ERROR

• May be defined as Deviation/Difference of Measured

value and its True value.
• Errors may be Classified three types:
- Gross Error
- Systematic Error
- Random Error
- Absolute Error and
- Relative Error.
 Gross Error
(Errors observed because of Human mistake)
 Gross Error
• Datum errors: Datum error is the difference between
the true value of the quantity being measured and the
indicated value, with due regard to the sign of each.
When the instrument is used under specified
conditions and a physical quantity is presented to it
for the purpose of verifying the setting, the indication
error is referred to as the datum error.
 Gross Error
• Reading errors: These errors occur due to the
mistakes committed by the observer while noting
down the values of the quantity being measured.
Digital readout devices, which are increasingly being
used for display purposes, eliminate or minimize most
of the reading errors usually made by the observer.
 Gross Error
• Errors due to parallax effect: Parallax errors occur when the
sight is not perpendicular to the instrument scale or the
observer reads the instrument from an angle. Instruments
having a scale and a pointer are normally associated with
this type of error. The presence of a mirror behind the
pointer or indicator virtually eliminates the occurrence of
this type of error.
 Systematic or Controllable Errors
• Type of error that deviates by a fixed amount from the true value of
measurement.
• These types of errors are controllable in both their magnitude and their direction,
and can be assessed and minimized if efforts are made to analyse them.
• Examples of such error may be, measurement of current with inaccurately
calibrated ammeter.
• These errors are reproducible inaccuracies that are consistently in the same
direction.
• Minimization of systematic errors increases the accuracy of measurement. The
following are the reasons for their occurrence:
• 1. Calibration errors
• 2. Ambient conditions
• 3. Deformation of work piece
• 4. Avoidable errors
 Reasons of Systematic Errors : Calibration Errors
• A small amount of variation from the nominal value will be
present in the actual length standards, as in slip gauges and
engraved scales. Inertia of the instrument and its hysteresis
effects do not allow the instrument to translate with true fidelity.
Reasons of Systematic Errors : : Ambient Conditions
• It is essential to maintain the ambient conditions at internationally
accepted values of standard temperature (200C) and pressure (760
mm Hg) conditions.
• A small difference of 10 mm Hg can cause errors in the measured size
of the component. The most significant ambient condition affecting
the accuracy of measurement is temperature. An increase in
temperature of 10C results in an increase in the length of C25 steel by
0.3µm, and this is substantial when precision measurement is
required. In order to obtain error-free results, a correction factor for
temperature has to be provided.
• Thermal expansion occurs due to heat radiation from different
sources such as lights, sunlight, and body temperature of operators.
Reasons of Systematic Errors : Deformation of Work
piece
• Any elastic body, when subjected to a load, undergoes elastic
deformation. The stylus pressure applied during measurement affects
the accuracy of measurement.
• Due to a definite stylus pressure, elastic deformation of the work
piece and deflection of the work piece shape may occur. The
magnitude of deformation depends on the applied load, area of
contact, and mechanical properties of the material of the given
workpiece.
 Systematic Errors Effect of Misalignment
• These occur due to the inherent inaccuracies present in the
measuring instruments. These errors may also be due to improper
use, handling, or selection of the instrument. Wear on the
micrometer anvils or anvil faces not being perpendicular to the axis
results in misalignment, leading to inaccurate measurements. If the
alignment is not proper, sometimes sine and cosine errors also
contribute to the inaccuracies of the measurement.
 Systematic Errors Effect of Misalignment
• Zero errors When no measurement is being carried out, the reading
on the scale of the instrument should be zero. A zero error is defined
as that value when the initial value of a physical quantity indicated by
the measuring instrument is a non-zero value when it should have
actually been zero. For example, a voltmeter might read 1V even
when it is not under any electromagnetic influence. This voltmeter
indicates 1V more than the true value for all subsequent
measurements made.
 Random Errors
• Random errors provide a measure of random deviations when
measurements of a physical quantity are carried out repeatedly.
When a series of repeated measurements are made on a component
under similar conditions, the values or results of measurements vary.
• Specific causes for these variations cannot be determined, since these
variations are unpredictable and uncontrollable by the experimenter
and are random in nature.
• They are of variable magnitude and may be either positive or
negative. Random errors can be statistically evaluated, and their
mean value and standard deviation can be determined.
• Since precision is closely associated with the repeatability of the
measuring process, a precise instrument will have very few random
errors and better repeatability. Hence, random errors limit the
precision of the instrument.
 Sources of Random errors:
• 1. Presence of transient fluctuations in friction in the measuring
instrument
• 2. Play in the linkages of the measuring instruments
• 3. Error in operator’s judgement in reading the fractional part of
engraved scale divisions
• 4. Operator’s inability to note the readings because of fluctuations
during measurement
• 5. Positional errors associated with the measured object and
standard, arising due to small variations in setting