MM Unit 3 © MCO

Differentiation Summary

Graph Styles
Important Formulas

CAS Tips
Things I alw Key Info…
ays
forget…

Examples I may need…

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Other Stuff!

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9A The Derivative
Example 1:
Find the average rate of change of the function with rule Important Formulas
2 Average Rate of Change (between two
f ( x)= x −2 x +5 as x changes from 1 to 5. points):

Derivative (at a point):

Limits
If , then exists and

Example 2:
Consider the function f ( x)= x3 . By first finding the gradient of the secant through P ( 2, 8 ) and
3
Q(2+h ,( 2+ h) ) , find the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point (2 , 8).

Example 3:
Find:
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2 2
3 x h +2 h
a. lim ¿ h→ 0 22 x2 +20 xh+h b. lim ¿ h→ 0
h

Example 4:
f ( x +h )−f ( x )
Find lim for each of the following:
h→ 0 h
a. f (x)=3 x 2 +2 x+2 b. f ( x )=2−x 3

CAS Tips
To find a limit:
Menu – 4 – 4
Save time by
defining the
function first!

Numerical Approximation to Derivative Functions

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When looking to find the slope of a curve f at a point x=a in terms of f (a), we can utilise the value of a
nearby point, x=a+ h, and our understanding of numerical approximations. Consider and the graph:

We can approximate a slope using our gradient of a secant rule:

f ( a+h )−f (a)
f ' ( a )=
h
This is known as the right secant gradient.

If we consider a point to the left of a , we get the left secant gradient:

f ( a ) −f ( a−h)
f ' ( a )=
h

Now consider the graph:

Here we can approximate a slope as follows:

f ( a+h )−f (a−h)
f ' ( a )=
2h
This is known as the central difference approximation.

9B Rules for Differentiation

Example 1:
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Important Formulas
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5 3
Find the derivative of x −2 x +2

Example 2:
CAS Tips
Find the derivative of f ( x)=3 x 3−6 x 2 +1 and f ' (1)
To find a derivative:
Menu – 4 – 1

To find a derivative at a
point:
Menu – 4 - 2

Finding the Gradient of a Tangent Line

Example 3:
Find the gradient of the curve determined by the rule f (x)=3 x 3−6 x 2 +1 at the point (1 ,−2).

Key Info…
Alternative Notations Ensure you ar
e following th
notation when e correct
Example 4: answering qu
for equation estions!!
dy s
2
a. For y=(x +3) , find for equation
s
dx If other letter
s are used, e
derivative m nsure
atches, i.e. ,
, etc.
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dz
b. For z=(2t−1)2 (t+ 2), find
dt

2
x +3x dy
c. For y= , find
x dx

d. Differentiate y=2 x 3−1 with respect to x

Example 5:
Find:
d d d
a. (5 x−4 x 3) b. (5 z 2−4 z) c. (6 z 3 −4 z 2 )
dx dz dz

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Example 6:
For each of the following curves, find the coordinates of the points on the curve at which
the gradient of the tangent line at that point has the given value:
a. y=x 3, gradient ¿ 8

b. y=x 2−4 x +2, gradient ¿ 0

c. y=4−x 3, gradient ¿−6

An angle associated with the gradient of a curve at a point

Example 7:
Find the coordinates of the points on the curve with Key Info…
Angle of incl
ination to the
equation y=x 2−7 x +8 at which the tangent line: for a pos -axi
s:
for neg
Parallel sam
e gradient
Perpendicula 8
r (normal) is
Gradient of a found: or
ho
Gradient of a rizontal line is .
vertical line
is undefined
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a. makes an angle of 45 ° with the positive direction
of the x -axis

b. is parallel to the line y=−2 x +6.

Increasing/D
Example 8: ecreasing
A function is
:
For the graph of f : R → R find: Increasing w
here is positi
Decreasing w ve
here is negat
STRICTLY ive
increasing w
gradient IS N h ere
OT negative
STRICTLY
dec
IS NOT positi reasing the gradient
ve
STRICTLY
includes zero
gradients (T
Ps) and uses
brackets square

a. {x :f ‘ (x)>0 } b. {x : f ‘( x)<0 } c. {x :f ‘ (x)=0 }

9C Differentiating xn where n is a Negative Integer

Example 1:
f ( x +h ) −f (x )
Let f : R ¿ 0 }→ R , f (x )=x−3 ¿. Find f ‘( x) using the definition f ‘ ( x)=lim
h→0 h

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Example 2:
Find the derivative of x 4 −2 x−3 + x−1 +2 , x ≠ 0

Example 3:
Find the derivative f ' ( x )of f : R ¿ {0¿}→ R , f ( x )=3 x2 −6 x−2+1

Example 4:
2 1
Find the gradient of the curve determined by the function f : R ¿ {0¿}→ R , f ( x )=x + at the point (1 , 2).
x

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Example 5:
Show that the derivative of the function f : R → R , f ( x)=x−3 is always negative.

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9D The Graph of the Derivative Function
Key Info Example Given Function f ( x) Gradient Function f ’ ( x)
 Where f ( x) has a positive
gradient, f ' (x) is above the x
-axis.
Linear
 Where f ( x) has a negative
gradient, f ' (x) is below the x
-axis.
 Horizontal sections will have
a gradient of 0.
 Straight line sections will Quadrati
have a horizontal gradient. c
 Vertical sections will create
an asymptote, as their
gradient is undefined.
 The gradient of a function
only exists where the graph is
smooth and continuous. Cubic
 Holes, breaks, corners, or
cusps will not have
derivatives.

