Control Mid
Control Mid
1
Definitions
Process – The device, plant, or system under control. The input and
output relationship represents the cause-and-effect relationship of the
process.
2
Definitions
3
Definitions
Manipulated Variable
Input
or Output
Set point Controller Process Or
or Controlled Variable
reference
4
Types of Control System
• Natural Control System
– Universe
– Human Body
5
Types of Control System
• Manmade Control System
– Aeroplanes
– Chemical Process
6
Types of Control System
• Manual Control Systems
– Room Temperature regulation Via Electric Fan
– Water Level Control
Input Output
Controller Process
9
Types of Control System
Closed-Loop Control Systems
Input Output
Comparator Controller Process
Measurement
10
Types of Control System
Multivariable Control System
Outputs
Temp
Humidity Comparator Controller Process
Pressure
Measurements
11
Types of Control System
Feedback Control System
Feedback
12
Types of Control System
Servo System
• A Control System in which output varies linearly with the input is called a
linear control system.
30
0
25
-5
y(t)
y(t)
20
-10
15
-15
10
-20 5
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
u(t) 14
u(t)
Types of Control System
Linear Vs Nonlinear Control System
• When the input and output has nonlinear relationship the system is said
to be nonlinear.
0.4
Adhesion Coefficient
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Creep
15
Types of Control System
Time invariant vs Time variant
y(t ) 2u(t ) 1
y(t ) 2u(t ) 3t
16
Types of Control System
Continuous Data Vs Discrete Data System
• A discrete time control system involves one or more variables that are
known only at discrete time intervals.
X[n]
n
17
Types of Control System
Deterministic vs Stochastic Control System
t t
t 18
Classification of Control Systems
Control Systems
Natural Man-made
Manual Automatic
Open-loop Closed-loop
Non-linear linear
Non-linear linear
20
Examples of Control Systems
21
Examples of Modern Control Systems
22
Transfer Function
• Transfer Function is the ratio of Laplace transform of the
output to the Laplace transform of the input.
Considering all initial conditions to zero.
u(t) y(t)
Plant
If u ( t ) U ( S ) and
y ( t ) Y ( S )
2
Why Laplace Transform?
• By use of Laplace transform we can convert many
common functions into algebraic function of complex
variable s.
• For example
sin t
s2 2
Or
at 1
e
sa
• Where s is a complex variable (complex frequency) and
is given as
s j 3
Laplace Transform of Derivatives
• Not only common function can be converted into
simple algebraic expressions but calculus operations
can also be converted into algebraic expressions.
• For example
dx(t )
sX ( S ) x( 0 )
dt
2
d x(t ) 2 dx( 0 )
s X ( S ) x( 0 )
dt 2 dt
4
Laplace Transform of Derivatives
• In general
n
d x(t ) n n 1 n 1
n
s X (S ) s x( 0 ) x (0)
dt
5
Example: RC Circuit
6
Laplace Transform of Integrals
1
x(t )dt X ( S )
s
7
Calculation of the Transfer Function
• Consider the following ODE where y(t) is input of the system and
x(t) is the output.
d 2 x(t ) dy(t ) dx(t )
A C B
• or dt 2 dt dt
8
Calculation of the Transfer Function
As 2 X ( s ) CsY ( s ) BsX ( s )
• Rearranging the above equation
As 2 X ( s ) BsX ( s ) CsY ( s )
X ( s )[ As 2 Bs] CsY ( s )
X (s) Cs C
Y ( s ) As Bs As B
2
9
Example
1. Find out the transfer function of the RC network shown in figure-1.
Assume that the capacitor is not initially charged.
Figure-1
2. u(t) and y(t) are the input and output respectively of a system defined by
following ODE. Determine the Transfer Function. Assume there is no any
energy stored in the system.
10
Transfer Function
• In general
11
Transfer Function
• Otherwise ‘improper’
12
Transfer Function
• Transfer function helps us to check
system
13
Stability of Control System
• There are several meanings of stability, in general
there are two kinds of stability definitions in control
system study.
– Absolute Stability
– Relative Stability
14
Stability of Control System
15
Stability of Control System
16
Stability of Control System
• Poles is also defined as “it is the frequency at which
system becomes infinite”. Hence the name pole
where field is infinite.
17
Stability of Control System
• Poles is also defined as “it is the frequency at which
system becomes infinite”.
• Like a magnetic pole or black hole.
18
Relation b/w poles and zeros and frequency
response of the system
• The relationship between poles and zeros and the frequency
response of a system comes alive with this 3D pole-zero plot.
19
Relation b/w poles and zeros and frequency
response of the system
• 3D pole-zero plot
– System has 1 ‘zero’ and 2 ‘poles’.
20
Relation b/w poles and zeros and frequency
response of the system
21
Example
• Consider the Transfer function calculated in previous
slides.
X (s) C
G( s )
Y ( s ) As B
B
s
A
22
Examples
• Consider the following transfer functions.
– Determine
• Whether the transfer function is proper or improper
• Poles of the system
• zeros of the system
• Order of the system
s3 s
i) G( s ) ii) G( s )
s( s 2) ( s 1)( s 2)( s 3)
( s 3) 2 s 2 ( s 1)
iii) G( s ) iv) G( s )
s( s 2 10) s( s 10)
23
Stability of Control Systems
• The poles and zeros of the system are plotted in s-plane
to check the stability of the system.
j
LHP RHP
Recall s j
s-plane
24
Stability of Control Systems
• If all the poles of the system lie in left half plane the
system is said to be Stable.
