneous factor (soil fertility in
our case) and experimental error.* In other words, according to the principle of local
control, we first divide the field into several homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then
each such block is divided into parts equal to the number of treatments. Then the
treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block. Dividing the field into several
homogenous parts is known as ‘blocking’. In general, blocks are the levels at which we hold
an extraneous factor fixed, so that we can measure its contribution to the total variability of
the data by means of a two-way analysis of variance. In brief, through the principle of local
control we can eliminate the variability due to extraneous factor(s) from the experimental
error.
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CONCLUSION
There are several research designs and the researcher must decide in advance of collection
and analysis of data as to which design would prove to be more appropriate for his research
project. He must give due weight to various points such as the type of universe and its
nature, the objective of his study, the resource list or the sampling frame, desired standard
of accuracy and the like when taking a decision in respect of the design for his research
project.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.) C.RKOTHARI, RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Method and Techniques.
2.) Dr. Vijay Upagade and Dr. Arvind Shende, Research Methodology.

3.) Internet Sources.

4.) Seminar Lectures, Workshop Research Methodology By I.A Khan.