Ch.

6: MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS FOR TIME-

VARYING FIELDS

TOPICS OF INTEREST : Dynamics Fields

7. Moving Conductor in a Time-

1. Faraday’s Law
Varying Magnetic Field
2. Stationary Loop in a Time-
8. Displacement Current
Varying Magnetic Field
9. Boundary Conditions for
3. The Ideal Transformer
Electromagnetics
4. Moving Conductor in a Static
10. Charge-Current Continuity
Magnetic Field
Relation
5. The Electromagnetic
11. Free-Charge Dissipation in a
Generator
Conductor
12. Electromagnetic Potentials

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 1.2

5.1 INTRODUCTION: DYNAMIC FIELDS-APPLICATUIONS

Electric charges induce electric fields and electric currents induce

magnetic fields.
As long as the charge and current distributions remain constant in
time, so will the fields that they induce.
However, if the charge and current sources were to vary with time
t, not only will the fields also vary with time, but much more happens.
The electric and magnetic fields become interconnected, and the
coupling between them produces electromagnetic waves capable of
traveling through free space and in material media.
Electromagnetic waves, which include light waves, x-rays, infrared
waves, gamma rays, and radio waves, are an important part of our
physical world, and their uses are manifested in many fields of science
and technology.
To study time-varying electromagnetic phenomena, we need to use
Maxwell’s equations as an integrated unit.

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 1.3

These equations are given in both differential and integral form in

Table 6-1.

In the static case (∂/∂t = 0) we use the first pair of Maxwell’s

equations to study electrical phenomena (in Electrostatic Fields ) and the
third pair to study magnetic phenomena (Magnetostatic Fields).
In the dynamic case we have to deal with the coupling that exists
between the electric and magnetic fields, as expressed by the second
and fourth equations in Table 6-1.
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The first equation represents Gauss’s law, and it is equally valid for
static and dynamic fields.

The same is true for the third equation, ∇.B = 0, which basically states
that there are no such things as magnetic charges.
The second and fourth equations, however, exhibit different meanings
for static and dynamic fields.
 In the dynamic case, a time-varying magnetic field gives rise to an
electric field (Faraday’s law) and, conversely, a time-varying electric
field gives rise to a magnetic field (Ampere’s law).

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 1.5

We are going in this chapter to examine Faraday’s and Ampere’s laws

and some of their practical applications.
We will then combine Maxwell’s equations to obtain relations among
the charge (ρν) and current sources (J), the scalar (V) and vector (A)
potentials, and the electromagnetic fields [ E, D, H, and B], for the time-
varying case in general and for sinusoidal-time variations in particular.

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 1.6

6.2 Faraday’s Law

The close connection between electricity and magnetism was
established by Oersted, who demonstrated that a wire carrying an
electric current exerts a force on a compass needle and that the
needle always turns so as to point in the ˆ -direction when the current
is along the ˆ -direction.
The force acting on the compass needle is due to the magnetic field
produced by the current in the wire.
Following this discovery, Michael Faraday developed the following
hypothesis: if a current can produce a magnetic field, then the
converse should also be true: a magnetic field should produce a current
in a wire.
To prove his hypothesis, he conducted numerous experiments in his
laboratory in London over a period of about 10 years, all aimed at
making magnetic fields induce currents in wires.
Similar work was being conducted by Joseph Henry in Albany, New
York. Wires were placed next to permanent magnets of all different
sizes, but no currents were detected in the wires.
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Current was passed through a wire while another wire was placed
parallel to it, with the expectation that the magnetic field of the
current-carrying wire would induce a current in the other wire, but again
the result was negative.
These types of experiments led to the true answer, which both
Faraday and Henry discovered independently at about the same
time (1831).
 They discovered that indeed magnetic fields can produce an
electric current in a closed loop, but only if the magnetic flux linking
the surface area of the loop changes with time.
The key to the induction process is change.
Explaination of the induction process: let us
consider the arrangement shown in Fig. 6-1.