Example 1:
Sketch the graph of the derivative function for each of the functions of the graphs shown:
a. b. c.

Where is the Derivative Defined?

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f ( x) f ’ ( x) Key Info

{
f ( x )= −x ,∧x <0
x ,∧x ≥ 0 {
f ' ( x )= −1 ,∧x <0
1 ,∧x >0
A derivative function is defined at
x=a if:
 f is smooth & continuous at
x=a ,i.e., the graph contains no
‘sharp’ points.
 f ' ¿.
Note: If not smooth and continuous,
point cannot be included.

Example 2:
Draw a sketch graph of f ' where the graph of f is as illustrated.

Indicate where f ' is not defined.

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9E The Chain Rule
Using the Chain Rule
 Any roots should be written as fractional powers.
Important Formulas
 Any relevant function in the denominator should be If ;

written with a negative power. Or, in Leibnitz notation;

, where and is a function of
du
 Let uequal the function inside the brackets & find .
dx
dy
 Write the expression for y in terms of u & find .
du
dy dy du
 Apply the chain rule = × and simplify.
dx du dx

Example 1:
Differentiate y=(4 x3 −5 x )−2
USING U-SUBSTITUTION A QUICKER WAY 
For polynomials only, there is a
quick way to apply the chain rule:

Example 2:
16
Find the gradient of the curve with equation y= 2 at the point (1 , 4).
3 x +1

9F Differentiating Rational Powers

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Example 1:
Differentiate each of the following by first principles:
1 1
a. f ( x )=x 2 , x >0 b. g ( x )=x 3 , x ≠ 0

Example 2:
Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x :
−1 2
a. y=2 x 5
+3 x 7 b. y= √3 x 2 +2 x

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9G Differentiation of e x

Example 1:
Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x :
Important Formulas
a. e 3 x b. e−2 x If ,
then

1 3x
c. e 2 x+1 d. 2x
+e
e

Example 2:
Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x :
2 2
a. e x b. e x + 4 x

Example 3:

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2x
Find the gradient of the curve y=e + 4 at the point:
a. (0 , 5) b. (1 , e2 + 4)

Example 4:
For each of the following, first find the derivative with respect to x . Then evaluate the derivative at x=2
given that f (2)=0 and f ' ( 2)=4 and f ' ( e2 )=5
a. e f (x) b. f (e x )

Example 5:
d When the Ba
Find ( 8.3 x ) se Isn’t e
dx Not technical
ly part of SD
in case! , but just
Manipulate
to be in term
e.g. s of .

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9H Differentiation of the Natural Logarithmic Function
Example 1:
Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x :
Important Formulas
a. log e (5 x) , x> 0

*Note: the above are only

applicable for the log function
of base

−3
b. log e (5 x +3), x >
5

Example 2:
Differentiate each of the following with respect to x :
2
a. log e ( x 2 +2) b. ( log e ( x ) ) , x >0

9I Derivatives of Circular Functions

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Important Formulas
If , then
If , then
If , then

Example 1:
Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to θ :
a. sin(2θ) b. sin2 (2 θ) c. sin2 (2 θ+1)

d. cos 3 (4 θ+ 1) e. tan (3 θ) f. tan (3 θ2 +1)

Example 2:

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Find the y -coordinate and the gradient at the points on the following curves corresponding to the given
values of θ :
π π
a. y=cos(θ), θ= ∧θ=
4 2

π
b. y=tan (θ), θ=0∧θ=
4

VCAA 2006 Exam 1 Question 3a:

Let f ( x )=ecos (x). Find f ' ( x ).

VCAA 2002 Exam 1 Question 14:

dy
If y=log e (cos(2 x )), then is equal to?
dx

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9J The Product Rule
Using the Product Rule
 Let u equal the first of the factors
Important Formulas
du If ;
 Find the derivative of u which is
dx
 Let v equal the second of the factors. If ;
dv
 Find the derivative of v which is .
dx
 Substitute these four things into the rule and simplify.

Example 1:
Differentiate each of the following with respect to x :
a. (2 x 2+1)(5 x3 +16) b. x 3 (3 x−5)4

Example 2:
For f : R ¿ 0 }→ R , f (x )=x−3 (10 x 2−5)3 ¿ , find f ' (x ) .

Example 3:

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Differentiate each of the following with respect to x :
a. e x ( 2 x 2 +1 ) b. e x √ x −1

Example 4:
Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x :
a. 2 x2 sin (2 x) b. e 2 x sin(2 x+1) c. sin(4 x )cos (2 x )

VCAA 2010 Exam 1 Question 9a:

2
Find the derivative of x log e (x )

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9K The Quotient Rule
Using the Quotient Rule
du Important Formulas
 Let u equal the numerator & find .
dx
If then
dv
 Let v equal the denominator & find . If then
dx
 Substitute these four things into rule
and simplify.

Example 1:
x−2
Find the derivative of 2 with respect to x .
x + 4 x+ 1

Example 2:
Differentiate the following with respect to x .
x
e sin x
a. b. , x ≠−1
2x
e +1 x+1

VCAA 2007 Exam 1 Question 1:

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3
x
Let f ( x )=¿ . Find f ’ ( x) .
sin(x)

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9L Limits and Continuity
Limits
To evaluate the limit of a function as x → a :
 If the function is well-behaved, substitute x=a
 If the function is not well-behaved at x=a , simplify it to
obtain a well-behaved function, then substitute x=a
 If it is not possible to obtain a well-behaved function, then
the limit does not exist.
left and right limits and are written as follows:
−¿= lim ¿¿
+¿ = lim ¿¿

L
−¿ x → a+¿ f ( x) ¿
x→ a f( x)∧L ¿

The direction as x approaches a must not matter if the limit is to exist.