• If any of the poles lie in right half plane the system is said
to be unstable.
• If pole(s) lie on imaginary axis the system is said to be
marginally stable. j
LHP RHP
s-plane
25
Stability of Control Systems
• For example
C
G( s ) , if A 1, B 3 and C 10
As B
• Then the only pole of the system lie at
pole 3
j
LHP RHP
X
-3
s-plane
26
Examples
• Consider the following transfer functions.
Determine whether the transfer function is proper or improper
Calculate the Poles and zeros of the system
Determine the order of the system
Draw the pole-zero map
Determine the Stability of the system
s3 s
i) G( s ) ii) G( s )
s( s 2) ( s 1)( s 2)( s 3)
( s 3) 2 s 2 ( s 1)
iii) G( s ) iv) G( s )
s( s 2 10) s( s 10)
27
Another definition of Stability
• The system is said to be stable if for any bounded
input the output of the system is also bounded
(BIBO).
• Thus the for any bounded input the output either
remain constant or decrease with time.
u(t) overshoot
y(t)
1
Plant 1
t
t
Unit Step Input
Output
28
Another definition of Stability
• If for any bounded input the output is not
bounded the system is said to be unstable.
u(t)
y(t)
1
e at
Plant
t
t
Unit Step Input
Output
29
BIBO vs Transfer Function
• For example
Y ( s) 1 Y ( s) 1
G1 ( s ) G2 ( s )
U ( s) s 3 U (s) s 3
Pole-Zero Map Pole-Zero Map
4 4
unstable
3 stable 3
2 2
1 1
Imaginary Axis
Imaginary Axis
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4
Real Axis Real Axis
BIBO vs Transfer Function
• For example
Y ( s) 1 Y ( s) 1
G1 ( s ) G2 ( s )
U ( s) s 3 U (s) s 3
1 Y ( s)
1 1 1 Y (s) 1
G1 ( s) 1
G2 ( s) 1
1
U (s) s3 U ( s) s 3
y (t ) e 3t u (t ) y (t ) e3t u (t )
BIBO vs Transfer Function
• For example
3t
y (t ) e u (t ) y (t ) e3t u (t )
12
exp(-3t)*u(t) x 10 exp(3t)*u(t)
1 12
10
0.8
8
0.6
6
0.4
4
0.2
2
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 2 4 6 8 10
BIBO vs Transfer Function
• Whenever one or more than one poles are in
RHP the solution of dynamic equations
contains increasing exponential terms.
• Such as e 3t .
• That makes the response of the system
unbounded and hence the overall response of
the system is unstable.
Types of Systems
• Static System: If a system does not change
with time, it is called a static system.
• Dynamic System: If a system changes with
time, it is called a dynamic system.
1
Dynamic Systems
• A system is said to be dynamic if its current output may depend on
the past history as well as the present values of the input variables.
• Mathematically,
y( t ) [u( ),0 t ]
u : Input, t : Time
Example: A moving mass
y
u
M
Model: Force=Mass x Acceleration
My u
Ways to Study a System
System
Analytical Solution
Simulation
3
Model
• A model is a simplified representation or
abstraction of reality.
• Reality is generally too complex to copy
exactly.
• Much of the complexity is actually irrelevant
in problem solving.
4
What is Mathematical Model?
A set of mathematical equations (e.g., differential eqs.) that
describes the input-output behavior of a system.
Input Output
• Easy to Model
6
Grey Box Model
• When input and output and some information
about the internal dynamics of the system is
known.
u(t) y(t)
y[u(t), t]
7
White Box Model
• When input and output and internal dynamics
of the system is known.
• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for the
resistor is given by Ohm’s law i-e
v R (t ) iR (t )R
VR ( s ) I R ( s ) R
Basic Elements of Electrical Systems
• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for the
Capacitor is given as:
1
vc (t ) ic (t )dt
C
• The Laplace transform of the above equation (assuming there is no
charge stored in the capacitor) is
1
Vc ( s ) Ic (s)
Cs
Basic Elements of Electrical Systems
• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for the
inductor is given as:
di L (t )
v L (t ) L
dt
• The Laplace transform of the above equation (assuming there is no
energy stored in inductor) is
VL ( s ) LsI L ( s )
V-I and I-V relations
Component Symbol V-I Relation I-V Relation
v R (t )
Resistor v R (t ) iR (t )R i R (t )
R
1 dvc (t )
Capacitor vc (t ) ic (t )dt ic (t ) C
C dt
di L (t ) 1
Inductor v L (t ) L iL (t ) v L (t )dt
dt L
12
Example#1
• The two-port network shown in the following figure has vi(t) as
the input voltage and vo(t) as the output voltage. Find the
transfer function Vo(s)/Vi(s) of the network.
1
vi ( t ) i( t ) R i( t )dt
C
1
vo ( t ) i(t )dt
C
13
Example#1
1 1
vi ( t ) i( t ) R i( t )dt vo ( t ) i(t )dt
C C
• Taking Laplace transform of both equations, considering initial
conditions to zero.
1 1
Vi ( s ) I ( s ) R I (s) Vo ( s ) I (s)
Cs Cs
1 CsV o ( s ) I ( s )
Vi ( s ) I ( s )( R )
Cs
14
Example#1
1
Vi ( s ) I ( s )( R ) CsV o ( s ) I ( s )
Cs
• Substitute I(s) in equation on left
1
Vi ( s ) CsV o ( s )( R )
Cs
Vo ( s ) 1
Vi ( s ) 1
Cs ( R )
Cs
Vo ( s ) 1
Vi ( s ) 1 RCs
15
Example#1
Vo ( s ) 1
Vi ( s ) 1 RCs
16
Example#2
• Design an Electrical system that would place a pole at -3 if
added to another system.