 A square conducting loop connected to a

galvanometer, which is a sensitive instrument
used to detect the flow of current in a
circuit, is placed next to a conducting coil Fig.6-1
connected to a battery.
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 The current in the coil produces a magnetic field B whose lines pass
through the loop as shown in Fig. 6-1.
 The magnetic flux Ф passing through a loop is defined as the integral
of the normal component of the magnetic flux density over the
surface area of the loop S

(6.5)

 When the flux is constant, nocurrent is

detected by the galvanometer.
 However, when the battery is disconnected,
thereby interrupting the flow of current in
the coil, the magnetic field drops to zero, and
the consequent change in magnetic flux causes
a momentary deflection of the galvanometer
needle.
Fig.6-1

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 When the battery is reconnected, the galvanometer again exhibits a

momentary deflection, but in the opposite direction.
 Thus, current is induced in the loop when the magnetic flux changes,
and the direction of the current depends on whether the flux is
increasing (as when the battery is being connected) or decreasing (as
when the battery is being disconnected).
 It was further discovered that current can also flow in the loop,
while the battery is connected to the coil, if the loop is turned around
suddenly or while moving it closer to or away from the coil.
The physical movement of the loop changes
the amount of flux linking its surface S, even
though the field B due to the coil has not
changed.
 When a galvanometer detects the flow of
current through the coil, it means that a
voltage has been induced across the Fig.6-1
galvanometer terminals.
This voltage is called the electromotive force (emf), Vemf , and the
process is called electromagnetic induction.
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The emf induced in a closed conducting loop of N turns is given by

(6.5)

 This Eq. (6.5), also discovered

independently by Henry, is attributed to
Faraday and is known as Faraday’s law.
 The significance of the negative sign in
is due to Lenz’s Law. Fig.6-1

Note that the derivative in Eq. (6.5) is a total time derivative that
operates on the magnetic field B, as well as the differential surface area
ds.
Accordingly, an emf can be generated in a closed conducting loop under
any of the following three conditions:

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1. A time-varying magnetic field linking a stationary loop;

the induced emf is then called the transformer emf, Vemf
tr
.
2. A moving loop with a time-varying area (relative to the normal
component of B) in a static field B; the induced emf is then called
the motional emf,Vemf
m
.
3. A moving loop in a time-varying field B.
The total emf is given by:
(6.7)

with Vemf
m
= 0 if the loop is stationary -case (1)- and Vemf
tr
= 0 if B is
static -case (2). For case (3), neither term is zero.

Fig.6-1

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6.3 STATIONARY LOOP IN A TIME-VARYING MAGNTIC FIELD

The single-turn, conducting, circular loop with contour C and surface
area S shown in Fig. 6-2(a) is in a time-varying magnetic field B(t).
Since the loop is stationary, d/dt in Eq. (6.6)
now operates on B(t) only. Hence

(6.8)

Fig.6-2

where the full derivative d/dt has been

moved inside the integral and changed into
a partial derivative ∂/∂t to signify that it
operates on B only.
The transformer emf is the voltage difference that would appear across
the small opening between terminals 1and 2, even in the absence of the
resistor R.
That is,Vemf
tr
= V12 , where V12 is the open-circuit voltage across the open
ends of the loop.
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For the loop and the associated definition

for Vemf
tr
, the direction of ds can be chosen to be
either upward or downward.
The two choices are associated with
opposite designations of the polarities of
terminals 1 and 2 in Fig. 6-2(a). Fig.6-2

The connection between the direction of

ds and the polarity of Vemf
tr
is governed by
the following right-hand rule:
if ds points along the thumb of the right hand, then
the direction of the contour C indicated by the four
fingers is such that it always passes across the opening
from the positive terminal of Vemf tr
to the negative
terminal.
If the loop has an internal resistance Ri , the circuit in Fig. 6-2(a) can
be represented by the equivalent shown in Fig. 6-2(b), in which case the
current I flowing through the circuit is given by:
(6.9)

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For good conductors, Ri usually is very small,

and it may be ignored in comparison with
practical values of R, except when R = 0 ( loop is
shorted across its ends ).
The polarity ofVemf and hence the direction of
tr