+ ¿¿

 If L−¿=L ¿, then lim

+ ¿¿
f ( x ) exists and lim f ( x )=L−¿=L ¿
x→ a x→ a

If L−¿ ≠L ¿, then lim f ( x ) does not exist

+¿ ¿

 x→ a

Example 1:

Find lim (3 x 2)
x →2

Example 2:
2 x 2−5 x+2
For f ( x)= , x ≠ 2, find lim f (x ).
x−2 x →2

Algebra of Limits
Important Formulas
Sum: 25

Multiple:

Product:
 Quotient:

MM Unit 3 © MCO
Example 3:
Find:
a. lim ¿ h→ 0 3 h+ 4

5 x+2
b. lim ¿ x →2 4 x( x+2) c. lim ¿ x →3
x −2

Example 4:
Find:
2
x −3 x ( x 2−x−2 ) x 2−7 x +10
a. lim b. lim c. lim
x →3 x−3 x →0 x−2 x →3 x 2−25

Continuity
Key Info When Graphing
Continuity and For a function to be continuous at x=a , From a graph, the points of discontinuity
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there should be no break: are readily identified as:
 f (a) exists  Vertical asymptote
Discontinuity lim f ( x ) exists  Branches which do not join
 x→ a

lim f ( x )=f (a)  Gaps in the graph at any point.

 x→ a

Example 5:
State the values for x for which each of the functions whose graphs are shown below have a discontinuity:
a. b. c.

Example 6:
For each of the functions following, state the values of x for which there is a discontinuity, and use the

definition of continuity in terms of f (a), x →alimf (x)¿ ¿ and x→lim

+¿
a f (x)¿
¿ to explain why each is a discontinuity:
−¿

{ {
2
2x x≥0 x x≥0
a. f ( x )= b. f ( x )=
−2 x+ 1 x <0 −2 x+ 1 x <0

c. f ( x )= {−2x x x≥0
x<0

9M When is a Function Differentiable?

Differentiability
A function f is differentiable at x=a if:

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 f is continuous at x=a and
 f ' ¿.
This means that only smoothly continuous functions are differentiable at x=a : their graph contains no
‘sharp’ points at x=a .

Example 1:

{
2
x + 2 x +1 x ≥0
For the function with rule f ( x )= ,
2 x +1 x< 0
find f ' ( x )and sketch the graph of y=f ' ( x ) .

Example 2:

{
2
x + 2 x +1 x ≥0
For the function with rule f ( x )= ,
x +1 x< 0
state the set of values for which the derivative is defined,
find f ' ( x ) for this set of values and sketch the graph of
y=f ' ( x )

Example 3:
1
For the function with rule f ( x)= x 3 state when the derivative

is defined and sketch the graph of the derivative function.

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Applications of Differentiation Summary

Graph Styles
Important Formulas

CAS Tips
Things I alw Key Info…
ays
forget…

Examples I may need…

Other Stuff!
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10A Tangents and Normals
Example 1: CAS Tips
3 1 2 To find a Tangent line:
Find the equation of the tangent of the curve y=x + x at the
2 Menu – 4 – 9
To find a Normal line:
point x=1 Menu – 4 - A

Example 2:
Find the equation of the normal to the curve with equation y=x 3−2 x 2 at the point (1 ,−1).

Example 3:
3 1
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve with equation y=x 2 −4 x 2 at the point on the graph where

x=4.

Example 4:

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π
Find the equation of the tangent to the graph of y=sin(x) at the point where x=
3

Example 5:

Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the graph of y=−cos( x ) at the point ( π2 , 0)

Example 6:
Find the equation of the tangent of:
1 2
a. f ( x)= x 3 where x=0 b. f ( x)= x 3 where x=0

10B Rates of Change

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For Rates of Change:
 Negative values mean the quantity is decreasing
Important Formulas
 Positive values mean the quantity is increasing
Average Rate of Change

Example 1: Instantaneous Rate of Change

For the function with rule f ( x)= x2 +2 x , find:

a. The average rate of change for x ∈[2 ,3 ]

b. The average rate of change for the interval [2, 2+h]

c. The instantaneous rate of change of f with respect to x when x=2

Example 2:
A balloon which develops a microscopic leak will decrease in volume. Its volume V cm3 at time t seconds is

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1 2
V =600−10 t − t , t> 0.
100
a. Find the rate of change of volume after:
i. 10 seconds ii. 20 seconds

b. For how long could the model be valid?

Example 3:
A pot of liquid is put on the stove. When the temperature of the liquid reaches 80 ° C , the pot is taken off
the stove and placed on the kitchen bench. The temperature in the kitchen is 20 ° C . The temperature of
the liquid, T ° C , at time t minutes is given by T =20+60 e−0.3t
a. Find the rate of change of temperature with respect to time in terms of T .

b. Find the rate of change of temperature with respect to time when:

i. T =80 ii. T =30

10C Stationary Points

Stationary Points & Their Nature
Key Info… 35
Three types:
(local) min T
.P
 Stationary P.O
For stationary
.I
points,

MM Unit 3 © MCO

Example 1:
Find the stationary points of the following functions:
a. y=9+12 x−2 x 2

b. y=4+ 3 x−x 2

c. p=2t 3−5 t 2−4 t +13fort >0

Example 2:
Find the stationary points of the following functions:
a. y=sin(2 x), x ∈[0 , 2 π ]

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b. y=e2 x −x

c. y=x log e (2 x) , x ∈(0 , ∞)

Example 3:
The curve with equation y=x 3 +a x 2 +bx +c passes through (0 , 5) with stationary point (2 , 7). Find a , b , c .