Vo ( s ) 1
Vi ( s ) 1 RCs vi( t) i(t) C v2(t)
18
Example#3
• Simplify network by replacing multiple components with
their equivalent transform impedance.
Z
Vi(s) I(s) C Vo(s)
19
Transform Impedance (Resistor)
iR(t) IR(S)
+ +
Transformation
vR(t) ZR = R VR(S)
- -
20
Transform Impedance (Inductor)
IL(S)
iL(t)
+ +
21
Transform Impedance (Capacitor)
ic(t) Ic(S)
+ +
- -
22
Equivalent Transform Impedance (Series)
• Consider following arrangement, find out equivalent
transform impedance.
L
ZT Z R Z L Z C
C
1
Z T R Ls R
Cs
23
Equivalent Transform Impedance (Parallel)
1 1 1 1
ZT Z R Z L ZC L
1 1 1 1 C
ZT R Ls 1
R
Cs
24
Equivalent Transform Impedance
• Find out equivalent transform impedance of
following arrangement.
L2
L2
R1 R2
25
Back to Example#3
L
Z
1 1 1
Z R Ls
RLs
Z
1 RLs
26
Example#3
RLs
Z
1 RLs
L
Z
1 1
Vi ( s ) I ( s )Z I (s) Vo ( s ) I (s)
Cs Cs
27
Operational Amplifiers
Vout Z2 Vout Z2
1
Vin Z1 Vin Z1
28
Example#4
• Find out the transfer function of the following
circuit.
Vout Z2
Vin Z1
29
Example#5
• Find out the transfer function of the following
circuit.
v1
30
Example#6
• Find out the transfer function of the following
circuit.
v1
31
Example#7
• Find out the transfer function of the following
circuit and draw the pole zero map.
100kΩ
10kΩ
32
Basic Types of Mechanical Systems
• Translational
– Linear Motion
• Rotational
– Rotational Motion
1
Part-I
2
Basic Elements of Translational Mechanical Systems
Translational Spring
i)
Translational Mass
ii)
Translational Damper
iii)
3
Translational Spring
• A translational spring is a mechanical element that
can be deformed by an external force such that the
deformation is directly proportional to the force
applied to it.
Translational Spring
i)
Circuit Symbols
Translational Spring
4
Translational Spring
• If F is the applied force
x1
x2
• Or ( x1 x 2 ) is the deformation. F
F k ( x1 x2 )
• Where k is stiffness of spring expressed in N/m
5
Translational Mass
• Translational Mass is an inertia Translational Mass
element. ii)
F Mx
6
Translational Damper
• When the viscosity or drag is not
negligible in a system, we often
model them with the damping
force.
Bridge Suspension
Flyover Suspension
8
Translational Damper
F Cx F C ( x1 x 2 )
9
Modeling a Simple Translational System
• Example-1: Consider a simple horizontal spring-mass system on a
frictionless surface, as shown in figure below.
mx kx
or
mx kx 0
10
Example-2
• Consider the following system (friction is negligible)
k
x
M
F
F fk fM
• Then the differential equation of the system is:
F Mx kx
• Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides and ignoring
initial conditions we get
F ( s ) Ms 2 X ( s ) kX ( s )
12
Example-2
F ( s ) Ms 2 X ( s ) kX ( s )
• The transfer function of the system is
X (s) 1
F(s) Ms 2 k
• if
M 1000kg
k 2000 Nm 1
X (s) 0.001
2
F(s) s 2
13
Example-2
X (s) 0.001
2
F(s) s 2
30
20
Imaginary Axis
10
-10
-20
-30
-40
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
14
Real Axis
Example-3
• Consider the following system
k
x
M
F
C
• Free Body Diagram
fk fC
M fM
F
F f k f M fC
15
Example-3
Differential equation of the system is:
F Mx Cx kx
Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides and ignoring
Initial conditions we get
F ( s ) Ms 2 X ( s ) CsX ( s ) kX ( s )
X (s) 1
F(s) Ms 2 Cs k
16
Example-3
X (s) 1
F(s) Ms 2 Cs k
• if 2
Pole-Zero Map
1.5
M 1000kg 1
k 2000 Nm 1
Imaginary Axis
0.5
1
C 1000 N / ms
0
-0.5
-1
X (s) 0.001
-1.5
2 -2
F(s) s s 1000
-1 -0.5 0
Real Axis
0.5 1
17
Example-4
• Consider the following system
x1 k B
F M
• Mechanical Network
x1 k x2
F ↑ M B
19
Example-5
• Mechanical Network
x1 k x2
F ↑ M B
At node x1
F k ( x1 x 2 )
At node x2
0 k ( x 2 x1 ) Mx2 Bx
2
20
Example-6
• Find the transfer function X2(s)/F(s) of the following system.
M1 M2
B
21
Example-7
x1 x2
k B3 B4
M1 M2
f (t )
B1 B2
x1 B3 x2
f (t ) ↑ k M1 B1 B2 M2 B4
22
Example-8
• Find the transfer function of the mechanical translational
system given in Figure-1.
Free Body Diagram
fk fB
Figure-1
f (t ) fM
X (s) 1
f (t ) f k f M f B
F(s) Ms 2 Bs k
23
Example-9
• Restaurant plate dispenser
24
Example-10
• Find the transfer function X2(s)/F(s) of the following system.