I is governed by Lenz’s law, which states that

the current in the loop is always in such a
direction as to oppose the change of magnetic
flux Φ(t) that produced it.
Fig.6-2
The current I induces a magnetic field of its own, Bind, with a
corresponding flux Фind.
 The direction of Bind is governed by the right-hand rule; if I is in
a clockwise direction, then Bind points downward through S and,
conversely, if I is in a counterclockwise direction, then Bind points
upward through S. If the original field B(t) is increasing, which means
that dФ/dt > 0, then according to Lenz’s law, I has to be in the
direction shown in Fig. 6-2(a) in order for Bind to be in opposition to
B(t).
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 Consequently, terminal 2 would be at a higher potential than terminal 1,

and Vemf
tr
would have a negative value.
 However, if B(t) were to remain in the same direction but to decrease in
value/magnitude, then d Ф/dt would become negative, the current would
have to reverse direction, and its induced field Bind would be in the same
direction as B(t) so as to oppose the change (decrease) of B(t).
In that case, Vemf
tr
would be positive.

 It will be important to remember that Bind serves to oppose the change in

B(t), and not necessarily B(t) itself.
Despite the presence of the small opening between terminals 1 and 2 of the
loop in Fig. 6-2(a), we shall treat the loop as a closed path with contour C; in
order to establish the link between B and the electric field E associated with
the induced emf, Vemftr
.
 For contour C, Vemf
tr
is related to E by:
(6.10)

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 For N = 1 (a loop with one turn), equating Eqs. (6.8) and (6.10) gives:
(6.11)

which is the integral form of Faraday’s law.

By applying Stokes’s theorem to the left-hand side of Eq. (6.11), we have
(6.12)

And for the two integrals to be equal, their integrands have to be

equal, which gives :

(6.13)

This differential form of Faraday’s law states that a time-varying

magnetic field B induces an electric field E whose curl is equal to the
negative of the time derivative of B.
 This derivation leading to Faraday’s law started out by considering
the field associated with a physical circuit, Eq. (6.13) applies at any point
in space, whether or not a physical circuit exists at that point

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Example 6-1: Inductor in a Changing Magnetic Field

Fig.6-3: Circular loop with N

turns in the x-y plane.

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Fig.6-3: Circular loop with N

turns in the x-y plane.

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Example 6-2: Lenz’s Law

Fig.6-4: Circuit

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 1.20

6.4 IDEAL TRANSFORMER

The transformer shown in Fig. 6-5(a) consists of two coils N1-turns and N2-
turns wound around a common magnetic core.
The primary coil is connected
to an a-c voltage source V1(t) and
the secondary coil is connected to Fig.6-5
a load resistor RL.
In an ideal transformer, the
core has infinite permeability
(μ = ∞), and the magnetic flux is
confined within the core.

The directions of the currents flowing in the two coils, I1 and I2, are
defined such that, when I1 and I2 are both positive, the
flux generated by I2 is opposite that generated by I1 .
The transformer gets its name from the fact that it is used to
transform (1)currents, (2) voltages, and (3)impedances between
its primary and secondary circuits.

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The flux Ф and the voltage V1 are related by Faraday’s law:

(6.14)

and, similarly, on the secondary side,

(6.15)

The combination of Eqs. (6.14) and (6.15) gives Fig.6-5

(6.16)

In an ideal lossless transformer, all the instantaneous power supplied by

the source connected to the primary coil is delivered to the load on the
secondary side. Thus, no power is lost in the core, and :
(6.17)

 Since P1 = I1V1 and P2 = I2V2, and in view of Eqs. (6.16) we get:

(6.18)

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The voltage and current in the secondary

circuit in Fig. 6-5(a) are related by V2 = I2RL.
To the input circuit, the transformer may
be represented by an equivalent input
resistance Rin, as shown in Fig. 6-6, defined as:

(6.19)

Use of Eqs. (6.16) and (6.18) gives :