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10D Types of Stationary Points
The graph below has three stationary points A , B, C .

Point Key Info Nature Table

 Local maximum point
 Turning Point
Point A
 Immediately to the left of A , gradient is positive
 Immediately to right the gradient is negative
 Local minimum point
 Turing Point
Point B
 Immediately to the left of B, gradient is negative
 Immediately to the right the gradient is positive
 Stationary point of inflection
 Immediately to the left and right of C , gradient is
positive

Point C
 Points of inflection also work when the gradients
either side are both negative

 Left endpoint is the absolute minimum

o Lowest point on the graph
 Right endpoint is the absolute maximum
Endpoint
o Highest point on the graph
s
 Absolute maximums and minimums may not exist
for all functions. If they exist, they occur at either
a T.P or an end point
Example 1:
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3
For the function f : R → R , f ( x)=3 x −4 x +1:
a. Find the stationary points and state their nature.

b. Sketch the graph.

Example 2:
a. Plot the graph of y=x 3−19 x +20 using CAS.

Still using CAS, determine:

b. The value of y when x=−4 c. The values of x when y=0

dy
d. The value of when x=−1 e. The coordinates of the local maximum.
dx

Example 3:

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3
x
Sketch the graph of f : R → R , f ( x)=e

Example 4:
For f :(0 , ∞) → R , f ( x)=x log e ( x ):
a. Find f ' (x)

b. Solve the equation f (x)=0

c. Solve the equation f ' (x)=0

d. Sketch the graph of y=f ( x )

Example 5:

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2
Find the local maximum and local minimum points of f ( x )=2 sin( x )+1−2 sin (2 x), where
0< x <2 π .

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10E Absolute Maximum and Minimum Values
Remember from the last section:
 M is the absolute maximum value of a continuous function if it is the highest point of the function over
a specified domain.
 N is the absolute minimum value of a continuous function if it is the lowest point of the function over a
specified domain.
 Absolute maxima and minima occur at turning points or end points.

Example 1:
Let f : [−2 , 4]→ R , f (x)=x2 +2. Find the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum value of the
function

Example 2:
Let f : [−2 ,1] → R , f ( x)=x3 +2. Find the maximum and minimum value of the function.

Example 3:

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From a square piece of metal of side length 2 m, four squares are removed as shown in the figure opposite.
The metal is then folded about the dotted lines to give an open box with sides of height x m.
a. Show that the volume, V m3, is given by V =4 x 3−8 x 2 +4 x .

b. Find the value of x that gives the box its maximum volume and show that the volume is a maximum for
this value.

c. Sketch the graph of V against x for a suitable domain.

d. If the height of the box must be less than 0.3 m, i.e. x ≤ 0.3 , what will be the maximum volume of the
box?

10F Maximum and Minimum Problems

Key Info…
To solve: 43
Draw a diagra
m
Find a connec and label it
tion between
Find an expre the variables
ssi
 Differentiate, nimised
equate to zero
Reject any un an
realistic soluti d solve
Check the na ons
MM Unit 3 ture of the sta © MCO
Check wheth tionary point
er the answer
evaluating en is absolute by
d points
Always sketch
th
Answer the ac e shape of the graph
tual question

Example 1:
A farmer has sufficient fencing to make a rectangular pen of perimeter 200 metres. What dimensions will
give an enclosure of maximum area?

Example 2:
Two variables x and y are such that x 4 y=8 . A third variable z is defined by z=x + y .
Find the values of x and y that give z a stationary value and show that this value of z is a minimum.

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Example 3:
A cylindrical tin canister closed at both ends has a surface area of 100 cm2. Find, correct to two decimal
places, the greatest volume it can have. If the radius of the canister can be at most 2 cm, find the greatest
volume it can have.

Example 4:
A TV cable company has 1000 subscribers who are paying $ 5 per month. It can get 100 more subscribers
for each $ 0.10 decrease in the monthly fee. What rate will yield maximum revenue and what will this
revenue be?

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Example 5:
A manufacturer annually produces and sells 10 000 shirts. Sales are uniformly distributed throughout the
year. The production cost of each shirt is $ 23 and other costs (storage, insurance, interest) depend on the
total number of shirts in a production run. (A production run is the number, x , of shirts which are under
production at a given time.)
3
The set-up costs for a production run are $ 40 . The annual carrying costs are $ x 2 . Find the size of a

production run which will minimise the total set-up and carrying costs for a year.

Example 6:
The cross-section of a drain is to be an isosceles trapezium,
with three sides of length 2 meters, as shown. Find the angle θ
that maximises the cross-sectional area, and find this
maximum area.

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Example 7:
The figure shows a circular lake, centre O , of radius 2 km. A man swims across
the lake from A to C at 3 km/h and then walks around the edge of the lake
from C to B at 4 km/h.
a. If ∠ BAC=θ radians and the total time taken is T hours, show that
1
T = ( 4 cos (θ)+3 θ)
3

dT
b. Find the value of θ for which =0 and determine whether this gives a maximum or minimum value
dθ
of T (0 °<θ °< 90 °).