M2 M1
k2
F (t ) f M 2 f M1
F (t ) f k1 f k 2 f M 2 f B
0 f k1 f M1 f B
25
Example-11
x2 x3
x1
k1 B3 B4
u(t ) B1 M1 k2 M2 k3
B2 B5
26
Example-12: Automobile Suspension
27
Automobile Suspension
28
Automobile Suspension
2
ms X o ( s ) bsX o ( s ) kX o ( s ) bsX i ( s ) kXi ( s )
X o (s) bs k
X i ( s ) ms 2 bs k
29
Example-13: Train Suspension
Car Body
Bogie-2
Bogie-1
Secondary
Suspension
Bogie
Frame
Primary
Wheelsets
Suspension
30
Example: Train Suspension
31
Part-I
32
Basic Elements of Rotational Mechanical Systems
Rotational Spring
1
2
T k (1 2 )
33
Basic Elements of Rotational Mechanical Systems
Rotational Damper
C
1
2 T
T C(1 2 )
34
Basic Elements of Rotational Mechanical Systems
Moment of Inertia
J T
T J
35
Example-1
B1
1 k1 2 3 k2
T J1 J2
1 k1 2 B1 3
T ↑ J1 J2 k2
36
Example-2
1 k1 2 B2 B4
3
T J1 J2
B1 B3
1 k1 2 B2 3
T ↑ J1 B1 B3 J2 B4
37
Example-3
1
k1 2
T k2
J1 J2
B2
38
Example-4
39
Part-III
MECHANICAL LINKAGES
40
Gear
• Gear is a toothed machine part, such
as a wheel or cylinder, that meshes
with another toothed part to
transmit motion or to change speed
or direction.
41
Fundamental Properties
• The two gears turn in opposite directions: one clockwise and
the other counterclockwise.
42
Gearing Up and Down
• Gearing up is able to convert torque to
velocity.
• The more velocity gained, the more torque
sacrifice.
• The ratio is exactly the same: if you get three
times your original angular velocity, you
reduce the resulting torque to one third.
• This conversion is symmetric: we can also
convert velocity to torque at the same ratio.
• The price of the conversion is power loss due
to friction.
43
Why Gearing is necessary?
44
Gear Trains
45
Gear Ratio
• You can calculate the gear ratio by using
the number of teeth of the driver
divided by the number of teeth of the
follower.
47
Mathematical Modeling of Gear Trains
• Gears increase or reduce angular velocity (while
simultaneously decreasing or increasing torque, such
that energy is conserved).
Energy of Driving Gear = Energy of Following Gear
N11 N 2 2
48
Mathematical Modeling of Gear Trains
• In the system below, a torque, τa, is applied to gear 1 (with
number of teeth N1, moment of inertia J1 and a rotational friction
B1).
• It, in turn, is connected to gear 2 (with number of teeth N2,
moment of inertia J2 and a rotational friction B2).
• The angle θ1 is defined positive clockwise, θ2 is defined positive
clockwise. The torque acts in the direction of θ1.
• Assume that TL is the load torque applied by the load connected
to Gear-2.
N2
N1
B1
B2 49
Mathematical Modeling of Gear Trains
• For Gear-1
• For Gear-2
B1
• Since
B2
N11 N 2 2
• therefore
N1
2 1 Eq (3)
N2 50
Mathematical Modeling of Gear Trains
• Gear Ratio is calculated as
T2 N2 N1
T1 T2
T1 N1 N2
N2
• Put this value in eq (1) N1
B1
N
a J11 B11 1 T2
N2 B2
• Put T2 from eq (2)
N1
a J11 B11 ( J 22 B22 TL )
N2
• Substitute θ2 from eq (3)
N1 N1 N1 N1
a J11 B11 (J2 1 B2 2 TL )
N2 N2 N2 N 2 51
Mathematical Modeling of Gear Trains
N1 N1 N1 N1
a J11 B11 (J2 1 B2 2 TL )
N2 N2 N2 N2
• After simplification
2 2
N1 N1 N
a J11 J 21 B11 B21 1 TL
N2 N2 N2
N1
2 N
2 N1
a J1
J 2 1 B1 1
B2 1 TL
N2 N2 N2
2 2
N N
J eq J1 1 J 2 Beq B1 1 B2
N2 N2
N1
a J eq1 Beq1 TL
N2 52
Mathematical Modeling of Gear Trains
2 2 2
N1 N1 N3
J eq J1 J 2 J 3
N2 N2 N4
2 2 2
N1 N1 N3
Beq B1 B2 B3
N2 N2 N4
53
Introduction
• A Block Diagram is a shorthand pictorial representation of
the cause-and-effect relationship of a system.
d
x y
dt
1
Introduction
• The operations of addition and subtraction have a special
representation.
2
Introduction
• In order to have the same signal or variable be an input
to more than one block or summing point, a takeoff
point is used.
3
Example-1
• Consider the following equations in which x1, x2, x3, are variables,
and a1, a2 are general coefficients or mathematical operators.
x3 a1 x1 a2 x2 5
4
Example-1
• Consider the following equations in which x1, x2, x3, are variables,
and a1, a2 are general coefficients or mathematical operators.
x3 a1 x1 a2 x2 5
5
Example-2
• Consider the following equations in which x1, x2,. . . , xn, are
variables, and a1, a2,. . . , an , are general coefficients or
mathematical operators.
xn a1 x1 a2 x2 an 1 xn 1
6
Example-3
• Draw the Block Diagrams of the following equations.
dx1 1
(1) x2 a1 x1dt
dt b
d 2 x2 dx1
( 2) x3 a1 3 bx1
dt 2 dt
7
Canonical Form of A Feedback Control System
8
Characteristic Equation
• The control ratio is the closed loop transfer function of the system.