(6.20)
Fig.6-5
When the load is an impedance ZL and V1 is a
sinusoidal source, the input resistance
representation can be extended to an equivalent
input impedance Zin given :

(6.21)
Fig.6-6

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6.5 MOVING CONDUCTOR IN A STATIC MAGNETIC FIELD

Fig.6-7
Consider a wire of length Ɩ moving across
a static magnetic field B= B0 atzˆa
constant velocity u, as shown in Fig. 6-7.
The conducting wire contains free
electrons. The magnetic force Fm acting on
any charged particle q moving with a velocity
u in a magnetic field B is given by:
(6.22)

This magnetic force is equivalent to the electrical force that would be

exerted on the particle by an electric field Em given by:

(6.23)

The field Em generated by the motion of the charged particle is called a

motional electric field, and it is in a direction perpendicular to the plane
containing u and B.
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For the wire shown in Fig. 6-7, Em is along -Yˆ.

Fig.6-7

The magnetic force acting on the

electrons in the wire causes them to move
in the direction of -Em; that is, toward the
end labeled 1 in Fig. 6-7.
This in turn induces a voltage
difference between ends 1 and 2, with
end 2 being at the higher potential.

The induced voltage is called a motional emf, Vemf and is defined as

m

the line integral of Em between ends 2 and I of the wire,

(6.24)

 For the conducting wire, and

 Hence, (6.25)

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In general, if any segment of a closed circuit with contour C moves with a

velocity u across a static magnetic field B, then the induced motional emf is
given by :

(6.26)

 Only those segments of the circuit that cross magnetic field

lines contribute to Vemf
m

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Example 6-3: Sliding Bar

Fig. 6-8

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Example 6-3: Sliding Bar

Fig. 6-8

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Example 6-4: Moving Loop Fig. 6-9

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Example 6-5: Moving Rod Next To a Wire Fig. 6-9

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 1.30

6.6 THE ELECTROMAGNATIC GENERATOR

The electromagnetic generator is the
converse of the electromagnetic motor.
The principles of operation of both
instruments may be explained with the help
of Fig. 6-11.
 A permanent magnet is used to produce a
static magnetic field B in the slot between
the two poles of the magnet.
 When a current is passed through the
conducting loop, as depicted in Fig. 6-11(a), the
current flows in opposite directions in
segments 1-2 and 3-4 of the loop.
The induced magnetic forces on the two
segments are also opposite, resulting in a
torque that causes the loop to rotate about its
axis.
Fig.6-11

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Thus, in a motor, electrical energy supplied by

a voltage source is converted into mechanical
energy in the form of a rotating loop, which can be
coupled to pulleys, gears, or other movable
objects.
If, instead of passing a current through the
loop to make it turn, the loop is made to rotate
by an external force, the movement of the loop in
the magnetic field will produce a motional emf, as
shown in Fig. 6-11(b).
Hence, the motor has become a generator, and
mechanical energy is being converted into
electrical energy.

 Let us examine the operation of the

electromagnetic generator in more detail using
the coordinate system shown in Fig. 6-12.
The magnetic field is given by: (6.30)
Fig.6-11

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 1.32
(6.30)

 Segments 1-2 and 3-4 of the loop are of length Ɩ each, and both cross the
magnetic flux lines as the loop rotates.
The other two segments are each of width w, and neither crosses the B lines
when the loop rotates.
 Hence, only segments 1-2 and 3-4 contribute to the generation of the
motional emf Vemfm

 As the loop rotates with an angular velocity ω about and its own axis,
segment 1-2 moves with a velocity u given:

(6.31)

where n̂, the surface normal to

the loop, makes an angle α with
z-axis.
Hence, (6.32)

 Segment 3-4 moves with a

velocity -u.
Fig.6-12

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 Application of Eq. (6.26), consistent with our choice of ,n̂gives :

(6.33)

 Using Eq. (6.32) in Eq. (6.33), we obtain the result :

(6.34)

where A = wƖ is the surface area

of the loop.