Key Info
Maximum Rates of Increase and Decrease If
is increasing
Example 8: as increases.
If
is decreasing
Assume that the number of bacteria present in a culture at time t is given as increases.

by N (t ), where N (t )=36 t e−0.1 t

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a. At what time will the population be at a maximum?
Find the maximum population.

b. Sketch the graphs of N (t )and N ' (t ).

c. Find the maximum rates of increase and decrease of the population and the times at which these
occur.

Second Derivatives
The second (or double) derivative is the derivative of a derivative.
d2 y
 Denoted by and can be used to find the nature of stationary points rather easily.
d x2

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2
d y
o For a local maximum: ¿0
d x2
2
d y
o For a local minimum: 2 ¿0
dx
d2 y
o If 2 ¿ 0 then it could be maximum, minimum, or stationary point of inflection, need to check
dx
through nature/gradient table method if this is the case.

*You may wish to use these to help you sketch graphs, however it is important to note that it is not strictly
a part of the MM study design.
It is important, therefore, that you check the wording of the question, if it specifically asks for a
nature/gradient table, you MUST use that method.

Key Info Example

Let f be a function defined on an interval (a , b), and
assume that both f ’ ( x) and f ’ ’(x ) exist for all x ∈( a ,b).
Concave Up  If f ’ ’(x )> 0 for all x ∈(a ,b), then the gradient of the
curve y=f (x ) is increasing in the interval (a , b).
 The curve is concave up.
Consider again, the function f outlined above.

Concave  If f ’ ’(x )< 0 for all x ∈(a ,b), then the gradient of the
Down curve y=f (x ) is decreasing in the interval (a , b).
 The curve is concave down.

 A point where a curve changes from concave up to

concave down or vice versa is called a point of
Inflection
inflection.
Points
 In the graph on the right, there are points of inflection
at x=c and x=d .

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10G Families of Functions
Example 1:
Consider the function f (x)=( x−a)2 ( x−b) where a and b are positive constants with b> a.
a. Find the derivative of f ( x) with respect to x .

b. Find the coordinates of the stationary points of the graph of y=f (x ).

c. Show that the stationary point at (a , 0) is always a local maximum.

d. Find the values of a and b if the stationary points occur where x=3 and x=4

Example 2:

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3 2
The graph of the function y=x −3 x is translated by a units in the positive direction of the x - axis and b
units in the positive direction of the y - axis (a and b are positive constants).
a. Find the coordinates of the turning points of the graph of y=x 3−3 x 2

b. Find the coordinates of the turning points of its image.

Example 3:
A cubic function f has rule f ( x)=a x3 +b x 2 +cx . The graph has a stationary point at (1 , 6).
a. Find a and b in terms of c .

b. Find the value of c for which the graph has a stationary point at the point where x=2.

10H Newton’s Method for Finding Solutions to Equations

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2 '
Consider f ( x )=x −2 . Then f ( x )=2 x .
Step Key Info Diagrams
Start with a value of x , e.g., start with x=4 (blue
line).
 The equation of the tangent to the curve
y=f (x ) at the point (4 , f (4)) is
y−f (4)=f '( 4)( x−4 ).
1  x -ints occur when y=0, therefore:
−f ( 4)
0−f ( 4 )=f '(4)(x−4) =x−4
f ' (4)

f (4) 9
x=4− x=
f ' ( 4) 4

 This is our first approximate solution.

Now find the x-axis intercept of the tangent to
9
the curve when x= (yellow line).
4

2
 0−f ( 94 )=f ' ( 94 )( x− 94 )
−f ( ) f( )
9 9
4 9 9 4 113
=x − x= − x=
f '( ) f '( )
9 4 4 9 72
4 4

Continue until you see the same number

repeated (or until f ( x n) equals 0).
 The process is continued in the List &
Spreadsheet as shown.
 As you can see in the table, the solution is
3
x=1.4121356 …
*Rules in Spreadsheet
Column B: ¿ xn2−2
Column C: ¿ 2 xn
2
xn −2
Column D: ¿ xn−
2 xn

The General Procedure

Of course, this process can be used for other functions.

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Suppose that the equation f (x)=0 has a solution at x=α . Choose x 0 close to α .
 Start with the point P0 ( x 0 , f ( x 0 )) on the curve y=f (x ).
 Let x 1 be the x -axis intercept of the tangent to the curve at P0. In general, x 1 will be a better
approximation to the solution α .
 Next consider the point P1 (x 1 , f (x 1)).
 The process is repeated to give a sequence of values x 1, x 2, x 3, … with each one closer to α .
 We can go from x n to x n+1 by using the iterative formula:
f ( xn )
x n+1=x n − where n=0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , …
f ' ( x n)
Example 1:
Use Newton’s Method to solve the equation −x 3 +5 x 2−3 x + 4=0 for all x ∈ ¿

f ( xn )
xn f ( xn ) f ' (x n) x n−
f ' (xn )

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Newton’s Method Doesn’t Always Work
Consider the function f ( x )=x 3−5 x :
Sequence Type Key Info Diagram
 If you start with x 0=1, the tangent is
y=−2−2 x .
Oscillating  This gives x 1=−1.
 The tangent at x=−1 is y=2−2 x .
 So, you get the sequence 1 ,−1 , 1,−1 , …

 There are stationary points at x=±

√15
3
Terminating
 The tangents at these points are parallel to
the x -axis, and you do not get a solution.