C( s ) G( s )
R( s ) 1 G( s )H ( s )
1 G( s )H ( s ) 0
9
Example-4
B( s )
1. Open loop transfer function G( s ) H ( s )
E( s )
C( s )
2. Feed Forward Transfer function G( s )
E( s )
C( s ) G( s ) G(s )
3. control ratio
R( s ) 1 G( s )H ( s )
B( s ) G( s ) H ( s )
4. feedback ratio
R( s ) 1 G( s ) H ( s )
E( s ) 1 H (s )
5. error ratio
R( s ) 1 G( s )H ( s )
C( s ) G( s )
6. closed loop transfer function
R( s ) 1 G( s )H ( s )
7. characteristic equation 1 G( s )H ( s ) 0
11
Reduction techniques
G1 G2 G1G2
G1
G1 G2
G2
12
Reduction techniques
G G
G
G G
1
G
13
5. Moving a pickoff point behind a block
G G
1
G
G G
G
14
7. Eliminating a feedback loop
G
G
1 GH
H
G
G
1 G
H 1
A B B A
15
Example-5: Reduce the Block Diagram to Canonical Form.
16
Example-5: Reduce the Block Diagram to Canonical Form.
𝐺2 + 𝐺3
𝐺1 𝐺4
17
Example-5: Continue.
• Eliminate all minor feedback loops using rule-7
• After the elimination of minor feedback loop the block diagram is reduced to as shown below
18
Example-6
• For the system represented by the following block diagram
determine:
1. Open loop transfer function
2. Feed Forward Transfer function
3. control ratio
4. feedback ratio
5. error ratio
6. closed loop transfer function
7. characteristic equation
8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=10.
19
Example-6
– First we will reduce the given block diagram to canonical form
K
s 1
20
Example-6
K
s 1
K
G
s 1
1 GH K
1 s
s 1
21
Example-6
B( s )
1. Open loop transfer function G( s ) H ( s )
E( s )
C( s )
2. Feed Forward Transfer function G( s )
E( s )
C( s ) G( s ) G(s )
3. control ratio
R( s ) 1 G( s )H ( s )
B( s ) G( s ) H ( s )
4. feedback ratio
R( s ) 1 G( s ) H ( s )
E( s ) 1 H (s )
5. error ratio
R( s ) 1 G( s )H ( s )
C( s ) G( s )
6. closed loop transfer function
R( s ) 1 G( s )H ( s )
7. characteristic equation 1 G( s )H ( s ) 0
23
Example-8
H2
R _ C
+_ + G1 + G2 G3
+
H1
24
Example-8
H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1 G2 G3
+
H1
25
Example-8
H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1G2 G3
+
H1
26
Example-8
H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1G2 G3
+
H1
27
block diagram: reduction example
H2
G1
R _
G1G2 C
+_ + G3
1 G1G2 H1
28
block diagram: reduction example
H2
G1
R _
G1G2G3 C
+_ +
1 G1G2 H1
29
block diagram: reduction example
R G1G2G3 C
+_ 1 G1G2 H1 G2G3 H 2
30
Example 9
Find the transfer function of the following block diagram
G4
R ( s) Y (s )
G1 G2 G3
H2
H1
31
I
G4
R (s ) B A
Y (s )
G1 G2 G3
H2
H1 G2
Solution:
B
G4 G2G3
32
G4
R (s )
GG4
B A G2G3
Y (s )
G1 2 G 3
H2
H1G2
33
4. Eliminate loop III
R (s ) Y (s )
G1 GG4 4GG2G2G3 3
C C
1 H 2 (GH4 2 G2G3 )
G2 H1
G4 G2G3
R (s ) G1 (G4 G2G3 ) Y (s )
1 G1G 2 H1 H 2 (G4 G2G3 )
R (s ) Y (s )
G1 G2
H1 H2
H3
35
Solution:
1. Eliminate loop I
R (s ) A
G2 I
B
Y (s )
G1 G2
H1
1 GH2 H
2 2
H3
2. Moving pickoff point A behind block G2
1 G2 H 2
R (s ) A G2 B
Y (s )
G1
1 G2 H 2
1 G2 H 2 II
H1 1 G2 H 2
G2 H 3 H1 ( )
G2
H3 Not a feedback loop 36
3. Eliminate loop II
R (s ) G1G2 Y (s )
1 G2 H 2
H1 (1 G2 H 2 )
H3
G2
Y (s) G1G2
R( s ) 1 G2 H 2 G1G2 H 3 G1H1 G1G2 H1 H 2
37
Example 11
Find the transfer function of the following block diagrams
H4
R (s ) Y (s )
G1 G2 G3 G4
H3
H2
H1
38
Solution:
39
2. Eliminate loop I and Simplify
R (s ) II Y (s )
G2G3G4 B
G1
1 G3G4 H 4
H3
G4
H2
G4 III
H1
G2G3G4 H 2 G4 H1
1 G3G4 H 4 G2G3 H 3 G4
40
3. Eliminate loop II & IIII
R (s ) G1G2G3G4 Y (s )
1 G3G4 H 4 G2G3 H 3
H 2 G4 H1
G4
Y (s) G1G2G3G4
R( s ) 1 G2G3 H 3 G3G4 H 4 G1G2G3 H 2 G1G2G3G4 H1
41
Example 12
Find the transfer function of the following block diagrams
H2
R (s ) A Y (s )
G1 G2 G3
B
H1
G4
42
Solution:
R (s ) A B Y (s )
G1 G2 G3
1
H1 G3
1
H1 G3
G4
43
2. Eliminate loop I & Simplify
H2
B
G2 G3 B G2G3
1 H1
H2
H1 G3 G3
II
R (s ) G2G3 Y (s )
G1
1 G2 H1 G2G3 H 2
H1
G3
G4 44
3. Eliminate loop II
R (s ) G1G2G3 Y (s )
1 G2 H1 G2G3 H 2 G1G2 H1
G4
Y ( s) G1G2G3
T ( s) G4
R( s ) 1 G2 H1 G2G3 H 2 G1G2 H1
45
Example-13: Multiple Input System. Determine the output C
due to inputs R and U using the Superposition Method.