The angle α is related to ω by:

(6.35)
where C0 is a constant determined
by initial conditions.
For example, if α = 0 at t = 0, then
C0 = 0 Fig.6-12

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 In general, (6.36)

This result can also be obtained by applying the general form of

Faraday’s law given by Eq. (6.6).

 The flux linking the surface of the loop is :

(6.37)
and

(6.38)

which is identical with the result given by Eq.(6.36)

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6.7 MOVING CONDUCTOR IN TIME-VARYING MAGNTIC FIELD

For the general case of a single-turn conducting loop moving in a time-
varying magnetic field, the induced emf is the sum of a transformer
component and a motional component.
Thus, the sum of Eqs. (6.8) and (6.26) gives:

(6.39)

Vemf is also given by the general expression of Faraday’s law:

(6.40)

If the loop consists of N turns, the terms on the right-

hand sides of Eqs. (6.39) and (6.40) should be multiplied by
N.

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 1.36

Example 6-6: Electromagnetic generator

and

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6.8 DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

From Table 6-1, Ampere’s law in differential form is given by:
(6.41)

If we take the surface integral of both sides of Eq. (6.41) over an

arbitrary open surface S with contour C, we have :
(6.42)

The surface integral of J is equal to the conduction current Ic flowing

through S, and the surface integral of xH can be converted into a line
integral of H over the contour C by invoking Stokes’s theorem.
Hence, (6.43)

The second term on the right-hand side of Eq. (6.43) has to have the
same unit (amperes) as the current Ic, and because it is proportional to
the time derivative of the electric flux density D (which is also called
the electric displacement), it is called the displacement current
Id.That is, (6.44)

where Jd = ∂D/∂t represents a displacement current density .

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In view of Eq. (6.44), (6.45)

where I is the total current.

In electrostatics, ∂D/∂t = 0 and therefore Id =0 and I= Ic .
The concept of displacement current was first introduced by James
Clerk Maxwell in 1873 in his successful attempt to establish unified
connection between electric and magnetic fields under time-varying
conditions.

The parallel-plate capacitor is commonly used as a convenient example

to illustrate the physical meaning of the displacement current Id.The
simple circuit shown in Fig. 6-13 consists of a capacitor and an a-c source
with voltage V(t) given by
(6.46)

 According to Eq. (6.45), the total

current flowing through any surface
consists of a conduction current Ic
and a displacement current Id . Fig.6-13

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 Let us find Ic and Id through each of the following two imaginary

surfaces:
(1) the cross section of the conducting wire, S1 and
(2) the cross section of the capacitor (surface S2 in Fig. 6-13).
 We shall denote the conduction and displacement currents in the wire
I1c and I1d and those through the capacitor I2c and I2d .
 In a perfect conductor, D = E= 0; hence, Eq. (6.44) gives I1d = 0 in
the wire. As to I1c, we know from circuit theory that it is related to the
voltage across the capacitor Vc by:

(6.47)

where Vc = Vs(t). (6.45)

 With Id = 0, the total current in
the wire is simply :
I1 = -CV0ωsinωt.
Fig.6-13

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 We now consider the currents flowing through surface S2 in Fig. 6-13,

which is an imaginary, open surface parallel to the capacitor plates and
situated somewhere between them.
 The space between the two plates, each of which is of area A, is
filled with a perfect dielectric material with permittivity ε.
 Since electrical charges cannot physically move through a
dielectric medium, conduction cannot take place between the
conducting plates of the capacitor, and therefore I2c = 0.
 To determine I2d we need to apply Eq. (6.44). The electric field E
in the dielectric spacing is related to the voltage V across the
capacitor by :

(6.48) (6.45)

where d is the spacing between

the plates and yˆis the direction
from the higher-potential plate
toward the lower-potential plate.
Fig.6-13

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 The displacement current I2d in the direction shown in

Fig. 6-13 is obtained by applying the Eq.(6.44) with ds = yˆds:
Fig.6-13

(6.49)

where we used the relation C = εA/d for the capacitance of the parallel-
plate capacitor.
The expression for I2d in the dielectric region between the conducting
plates is identical with that given by Eq. (6.47) for the conduction
current I1c in the wire.
The fact that these two currents are equal ensures the continuity of
current flow through the circuit.
 Even though the displacement current does not carry real charge, it
nonetheless behaves like a real current.