Newton’s method can be used successfully with the function f ( x )=x 3−5 x :
 For any starting point in the interval (−1 , 1), you will get convergence to x=0 .
√15 , you will get convergence to x= 5.
 For any starting point in (1 , ∞) except for
3
√
−√ 15
 For any starting point in (−∞,−1) except for , you will get convergence to x=− √ 5.
3

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(OPTIONAL) - Using Pseudocode for Newton’s Method
To understand how to use pseudocode for the bisection method, we first must understand the basics of
algorithms and pseudocode.
Appendix A has many exercise questions where you can test your understanding of this content.
Definition Examples
A finite, unambiguous sequence of  Numerical methods for solving
Algorithms instructions for performing a equations (bisection method)
specific task.  Probability calculations and simulations
Notation for describing algorithms that  Completing the square
is somewhere in between our natural  Polynomial division
Pseudocode
language and a more formal programming  Estimating solutions
language.

Key Terms and Processes for Algorithms

Definition Example
A string of one or more letters that acts as a
placeholder that can be assigned different
values.
Variables  An arrow pointing from right to left denotes
the assignment of a value to a variable.
 E.g., the notation p ←2 means ‘assign the
value 2 to the variable p’.
A diagram that can be used to describe an Use a flowchart to describe an
algorithm. Shapes have key meanings: algorithm to evaluate the hybrid


Oval: start and end of the process.
Rectangle: basic step in the process.
function f ( x )= {2−x
x+ 3 ,∧x >0
,∧x ≤ 0

 Diamond: decision step, where the answer

Flowcharts
to a question will be yes or no.
 Parallelogram: step that involves obtaining
input from or showing output to the user.
 Arrows between the boxes show the order
to be followed.

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MM Unit 3 © MCO
A table of values to demonstrate each
algorithm.
To carry out a desk check:
 Carefully follow the algorithm step by step.
 Construct a table of values of all the
Desk Check variables after each step.
 E.g., the flowchart at right describes an
algorithm to find the remainder when a
given number n is divided by 3.
 The matching desk check (checking
when n=14) is also included.
Looping constructs allow us to repeat steps in a  See image above for an example of
controlled way; this is called iteration. looping (Is n ≥ 3? Yes: n ← n−3
 A sequence of instructions to be repeated is command).
Iteration
called a loop.  Notice that iteration is repeated in
 Each repeat is a pass of the loop. a controlled way until we can
successfully move to the next step.
A list of numbers, with order being important.  The sequence of odd numbers
 The numbers of a sequence are called its 1 ,3 ,5 , 7 , … can be defined by the
Sequences terms. function f : N → R , f ( n )=2 n−1
 The first term is f (1)=1, the second
term is f (2)=3, and so on.
Selection Instructions such as “if … then” allow us to
specify whether steps should be followed based
on conditions.
 These selections are a part of decision-
making constructs.
 For example, consider the flowchart (at
right) for the function

{
f ( n )= 2 n+ 4 ,∧If n is even which defines the
n+ 3 ,∧If n is odd
sequence 4 , 8 ,6 ,12 , …

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 Notice the “Is n even” command: this is an
example of a selection.

Key Terms and Processes for Pseudocode

Definition Example
Pseudocode language for selections.
 The basic template for an if-then block is
shown on the right.
 Second image is a strengthened construct.
If-then
Alternative instructions (else) are used when
blocks
the given condition is not satisfied.
 If there are several alternatives, continue to
list, using else if statements for all additional
conditions until the last (bottom image).
Same as algorithms:
 Use “from … to” commands.
Loops While loops (second image):
 Useful when the number of iterations
required to perform a task is unknown.
Nested A loop inside another loop: Consider the pseudocode algorithm and
loops  The first pass of the outer loop starts the matching desk check:
inner loop, which executes to completion.
o (in image) The initial value of a in the
outer loop is 1. This value of a is
taken into the inner loop, where b
takes the values 1 ,2 and 3.
 Then the second pass of the outer loop
starts the inner loop again.
o (in image) a takes its next value in
the outer loop, which is 2. We enter
the inner loop with this new value of
a . Again, b takes the values 1 ,2 and
3.
 This repeats until the outer loop finishes.

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MM Unit 3 © MCO
o (in image) conditions of a have been
met, so loop has finished.
A block of code that performs a clearly defined
task.
 Can have one or more inputs and return an
output. Consider examples below:
Functions
o Defining functions to find values, for
example f ( x)=3 x +2 (top image).
Defining functions to determine distance from a
point (x , y ) to the origin (bottom image).

Consider Example 1 from 10H:

Use Newton’s Method to solve the equation −x 3 +5 x 2−3 x + 4=0 for all x ∈ ¿.
The table shows the result of executing the algorithm. The first row gives the initial values of x and f ( x).
The next rows give the values that are printed at the end of each pass of the while loop.

The while instruction can be written more efficiently, using the absolute value function as:
while |f ( x )|>10−6.

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Integration Summary

Graph Styles
Important Formulas

CAS Tips
Things I alw Key Info…
ays
forget…

Examples I may need…

Other Stuff!
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11A The Area Under a Graph
Estimation of the Area Under a Curve
Key Info Example
Consider the curve f : R → R , f ( x ) =x2 +2, area from x=0
to x=3 .
 Construct rectangles of width 1 unit & height
touching the curve at the top left corner.
 The height of the first rectangle: f ( 0 )
Left
 The height of the second rectangle: f (1)
End Point
 The height of the third rectangle: f (2)
A=1× f ( 0)+1 × f (1)+ 1× f (2)
¿ 2+3+6=11
 For left end point, the approximate area is always
less than the actual area.
Again, consider f ( x ), as above:
 Rectangles touch curve at the top right corner.
 The height of the first rectangle: f (1)
 The height of the second rectangle: f (2)
Right
 The height of the third rectangle: f (3)
End Point
A=1× f (1)+1× f (2)+1 × f (3)
¿ 3+6+ 11=20
 For right end point, the approximate area is always
greater than the actual area.
1
 Area is ( a+b ) h where a and b are lengths of the
2
parallel sides and h is the width.
Consider f ( x )=9−0.1 x 2 from x ∈[2,5]
Trapezium 1
A= ¿
2
Method
+ f (3 ) ¿ × 0.5+…( f ( 4.5 ) + f (5 ))×0.5 ¿
¿ 23.0875
 Trapezium is the average of the left and right
endpoint estimates

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Example 1:
Find the sum of the areas of the shaded trapeziums to approximate the area under the graph of
2
f ( x )=( x−2 )( x +2 ) ( x−1 ) +10 between x=0 and x=3 .