46
Example-13: Continue.
47
Example-13: Continue.
48
Example-14: Multiple-Input System. Determine the output C
due to inputs R, U1 and U2 using the Superposition Method.
49
Example-14: Continue.
50
Example-14: Continue.
51
Example-15: Multi-Input Multi-Output System. Determine C1
and C2 due to R1 and R2.
52
Example-15: Continue.
53
Example-15: Continue.
When R1 = 0,
When R2 = 0,
54
Block Diagram of Armature Controlled D.C Motor
Ra La
c
ia
Va eb T J
56
Block Diagram of Armature Controlled D.C Motor
57
Block Diagram of Armature Controlled D.C Motor
58
Outline
• Introduction to Signal Flow Graphs
– Definitions
– Terminologies
– Examples
• Mason’s Gain Formula
– Examples
• Signal Flow Graph from Block Diagrams
• Design Examples
1
Introduction
• Alternative method to block diagram representation,
developed by Samuel Jefferson Mason.
2
Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graphs
• Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal flow graph:
y ax
• The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;
a y
x
3
Signal-Flow Graph Models
4
Signal-Flow Graph Models
r1 and r2 are inputs and x1 and x2 are outputs
a11 x1 a12 x2 r1 x1
a21 x1 a22 x2 r2 x2
5
Signal-Flow Graph Models
6
Construct the signal flow graph for the following set of
simultaneous equations.
• There are four variables in the equations (i.e., x1,x2,x3,and x4) therefore four nodes are
required to construct the signal flow graph.
• Arrange these four nodes from left to right and connect them with the associated
branches.
7
Terminologies
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1
• An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4
• A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no
node is passed more than ones. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 X1 to X2 to X4 X2 to X3 to X4
• A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and X1 to X2 to X4 , are forward paths.
• A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and terminates on
the same node. i.e.; X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a feedback path.
8
Terminologies
• A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a single branch. i.e.; A33 is a self
loop.
• The gain of a branch is the transmission function of that branch.
• The path gain is the product of branch gains encountered in traversing a path.
i.e. the gain of forwards path X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 is A21A32A43
• The loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the loop. i.e., the loop gain
of the feedback loop from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is A32A23.
• Two loops, paths, or loop and a path are said to be non-touching if they have
no nodes in common.
9
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following
a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths (loops).
e) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
f) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
g) Non-touching loops
10
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following
11
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following
12
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following
13
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the
following
a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths.
e) Self loop.
f) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
g) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
14
Input and output Nodes
a) Input node
b) Output node
15
(c) Forward Paths
16
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
17
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
18
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
19
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
20
(e) Self Loop(s)
21
(f) Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops
22
(g) Path Gains of the Forward Paths
23
Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)
• The block diagram reduction technique requires successive
application of fundamental relationships in order to arrive at the
system transfer function.
• On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-flow graph
to a single transfer function requires the application of one
formula.
• The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the
signal-flow graph to the simultaneous equations that can be
written from the graph.
24
Mason’s Rule:
• The transfer function, C(s)/R(s), of a system represented by a signal-flow graph
is;
n
Pi i
C( s ) i 1
R( s )
Where
∆i = value of Δ for the part of the block diagram that does not touch the i-
th forward path (Δi = 1 if there are no non-touching loops to the i-th path.)
26
Systematic approach
27
Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph
Therefore, C P11 P2 2
R
There are three feedback loops
1 L1 L2 L3
29
Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph
31
Example#2: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function
of the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph
P1
P2
1 G2 H 2 H 3G3 G6 H 6 G7 H 7
G2 H 2G6 H 6 G2 H 2G7 H 7 H 3G3G6 H 6 H 3G3G7 H 7
33
Example#2: continue
Eliminate forward path-1
1 1 L3 L4
1 1 G6 H 6 G7 H 7
2 1 L1 L2
2 1 G2 H 2 G3 H 3
34
Example#2: continue
Y ( s ) P11 P2 2
R( s )
35
Example#3
• Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow
graph in figure below.
36
Example#3
• There is only one forward Path.
37
Example#3
• There are four feedback loops.
38
Example#3
• Non-touching loops taken two at a time.
39
Example#3
• Non-touching loops taken three at a time.