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 In the capacitor example, we treated the wire as a perfect

conductor, and we assumed that the spacing between the capacitor
plates is a perfect dielectric.

If the wire has a finite conductivity σw, then D in the wire would not
be zero, and therefore the current I1 would consist of a conduction
current I1c as well as a displacement current l1d; that is, I1 = I1c+lId.
 By the same token, if the dielectric spacing material has a nonzero
conductivity σd , then charges would be able to flow between the two
plates and I2c would not be zero.

In that case, the total current flowing through the capacitor would
be I2 = I2c + I2d, and it would be equal to the total current in the
wire.
 That is , I1 = I2 .

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
 1.43

Example 6-7: Displacement Current Density.

 Note that Ic and Id are in phase

quadrature (90° phase shift
between them).
 Also, Id is about nine orders of
magnitude smaller than Ic , which is
why the displacement
current usually is ignored in good
conductors.
A
where we used ω= 10rad/s and ε= ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12.

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6-9 BOUANDARY CONDITIONS FOR ELECTROMAGNATICS

In the dynamic case, Maxwell’s equations include two new terms, ∂B/∂t
in Faraday’s law and ∂D/∂t in Ampere’s law.
Nevertheless, the boundary conditions derived previously for
electrostatics and magnetostatics remain valid for time-varying fields as
well. This is because,the combination of the aforementioned terms vanish
as the areas of the rectangular loops in Figs. 4-18 and 5-24 are made to
approach zero
The combined set of electromagnetic boundary conditions is given in
Table 6-2.

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
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6-10 CHARGE-CURRENT CONTINUITY RELATION

Under static conditions, the charge density ρV and the current density J at
a given point in a material are totally independent of one another.
This is not true in the time-varying case.
To show the connection between ρv and J, we start by considering an
arbitrary volume ν bounded by a closed surface S, as shown in Fig. 6-14.
 The net positive charge contained in ν is Q.
Fig. 6-14
 Since, according to the law of conservation of
electric charge, charge can neither be created nor
destroyed, the only way Q can increase is as a
result of a net inward flux of positive charge into
the volume ν and, by the same token, for Q to
decrease there has to be a net outward flux of
charge from ν.
 The inward and outward fluxes of charge constitute currents flowing
across the surface S into and out of ν, respectively.

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
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 We define I as the net current flowing across S out of ν.

 Accordingly, I is equal to the negative rate of change of Q:

(6.50)

 The current I was is also defined as the outward flux of the current
density vector J through the surface S. Hence
(6.51)

 By applying the divergence theorem, we can convert the surface

integral of J into a volume integral of its divergence  .J, which then gives
(6.52)

 For a stationary volume ν, the time derivative operates only ρv .

Hence, we can move it inside the integral and express it as a partial
derivative of ρv :
(6.53)

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
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 In order for the volume integrals on the two sides of Eq. (6.53) to be
equal for any volume ν, their integrands have to be equal at every point
within ν. Hence (6.54)

which is known as the charge-current continuity relation or simply as the

charge continuity equation.
If the volume charge density within an elemental volume Δν (such as a
small cylinder) is not a function of time (i.e., ∂ρv/∂t = 0), it means that
the net current flowing out of ν is zero or, equivalently, that the current
flowing into ν is equal to the current flowing out of it.
 In this case, Eq. (6.54) becomes
(6.55)

 And its integral-form equivalent [from Eq. (6.5 1) is :

(6.56)

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
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 Let us examine the meaning of Eq. (6.56) by considering a junction (or

node) connecting two or more branches in an electric circuit.
 No matter how small, the junction has a volume ν enclosed by a
surface S.
The junction shown in Fig. 6-15 has been drawn as a cube, and its
dimensions have been artificially enlarged to facilitate the present
discussion. Fig. 6-15
The junction has six faces (surfaces), which
collectively constitute the surface S associated
with the closed-surface integration given by
Eq. (6.56).
For each face, the integration represents the
current flowing out through that face.
 Thus, Eq. (6.56) can be rewritten as: (6.57)

where Ii is the current flowing outward through the ith face.