The Definite Integral

Key Info…
Example 2:
Evaluate each of the following definite integrals by first using an area Terminals,
and indicate
the range of
the values of
formula and then compare to the value of the definite integral. over which th
e integral is
taken.
3

a. ∫ (x−1)dx
1

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MM Unit 4 © MCO
3 1

b. ∫ (x−1)dx +∫ (1−x )dx

1 −1

c. ∫ (x+ 1) dx
1

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11B Antidifferentiation: Indefinite Integrals
Example 1:
Find the general antiderivative (indefinite integral) of each
Important Formulas
of the following:
a. 3 x 5

b. 3 x 2+ 4 x−2 +3

CAS Tips

To find an anti-
derivative:
Menu – 4 – 3

Example 2:
Find y in terms of x if:
dy 1 dy dy
3 −3
a. = b. =3 √ x c. =x 4 + x 4
dx x 2 dx dx

In some situations, extra information that makes it possible to determine a unique antiderivative is given.
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Example 3:
It is known that f ' (x )=x 3 +4 x 2 and f (0)=0 . Find f ( x) .

Example 4:
If the gradient of the tangent at a point (x , y ) on a curve is given by 2 x and the curve passes through the
point (−1 , 4), find the equation of the curve.

11C The Antiderivative of (ax+b)r

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MM Unit 4 © MCO
When r≠-1
Example 1:
Important Formulas
Find the general antiderivative of:
a. (3 x+ 1)5 b. (2 x−1)−2 Only used if the expression in the
brackets is linear.
If not, expression must be expanded.

VCAA 2002 Exam 1 Question 21:

dy 3
If = then y is equal to?
dx √ 2 x+1

When r=-1
Example 2:
Important Formulas
2
Find the general antiderivative of
2−3 x

Where indicates the absolute value (i.e.

positive values only)

*Note: the above are only applicable for the

log function of base

11D The Antiderivative of ekx

Example 1:
Find the general antiderivative of each of the following:
Important Formulas
a. e 4 x b. e 5 x +6 x
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MM Unit 4 © MCO

c. e 3 x +2 d. e− x + e x

Example 2:
If the gradient at a point (x , y ) on a curve is given by 5 e 2 x and the curve passes through (0 , 7.5), find the
equation of the curve.

11E The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and the Definite Integral

The Net Signed Area
Key Info…
Example 1: If an area of
the graph lie
2 the -axis, we s below
cou
negative regi nteract the
Evaluate the definite integral of ∫ x dx on by subtra
cting it
from the pos
−2 itive region
.

Where, is th
e positive re 67
the negative gion and is
region.
MM Unit 4 © MCO

The Definite Integral

If f and g are continuous functions on an interval where a< x<b
and k is a constant, then the following rules apply.
a b a b b kb b

∫ f ( x ) dx=0∫ f ( x ) dx=−∫ f ( x ) dx ∫ kf ( x ) dx=k ∫ f ( x ) dx ∫ f

a a b a a ka
()
x
k
dx=k ∫ f ( x ) dx
a

b +c b b b b

∫ f ( x−c ) dx=∫ f ( x ) dx ∫ ( f ( x ) ± g ( x)) dx=∫ f ( x ) dx ±∫ g ( x ) dx

a +c a a a a

b c b

∫ f ( x ) dx=∫ f ( x ) dx +∫ f ( x ) dx , providinga< c< b

a a c

Example 2:
Evaluate each of the following definite integrals:
3 2 1 1 3

a. ∫ x dx
2
b. ∫ x dx 2
c. ∫ x 2 + x 2 dx
2 3 0

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Example 3:
Evaluate each of the following definite integrals:
1 4 4 1 x

a. ∫2 e −2 x
dx b. ∫e 2x
+1 dx c. ∫2 x 2 2
+ e dx
0 0 1

Example 4:
Evaluate each of the following definite integrals
8 5
1 1
a. ∫ x−5 dx b. ∫ 2 x−5 dx
6 4

VCAA 2019 Exam 2 Question 12:

4 4 2

If ∫ f ( x )dx=4 and ∫ f ( x )dx=−2, then ∫ (f ( x ) + x) dx is equal to:

1 2 1

*Hint: this is just algebra! Area 1-4 minus Area 2-4 equals Area 1-2

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VCAA 2020 Exam 2 Question 9:

8 2

If ∫ f ( x )dx=5 , then ∫ f (2 ( x+ 2 )) dx is equal to

4 0

*Hint: Look for dilations and translations!