40
Example#3
41
Example#4: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function
of the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph
3
Pi i
C( s ) i 1 P11 P2 2 P3 3
R( s )
42
Example#4: Forward Paths
43
Example#4: Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops
L1 A32 A23
L5 A76 A67
L2 A43 A34 L9 A72 A57 A45 A34 A23
L6 A77
L3 A54 A45 L10 A72 A67 A56 A45 A34 A23
L7 A42 A34 A23
L4 A65 A56
L8 A65 A76 A67
44
Example#4: two non-touching loops
L1L3 L2 L4 L3 L5 L4 L6 L5 L7 L7 L8
L1 L4 L2 L5 L3 L6 L4 L7
L1 L5 L2 L6
L1 L6 L2 L8
L1L8
45
Example#4: Three non-touching loops
L1L3 L2 L4 L3 L5 L4 L6 L5 L7 L7 L8
L1 L4 L2 L5 L3 L6 L4 L7
L1 L5 L2 L6
L1 L6 L2 L8
L1L8
46
From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example#5
H1
H3
-H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 X3 G4 C(s)
-H2
-H3
47
From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example#5
-H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 G4 X3 1 C(s)
-H2
-H3
C ( s) G1G2G3G4
G
R( s ) 1 G1G2G3G4 H 3 G2G3 H 2 G3G4 H 1
48
Example#6
-
- X1 Y1
G1
R(s) + + C(s)
E(s)
- -X +
2
G2
- Y2
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) C(s)
1 1 1
X2 G2 Y2
-1
-1
49
Example#6
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) -1 C(s)
1 X2 1 Y2 1
G2
-1 -1
7 loops:
3 ‘2 non-touching loops’ :
50
Example#6
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) -1 C(s)
1 X2 1 Y2 1
G2
-1 -1
We have
C( s ) pk k
R( s )
G G1 2G1G2
2
1 2G2 4G1G2
52
Example-7: Determine the transfer function C/R for the block diagram below
by signal flow graph techniques.
• The signal flow graph of the above block diagram is shown below.
• Because the loops touch the nodes of P1, • Hence the control ratio T = C/R is
hence
1
V1 ( s ) I1 ( s ) I1 ( s ) R
Cs
CsV1 ( s ) CsV 2 ( s ) I1 ( s )
V2 ( s ) I 1 ( s ) R
Cs
Cs R
V1 (s ) I1 (s ) V2 (s )
55
Design Example#2
56
Design Example#2
57
Design Example#2
58
Introduction
• In time-domain analysis the response of a dynamic system
to an input is expressed as a function of time.
• It is possible to compute the time response of a system if the
nature of input and the mathematical model of the system
are known.
• Usually, the input signals to control systems are not known
fully ahead of time.
• For example, in a radar tracking system, the position and the
speed of the target to be tracked may vary in a random
fashion.
A
A t0
(t )
0 t0
0 t
characteristic of actual
A
input signal.
A t0 t
u( t ) 0
0 t0
At t0
r(t )
r(t)
0 t0
ramp signal with slope A
At 2 p(t)
t0
p(t ) 2
0 t0
parabolic signal with slope A
p(t)
• Impulse
A t0
(t )
0 t0
L{ (t )} ( s) A
• Step
A t0
u( t )
0 t0
A
L{u(t )} U ( s )
S
Laplace Transform of Test Signals
• Ramp At t0
r(t )
0 t0
A
L{ r(t )} R( s )
s2
• Parabolic At 2
t0
p(t ) 2
0 t0
2A
L{ p(t )} P( s )
S3
Time Response of Control Systems
• Time response of a dynamic system response to an input
expressed as a function of time.
System
Step Input
5
• The response of the
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec)
Time Response of Control Systems
• Transient response depend upon the system poles only and not
on the type of input.
K
R(s ) C(s )
1
Ts 1
t
0
R( s ) ( s ) 1
K
C( s )
Ts 1
Impulse Response of 1st Order System
K
C( s )
Ts 1
• Re-arrange following equation as
K /T
C( s )
s 1/ T
1
c(t)
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time
Step Response of 1st Order System
• Consider the following 1st order system
K
R(s ) C(s )
Ts 1
1
R( s ) U ( s )
s
K
C( s )
sTs 1
• In order to find out the inverse Laplace of the above equation, we
need to break it into partial fraction expansion
Forced Response Natural Response
K KT
C( s )
s Ts 1
Step Response of 1st Order System
1 T
C( s ) K
s Ts 1
• Taking Inverse Laplace of above equation
c(t ) K u(t ) e t / T
• Where u(t)=1
c(t ) K 1 e t / T
• When t=T
c(t ) K 1 e 1 0.632K
Step Response of 1st Order System
• If K=10 and T=1.5s then
c(t ) K 1 e t / T
K*(1-exp(-t/T))
11
10
9 Step Response
8
steady state output 10
7 D.C Gain K
63% Input 1
6
c(t)
2
Unit Step Input
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time
Step Response of 1st Order System
• If K=10 and T=1, 3, 5, 7
c(t ) K 1 e t / T
K*(1-exp(-t/T))
11
10
T=1s
9
8 T=3s
7
T=5s
6
c(t)
5 T=7s
4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15
Time
Step Response of 1st order System
• System takes five time constants to reach its
final value.
Step Response of 1st Order System
• If K=1, 3, 5, 10 and T=1
c(t ) K 1 e t / T
K*(1-exp(-t/T))
11
10
K=10
9
8
7
6
K=5
c(t)
5
4
K=3
3
2
K=1
1
0
0 5 10 15
Time
Relation Between Step and impulse
response
• The step response of the first order system is
c(t ) K 1 e t / T K Ke t / T
c(t ) 3e 0.5t
• Find out
– Time constant T
– D.C Gain K
– Transfer Function
– Step Response
Example#1
• The Laplace Transform of Impulse response of a
system is actually the transfer function of the system.