 For the junction of Fig. 6-15, Eq. (6.57) translates into (I1+I2+I3) = 0

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
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 In its general form, Eq. (6.57) is an expression of Kirchhoff’s current

law, which states that in an electric circuit the algebraic sum of all the
currents flowing out of a junction is zero.
6-11 FREE-CHARGE DISSIPATION IN A CONDUCTOR

Stated earlier that current flow in a conductor is realized by the

movement of loosely attached electrons under the influence of an
externally applied electric field.
These electrons, however, are not excess charges; they are balanced
by an equal amount of positive charge in the atoms’ nuclei.
In other words, the conductor material is electrically neutral, and the
net charge density in the conductor is zero (ρv = 0).
What happens then if an excess free charge q is introduced at some
interior point in a conductor?
The excess charge will give rise to an electric field, which will
force the charges of the host material nearest to the excess
charge to rearrange their locations, which in turn cause other
charges to move.
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The process will continue until neutrality is reestablished in the

conductor material and a charge equal to q is supplied to the
conductor’s surface.

How fast does the excess charge dissipate?

To answer this question, let us introduce a volume charge density ρvo
at the interior of a conductor and then find out the rate at which it
decays down to zero.
 From Eq. (6.54), the continuity equation is given by :

(6.58)
 In a conductor, the point form of Ohm’s law states that J=σE.
Hence,
(6.59)

 Using first Maxwell’s eqn  .E=ρv/ε we obtain the partial differential

equation:
(6.60)

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
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Given that ρv = ρvo at t = 0, the solution of Eq. (6.60) is :

(6.61)

where τr = ε/σ is called the relaxation time constant.

We see from Eq. (6.61) that the initial excess charge ρvo decays
exponentially at a rate τr.
 At t = τr, the initial charge ρvo will have decayed to 1/e ≈37% of
its initial value,
 And at t = 3τr, it will have decayed to e-3 ≈5 % of its initial value
at t = 0.
 For copper, with ε≃ εo= 8.854 x 10 -12 F/m and σ =5.8 x107 S/m,
τr=1.53x10-19 s.
 Thus, the charge dissipation process in a conductor is extremely
fast.
 In contrast, the decay rate is very slow in a good insulator.
 For a material like mica with ε=6εo and σ =10-15 S/m,
τr = 5.31x104, or approximately 14.8 hours.
Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
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6-12 ELECTROMAGNTIC POTENTIALS

Through Faraday’s and Ampere’s laws discussion , we examined two

aspects of the interconnection that exists between the electric and
magnetic fields when the fields are time varying.
Now examine the implications of this interconnection with regard to the
electric scalar potential V and the vector magnetic potential A.
 For ∂/∂t= 0, Faraday’s law reduces to
(6.62)

which states that the electrostatic field E is conservative.

 According to the rules of vector calculus, if a vector field E is
conservative, it can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar. Hence,
(6.63)

 In the dynamic case, Faraday’s law is given by

(6.64)

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
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 and in view of the relation B =  x A, Eq. (6.64) becomes

(6.65)

 (6.66)

(6.67)
 Let us for the moment define
(6.68)
=>

 Hence we can define (6.69)

Upon substituting Eq. (6.67) for E’ in Eq. (6.69) and then solving
for E, we have (6.70)

 When the scalar potential V and the vector potential A are known,
E can be obtained from Eq. (6.70), and
B can be obtained from (6.71)

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
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6-13 RETARDED POTENTIALS

Let us now examine the relations
between the potentials V and A,
and their sources, the charge and
current distributions ( i.e. ρv and J),
in the time-varying case.