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11F Finding the Area Under a Curve
Finding the Area of a Region
Key Info Example
The area A of the region contained
between the curve, the x -axis and the
If f (x)≥ 0
lines x=a and x=b is given by
for all x ∈[a , b]
b
A=∫ f (x ) dx
a

The area A of the region contained

between the curve, the x -axis and the
If f (x)≤ 0
lines x=a and x=b is given by
for all x ∈[a , b]
b a
A=−∫ f ( x ) dx=∫ f ( x ) dx
a b

The area A of the shaded region is

If c ∈ ( a , b ) , given by
b c
f (x) ≥ 0 for x ∈ ¿ &
A=∫ f (x ) dx−∫ f ( x)dx
f (x) ≤ 0 for x ∈ ¿ c a

Example 1:
a. Find the area of the region between the x -axis, the line y=x +1 and the
lines x=2 and x=4.

b. Find the area under the line y=x +1 between x=−4 and x=−2

Example 2:

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Find the exact area of the shaded region.

Example 3:
Find the exact area of the regions enclosed by the graph of
y=x (2−x)(x−3) and the x -axis.

11G Integration of Circular Functions

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Example 1:
Find antiderivatives of each of the following:
Important Formulas
(
a. sin 3 x +
π
4 )

1
b. sin( 4 x)
4

Example 2:
Find the exact value of each of the following definite integrals:
π π
4 2
a. ∫ sin (2 x )dx b. ∫ cos ( x )+1 dx
0 0

Example 3:

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Find the exact area of the shaded region for each of the graphs:
a.

b.

11H Miscellaneous Exercises

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Integration by Recognition
Key Info…
Example 1: To anti-differ
entiate compl
2 functions; ex
If f (x)=log e ( x +1):
You will firs
t be given a
2x function to d
' iffe
a. Show that f ( x )= 2
x +1 You then need rentiate.
to recognise
the functions

In general, f
, then

2
x
b. Hence evaluate ∫ 2
dx
0 x +1

Example 2:
cos (x)
If f (x)=
sin (x)
' −1
a. Show that f ( x )=
( sin(x ) )2

π
2
1
b. Hence evaluate ∫ 2
dx
π ( sin( x ) )
4

Example 3:
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MM Unit 4 © MCO
a. If f (x)= x log e (kx ), find f (x ) and hence find ∫ log e (kx)dx where k is a positive real constant.
'

b. If f (x)= x2 log e (kx ), find f ' (x ) and hence find ∫ x loge(kx )dx where k is a positive real constant.

Example 4:
π
2
1 2
a. Find ∫ dx b. Hence evaluate ∫ e x sin(x )dx
1 √ x2 −1 0

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11I The Area of a Region Between Two Curves
Key Info Example
It is absolutely critical to know when f > g or f < g, so a graph
is essential. To find the area:
 Take each section one at a time.
 Within each section, subtract the bottom from the top.
Whether a function is above or below the axis is irrelevant
when working between curves.
b c d e
A=∫ ( g ( x ) −f (x ) ) dx+∫ ( f ( x )−g(x ) ) dx+∫ ( g ( x )−f (x) ) dx +∫ ( f ( x ) −g (x) ) dx
a b c d

Example 1:
Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola y=x 2 and the line y=2 x

Example 2:

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Calculate the area of the region enclosed between the curves with equations y=x +1 and y=4−x 2, and
2

the lines x=1 and x=−1.

Example 3:
Find the area of the region enclosed by the graphs of f ( x)= x3 and g( x )=x CAS Tips

In Graphs
Menu – 6 – 8

Example 4:
Find the area of the shaded region of the graph.

Antidifferentiation of Logarithmic Functions

Key Info Example Graph
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MM Unit 4 © MCO

To anti-differentiate a logarithmic If f ( x )=log e (x) , f −1 ( x )=e x , the area

function without technology: bound by the curve of f ( x) and the
 Use integration by recognition. x -axis from x=1 to x=3 is shown.
 Use an inverse:
o To find the inverse of a This area is equivalent to the area
function, x and y bound by the curve of f −1 (x) and
components switch the y -axis from y=1 to y=3 .
o This is also true for areas

Example 5:
For the function f : R+ ¿∪ {0 }→ R ,f (x )=log ( x+1) ¿
e

a. Find f −1 and sketch the graphs f and f −1on the same set of

axes

log e 2

b. Find the exact value of the area ∫ f

−1
( x ) dx
0

c. Find the exact value of ∫ f ( x ) dx

0

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11J Applications of Integration
The Average Value of a Function
Example 1:
Important Formulas
2
Find the average value of f ( x)= x for the interval [0 ,2] . Illustrate with a
horizontal line determined by this value.

Rates of Change
Example 2:
The rate of change of temperature with respect to time of a liquid which has been boiled and then allowed
dT
to cool is given by =−0.5(T −30), where T is the temperature (◦C) at time t (min).
dt
dT
a. Sketch the graph of against T for T > 30.
dt

dt
b. Sketch the graph of against T for T > 30.
dT

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MM Unit 4 © MCO

c.
i. Find the area of the region enclosed by the graph in part b, the x -axis and the lines T =35 and
T =120. Give your answer correct to two decimal places.

ii. What does this area represent?

Appendix – Graphs of Functions Given the Graph of the Derivative

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Key Info Example Gradient Function f ’ ( x) Original Function f ( x)
 x -intercepts on the
graph of y=f ' ( x )
give the x -
Linear
coordinates of
stationary points on
the graph of
y=f ( x ).
 When the graph of
y=f ' ( x ) is above the Quadrati
x -axis, this indicates c
the graph of
y=f ( x ) has a positive
gradient for these x -
values.
 When the graph of
y=f ' ( x ) is below the
x -axis, this indicates
Cubic
the graph of
y=f ( x ) has a
negative gradient for
these x -values.

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