• Therefore taking Laplace Transform of the impulse
response given by following equation.
c(t ) 3e 0.5t
3 3
C( s ) 1 (s)
S 0.5 S 0.5
C( s ) C( s ) 3
( s ) R( s ) S 0.5
C( s ) 6
R( s ) 2 S 1
Example#1
• Impulse response of a 1st order system is given below.
c(t ) 3e 0.5t
• Find out
– Time constant T=2
– D.C Gain K=6
– Transfer Function C ( s ) 6
R( s ) 2 S 1
– Step Response
– Also Draw the Step response on your notebook
Example#1
• For step response integrate impulse response
c(t ) 3e 0.5t
0.5t
c( t )dt 3 e dt
cs (t ) 6e 0.5t C
0 6e 0.50 C
C6
cs (t ) 6 6e 0.5t
Example#1
• If initial Conditions are not known then partial fraction
expansion is a better choice
C( s ) 6
R( s ) 2 S 1
1
since R( s ) is a step input , R( s )
s
6
C( s )
s2S 1
6 A B
s2S 1 s 2s 1
6 6 6
s2S 1 s s 0.5
c(t ) 6 6e 0.5t
Ramp Response of 1st Order System
• Consider the following 1st order system
K
R(s ) C(s )
Ts 1
1
R( s )
s2
K
C( s )
s 2 Ts 1
• The ramp response is given as
c(t ) K t T Te t / T
Ramp Response of 1st Order System
• If K=1 and T=1
c(t ) K t T Te t / T
Unit Ramp Response
10
Unit Ramp
Ramp Response
8
6
c(t)
4
error
0
0 5 10 15
Time
Ramp Response of 1st Order System
• If K=1 and T=3
c(t ) K t T Te t / T
Unit Ramp Response
10 Unit Ramp
Ramp Response
8
6
c(t)
2 error
0
0 5 10 15
Time
Parabolic Response of 1st Order System
• Consider the following 1st order system
K
R(s ) C(s )
Ts 1
1 K
R( s ) Therefore, C( s )
s 3
s 3 Ts 1
• Do it yourself
Practical Determination of Transfer
Function of 1st Order Systems
• Often it is not possible or practical to obtain a system's
transfer function analytically.
• With a step input, we can measure the time constant and the
steady-state value, from which the transfer function can be
calculated.
Practical Determination of Transfer
Function of 1st Order Systems
• If we can identify T and K from laboratory testing we can
obtain the transfer function of the system.
C( s ) K
R( s ) Ts 1
Practical Determination of Transfer Function
of 1st Order Systems
• For example, assume the unit
step response given in figure. K=0.72
• From the response, we can
measure the time constant, that
is, the time for the amplitude to
reach 63% of its final value.
• Since the final value is about T=0.13s
C( s ) K C ( s ) K (1 s )
R( s ) Ts 1 R( s ) Ts 1
c(t ) K 1 e t / T
K
c(t ) K ( T )e t / T
T
9.5
C( s ) 10(1 2s )
9
R( s ) 3s 1
8.5
c(t)
7.5
10
c(t ) 10 ( 2 3)e t / 3 7
3
6.5
0 5 10 15
Time
1st Order System with & W/O Zero
• If T<α the response of the system would look like
C( s ) 10(1 2s ) 13
R( s ) 1.5s 1
11
10
c(t ) 10 ( 2 1)e t / 1.5 10
1.5
9
0 5 10 15
Time
1st Order System with a Zero
Unit Step Response of 1st Order Systems with Zeros
14
13
12
Unit Step Response
11
T
10
9 T
8
6
0 5 10 15
Time
1st Order System with & W/O Zero
Unit Step Response of 1st Order Systems with Zeros
14
12
T
10
Unit Step Response
T
8
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time
Example#2
• A thermometer requires 1 min to indicate 98% of the
response to a step input. Assuming the thermometer to
be a first-order system, find the time constant.
T 1s
C( s ) 10
δ
R( s ) s 1 -3 -2 -1
PZ-map and Step Response
jω
C( s ) K
R( s ) Ts 1
T 0.5s
C( s ) 10
δ
R( s ) s 2 -3 -2 -1
C( s ) 5
R( s ) 0.5s 1
PZ-map and Step Response
jω
C( s ) K
R( s ) Ts 1
T 0.33s
C( s ) 10
δ
R( s ) s 3 -3 -2 -1
C( s ) 3. 3
R( s ) 0.33s 1
Comparison
C( s ) 1 C( s ) 1
R( s ) s 1 R( s ) s 10
Step Response
Step Response
1
0.1
0.8 0.08
0.6 0.06
Amplitude
Amplitude
0.4 0.04
0.2 0.02
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Time (sec) Time (sec)
First Order System With Delays
• Following transfer function is the generic
representation of 1st order system with time
lag.
C( s ) K
e std
R( s ) Ts 1
Unit Step
Step Response
t
td
First Order System With Delays
Step Response
10
K 10
8
6
Amplitude
C( s ) 10 2 s
e
R( s ) 3s 1 4
t d 2s
0
T 3s
0 5 10 15
Time (sec)
Examples of First Order Systems
• Armature Controlled D.C Motor (La=0)
Ra La
B
ia
u eb T J
Ω(s)
K t Ra
U(s) Js B K t K b Ra
Examples of First Order Systems
• Electrical System
Eo ( s ) 1
Ei ( s ) RCs 1
Examples of First Order Systems
• Mechanical System
X o (s) 1
X i (s) b
s 1
k