Assignment on Statistical Analysis in ArcGIS

Master of Science in Environmental Science and Disaster Management

Course Code: ESD513

Course Title: GIS and Remote Sensing: Theory and Practices

Submitted by Submitted to
Name: Md. Sweet Ahmed Name: Samsunnahar Popy
Student ID: 16ESD057 Assistant Professor,
Session: 2016-17 Dept. of ESD
Dept. of ESD BSMRSTU
BSMRSTU

Department of Environmental Science and Disaster Management

Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science and Technology University,

Gopalganj-8100

06 February 20223
Table of Contents
1. Introduction............................................................................................................................1
2. A quick tour of Geostatistical Analyst...................................................................................1
2.1 Exploratory spatial data analysis graphs..........................................................................1
2.1.1 Tools for exploring a single dataset:..........................................................................2
2.1.2 Tools for exploring relationships between datasets:..................................................2
2.2 Geostatistical Wizard........................................................................................................3
2.2.1 Deterministic Methods...............................................................................................4
2.2.2 Geostatistical methods...............................................................................................4
2.3 Geostatistical Analyst toolbox..........................................................................................5
2.4 Subset Features.................................................................................................................6
3. Understanding Geostatistical Methods..................................................................................6
4. Components of Geostatistical Models...................................................................................6
4.1 Calculate the Empirical Semivariogram...........................................................................6
4.2 Fit a Model.......................................................................................................................7
4.3 Create the Matrices...........................................................................................................8
4.4 Make a Prediction.............................................................................................................8
5. Geostatistical Analyst example applications..........................................................................8
5.1 Exploratory spatial data analysis......................................................................................8
5.2 Semivariogram modeling.................................................................................................9
5.3 Surface prediction and error modeling...........................................................................10
5.4 Threshold mapping.........................................................................................................11
5.5 Model validation and diagnostics...................................................................................11
5.6 Surface prediction using cokriging.................................................................................12
6. Conclusion............................................................................................................................12
7. References............................................................................................................................13
1. Introduction
Geostatistics is a class of statistics used to analyze and predict the values associated with
spatial or spatiotemporal phenomena. It incorporates the spatial (and in some cases temporal)
coordinates of the data within the analyses. Geostatistics is widely used in many areas of
science and engineering, for example, the mining industry, environmental sciences, soil
science, Meteorology, public health, etc. Geostatistics is then used to produce predictions
(and related measures of uncertainty of the predictions) for the unsampled locations.
Geostatistical Analyst uses sample points taken at different locations in a landscape and
creates (interpolates) a continuous surface. The sample points are measurements of some
phenomenon, such as radiation leaking from a nuclear power plant, an oil spill, or elevation
heights. Geostatistical Analyst derives a surface using the values from the measured locations
to predict values for each location in the landscape [1].

2. A quick tour of Geostatistical Analyst

There are three main components of a Geostatistical Analyst:
 A set of exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA) graphs
 The Geostatistical Wizard
 The Geostatistical Analyst toolbox
2.1 Exploratory spatial data analysis graphs
These tools allow you to gain insights into your data and select the most appropriate method
and parameters for the interpolation model. For example, when using ordinary kriging to
produce a quantile map, you should examine the distribution of the input data because this
method assumes that the data is normally distributed. If your data is not normally distributed,
you should include a data transformation as part of the interpolation model. A second
example is that you might detect a spatial trend in your data using the ESDA tools and want
to include a step to model it independently as part of the prediction process [1].
The ESDA tools are accessed through the Geostatistical Analyst toolbar (shown below) and
are composed of the following:

Fig. 1: Exploratory spatial data analysis graphs [1]

 Histogram—Examine the distribution and summary statistics of a dataset.

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  Normal QQ Plot and General QQ Plot—Assess whether a dataset is normally
distributed and explore whether two datasets have similar distributions, respectively.
 Voronoi Maps—Visually examine the spatial variability and stationarity of a dataset.
 Trend Analysis—Visualize and examine spatial trends in a dataset.
 Semivariogram/Covariance Cloud—Evaluate the spatial dependence (semivariogram
and covariance) in a dataset.
 Crosscovariance Cloud—Assess the spatial dependence (covariance) between two
datasets.
The ESDA graphs are shown below.
2.1.1 Tools for exploring a single dataset:
The following graphic illustrates the ESDA tools used for analyzing one dataset at a time:

Fig. 2: Examples of univariate ESDA tools [1]

2.1.2 Tools for exploring relationships between datasets:
The following graphic depicts the two tools that are designed to examine relationships
between two datasets:

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 Fig. 3: Examples of bivariate ESDA tools [1]
2.2 Geostatistical Wizard
The Geostatistical Wizard is accessed through the Geostatistical Analyst toolbar, as shown
below:

Fig. 4: Geostatistical Wizard [1]

The Geostatistical Wizard is a dynamic set of pages that are designed to guide you through
the process of constructing and evaluating the performance of an interpolation model [1]. A
simple version of this workflow (for inverse distance weighted interpolation) is represented
graphically below:

Fig. 5: A simple workflow in the Geostatistical Wizard [1]

During the construction of an interpolation model, the wizard allows changes in parameter
values, suggests, or provides optimized parameter values, and allows you to move forward or
backward in the process to assess the cross-validation results to see whether the current
model is satisfactory or some of the parameter values should be modified. This flexibility, in

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addition to dynamic data and surface previews, makes the wizard a powerful environment in
which to build interpolation models [1].
The Geostatistical Wizard provides access to many interpolation techniques, which are
divided into two main types: deterministic and geostatistical.
2.2.1 Deterministic Methods
Deterministic techniques have parameters that control either (1) the extent of similarity (for
example, inverse distance weighted) of the values or (2) the degree of smoothing (for
example, radial basis functions) in the surface. Deterministic methods include the following:
 Global polynomial interpolation
 Local polynomial interpolation
 Inverse distance weighted
 Radial basis functions
 Interpolation with barriers
 Diffusion kernel
 Kernel smoothing
2.2.2 Geostatistical methods
Geostatistical techniques can be used to describe and model spatial patterns (variography),
predict values at unmeasured locations (kriging) and assess the uncertainty associated with a
predicted value at the unmeasured locations (kriging).
The Geostatistical Wizard offers several types of kriging, which are suitable for different
types of data and have different underlying assumptions:
 Ordinary
 Simple
 Universal
 Indicator
 Probability
 Disjunctive
 Areal interpolation
 Empirical Bayesian
These methods can be used to produce the following surfaces:
 Maps of kriging predicted values.
 Maps of kriging standard errors associated with predicted values.
 Maps of probability, indicating whether a predefined critical level was exceeded
 Maps of quantiles for a predetermined probability level
There are exceptions to this:
 Indicator and probability kriging produce the following:
 Maps of probability, indicating whether a predefined critical level was exceeded.
 Maps of standard errors of indicators
 Areal interpolation produces the following:
 Maps of predicted values

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  Maps of standard errors associated with predicted values.
2.3 Geostatistical Analyst toolbox
The Geostatistical Analyst toolbox includes tools for analyzing data, producing a variety of
output surfaces, examining and transforming geostatistical layers to other formats,
performing geostatistical simulation and sensitivity analysis, and aiding in designing
sampling networks. The tools have been grouped into five toolsets:
 Interpolation—Contains geoprocessing tools that perform interpolation (as does the
Geostatistical Wizard) that can be used as stand-alone tools or in Model Builder and
Python
 Sampling Network Design—Has tools that aid in designing or modifying an existing
sampling design/monitoring network.
 Simulation—Extends kriging by performing geostatistical simulation and permits
extraction of the simulated results for points or polygonal areas
 Utilities—General use tools to extract subsets of a dataset, perform cross-validation to
assess model performance, examine sensitivity to variation in semivariogram parameters,
and visually represent the neighborhoods used by the interpolation tools.
 Working with Geostatistical Layers—Has tools that generate predictions for point
locations, export geostatistical layers to raster and vector formats, retrieve and set
interpolation model parameters (in an XML parameter file), and generate new
geostatistical layers (based on an XML parameter file and datasets) [1].

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 Fig. 6: The Geostatistical Analysis Toolbox [1]
2.4 Subset Features
The Subset Features tool is a geoprocessing tool (housed in the Geostatistical Analyst toolbox
shown in the section above). For convenience, this tool is also available from the
Geostatistical Analyst toolbar, as shown in the following figure [1]:

Fig. 7: Subset Features

3. Understanding Geostatistical Methods

Geostatistical methods are based on statistical models that include autocorrelation (statistical
relationships among the measured points). The main steps involved in creating a
geostatistical model are:
1. Examining the data (distribution, trends, directional components, outliers).
2. Calculating the empirical semivariogram or covariance values.
3. Fitting a model to the empirical values.
4. Generating the matrices of kriging equations.
5. Solving them to obtain a predicted value and the error (uncertainty) associated with it
for each location in the output surface [1].

4. Components of Geostatistical Models

Geostatistical (kriging) models comprise several components: examining the data

(distribution, trends, directional components, outliers), calculating the empirical
semivariogram or covariance values, fitting a model to the empirical values, generating the
matrices of kriging equations, and solving them to obtain a predicted value and the error
(uncertainty) associated with it for each location in the output surface [1].

4.1 Calculate the Empirical Semivariogram

Kriging, like most interpolation techniques, is built on the basic principle that things that are
close to one another are more alike than those farther away from each other (quantified here
as spatial autocorrelation). The empirical semivariogram is a means to explore this
relationship. Pairs that are close in distance should have a smaller difference than those
farther away from one another. The extent to which this assumption is true can be examined
in the empirical semivariogram [1].