Consider the situation depicted in Fig. 6-16. A charge distribution ρv

exists over a volume ν’ centered at the origin of a coordinate system. The
surrounding medium is a perfect dielectric with permittivity ε.
Seen that the electric potential V(R) at an observation point in space
specified by the position vector R is given by

(6.72)

If the charge distribution is a time-varying function, we may be

tempted to rewrite Eq. (6.72) for the dynamic case as
(6.73)

but such a form does not account for “reaction time.”

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
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If V1 is the potential due to a certain distribution ρv1 and if ρv1 were to

suddenly change to ρv2, it will take a finite amount of time before V1 at
distance R’ changes to V2.
In other words, V(R, t) cannot change instantaneously.
The delay time is equal to t’ = R’/up, where up, is the velocity of
propagation in the medium between the charge distribution and the
observation point.
Thus, V(R, t) at time t corresponds to ρv at an earlier time, that is,
(t- t’). Hence, Eq. (6.73) should be rewritten as

(6.74)

and V(R, t) is appropriately called the retarded scalar potential.

If the propagation medium is vacuum, up is equal to the velocity of light
c.

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
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Similarly, the retarded vector potential A(R, t) is related to the

distribution of current density J by :
(6.75)

This expression is obtained by extending the expression for the

magnetostatic vector potential A(R) to the time-varying case.

6-14 TIME-HARMONIC POTENTIALS

1. The expressions for the retarded scalar and vector potentials are
valid under both static and dynamic conditions and for any type of
time dependence that the source functions ρv and J may exhibit.
In the dynamic case, ρv and J are linked to one another by the
charge continuity relation.

Hence, in general, both quantities will have the same functional

dependence on time t and, by extension, so will the potentials V and A and
the fields E, D, B, and H.

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Furthermore, because V and A are linearly dependent on ρv and J,

respectively, and also E and B are linearly dependent on V and A, the
relationships interconnecting all these quantities obey the rules of linear
systems.
When a system is linear, we can take advantage of sinusoidal-time
functions to determine the response of the system due to a source with
any type of time dependence.
The term time harmonic is often used in this context as a synonym for
“steady-state sinusoidal time dependence.”
Let us examine the time-harmonic responses of the retarded scalar and
vector potentials.
 Suppose that ρv(Ri,t) is a sinusoidal-time function with angular
frequency ω, given by
(6.76)
 In phasor notation form :
(6.76)

 Comparison of Eqs. (6.76) and (6.77) shows that in the present case

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 Next, express the retarded charge density ρ(Ri, t -R’/up ) in phasor

form by replacing t with (t — R’/up ) in Eq. (6.77):

(6.79)

ω is called the wavenumber or phase constant of the

where k=
u p propagation medium.

In general, the phase constant is denoted by the symbol “β”, but for
lossless dielectric media, it is commonly denoted by the symbol “k” and
called the wavenumber.
Similarly, we define the phasorV (R) of the time function V(R, t)
according to:
(6.80)

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
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 Using Eqs. (6.79) and (6.80) in previous retarded scalar expression

gives

(6.81)

 By equating the quantities inside the square brackets on the two

sides of Eq. (6.81) and then deleting ejωt from both sides, we obtain
the phasor-domain expression:

(6.82)

For any given charge distribution, Eq. (6.82) can be used to compute
V (R), and then the resultant expression can be used to find V(R, t).
In like manner, the expression for A(R,t) can be transformed into:
(6.83)

with
(6.84)

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
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where J(Ri ) is the phasor function corresponding to J(Ri,t) .

The magnetic field phasor H corresponding to A is given by:

(6.85)

Recalling that differentiation in in the phasor domain, in a

nonconducting medium (J = 0), Ampere’s law becomes :

(6.86)

 Hence, given a time-harmonic current-density distribution with

phasor J(Ri ), Eqs. (6.84) to (6.86) can be used successively to determine
both E and H .
 The phasor vectors E and H also are related by the phasor form of
Faraday’s law:

(6.87)

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
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Example 6-8

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza
 1.62

(6.93)

Ir. D.M.Ngendo EE411/ April 2008 Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering-Unza