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 Fig.8: Calculate the Empirical Semivariogram [1]

4.2 Fit a Model

Fitting is done by defining a model that provides the best fit through the points. That is, you
need to find a line such that the weighted squared difference between each point and the line
is as small as possible. This is referred to as the weighted least-squares fit. This model
quantifies the spatial autocorrelation in your data. The image below shows the empirical
semivariances (red dots) and the model that best represents the points (blue line) [1]:

Fig.9: Fit a Model [1]

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4.3 Create the Matrices
The equations for kriging are contained in matrices and vectors that depend on the spatial
autocorrelation among the measured sample locations and prediction location. The
autocorrelation values come from the semivariogram model. The matrices and vectors
determine the kriging weights that are assigned to each measured value in the searching
neighborhood [1].
4.4 Make a Prediction
From the kriging weights for the measured values, the software calculates a prediction for the
location with the unknown value [1].

Fig.10: Make a Prediction [1]

5. Geostatistical Analyst example applications

The Geostatistical Analyst addresses a wide range of different application areas. The
following is a small sampling of applications in which a Geostatistical Analyst was used [1].
5.1 Exploratory spatial data analysis
Using measured sample points from a study area, Geostatistical Analyst was used to creating
accurate predictions for other unmeasured locations within the same area. Exploratory spatial
data analysis tools included with Geostatistical Analyst were used to assess the statistical
properties of data such as spatial data variability, spatial data dependence, and global trends.
A few exploratory spatial data analysis tools were used in the example below to investigate
the properties of ozone measurements taken at monitoring stations in the Carpathian
Mountains [1].

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 Fig. 11: Application of Geostatistical Analyst for the Carpathian Mountains [1]

5.2 Semivariogram modeling

Geostatistical analysis of data occurs in the following phases:
 Modeling the semivariogram or covariance to analyze surface properties
 Kriging
A few kriging methods are available for surface creation in Geostatistical Analyst, including
ordinary, simple, universal, indicator, probability, and disjunctive kriging.
The following illustrates the two phases of geostatistical analysis of data. First, the
Semivariogram/Covariance wizard was used to fit a model to winter temperature data for the
United States. This model was then used to create the temperature distribution map [1].

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 Fig. 12: Geostatistical Analyst application for winter temperature [1]
5.3 Surface prediction and error modeling
Various types of map layers can be produced using Geostatistical Analyst, including
prediction maps, quantile maps, probability maps, and prediction standard error maps.
The following shows Geostatistical Analyst used to produce a prediction map of radiocesium
soil contamination levels in the country of Belarus after the Chornobyl nuclear power plant
accident [1].

Fig. 13: Geostatistical Analyst application for radiocesium contamination [1]

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5.4 Threshold mapping
Probability maps can be generated to predict where values exceed a critical threshold.
In the example below, locations shown in dark orange and red indicate a probability greater
than 62.5 percent that radiocesium contamination exceeds the upper permissible level (critical
threshold) in forest berries [1].

Fig. 14: Geostatistical Analyst application for radiocesium contamination threshold [1]
5.5 Model validation and diagnostics
Input data can be split into two subsets. The first subset of the available data can be used to
develop a prediction model. The predicted values are then compared with the known values
at the remaining locations using the Validation tool.
The following shows the Validation wizard used to assess a model developed to predict
organic matter for a farm in Illinois [1].

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 Fig. 15: Geostatistical Analyst application for organic matter in Illinois [1]
5.6 Surface prediction using cokriging
Cokriging, an advanced surface modeling method included in Geostatistical Analyst, can be
used to improve surface prediction of a primary variable by taking into account secondary
variables, provided that the primary and secondary variables are spatially correlated.
In the following example, exploratory spatial data analysis tools are used to explore the
spatial correlation between ozone (primary variable) and nitrogen dioxide (secondary
variable) in California. Because the variables are spatially correlated, cokriging can use the
nitrogen dioxide data to improve predictions when mapping ozone [1].

Fig.16: Geostatistical Analyst application for ozone in California [1]

6. Conclusion
Geostatistical analysis can reveal the spatial variability of a particular phenomenon, such as
soil properties or air pollution levels. This information can be used to identify areas where the
phenomenon is high or low and to understand the factors that contribute to the spatial
variation. Geostatistical analysis can also reveal the degree of spatial dependence between
observations. This information can be used to identify patterns in the data and to predict the
values of the phenomenon at unobserved locations. Geostatistical analysis can quantify the
uncertainty associated with the estimates of the phenomenon at different locations. This
information can be used to assess the reliability of the estimates and to identify areas where
additional data collection or analysis may be necessary.

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Overall, the geostatistical analysis provides a powerful tool for understanding and analyzing
spatially distributed data and can be used to inform a wide range of applications in fields such
as environmental science, agriculture, and engineering.

7. References
1. ESRI. (2018). World Topographic Map. Global. 1:1,000,000. Shapefile. ESRI.
Retrieved from https://www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?
id=30e5fe3149c34df1ba922e6f5bbf808f

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