Lecture:6

EL
PT
N
• Major Learning Theories in Psychology
• During the first half of the twentieth century, the school of
thought known as behaviorism rose to dominate psychology and
sought to explain the learning process.

EL
• The three major types of learning described by behavioral
psychology are classical conditioning, operant conditioning and
observational learning.

PT
N
• What is Behaviorism?
• Behaviorism was the school of thought in psychology
that sought to measure only observable behaviors.
• Founded by John B. Watson and outlined in his seminal
1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist View It,

EL
• the behaviorist standpoint held that psychology was an
experimental and objective science and that internal

PT
mental processes should not be considered because they
could not be directly observed and measured.

N
• Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable and
measurable aspects of human behavior
• Behavior is directed by stimuli; changes in behavior that

EL
result from stimulus-response associations
• Only behaviors worthy of study are those that can be
directly observed; does not explain abnormal behavior

PT
• All behaviors can also be unlearned, and replaced by
new behaviors

N
• J.B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov are the pioneers of Behaviorism

EL
PT
N
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
Expanding on Watson's basic stimulus-response model, Skinner developed
operant conditioning based on the premise that satisfying responses are
conditioned

EL
PT
N
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
Skinner believed the habits that each of us develops result
from our unique operant learning experiences

EL
PT
N
Extinction decreases the probability of a response by contingent
withdrawal of a previously reinforced stimulus
Modeling , Shaping, and Cueing:
 Modeling also known as observational learning

EL
Shaping is the process of gradually changing the quality of a
response

PT
Cueing is providing a child with a verbal / non-verbal cue for
the appropriateness of behaviour

N
Behaviour Modification: has six basic components
1. Specification of the desired outcome: increased student
participation in class discussions
2. Development of a positive, nurturing environment
3. Identification and use of appropriate reinforces (intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards)
4. Reinforcement of behaviour patterns develop until the student
has established a pattern of success
5. Reduction in the frequency of rewards-a gradual decrease the

EL
amount of one-on-one review
6. Evaluation and assessment of the effectiveness of the
approach: based on teacher expectations and student results

PT
Criticisms:
1. Oversimplifies the complexity of human behaviour
N
2. Ignores the internal psychological and mental processes
3.The principles of conditioning are not universal
Educational Implications:
1. Students work for things that bring them positive feelings, and for approval from
people they admire
2. Behaviours can be learned, unlearned or relearned

EL
3. Ignoring an undesirable behaviour will go far toward eliminating it
4. Organizing the time and duration of learning:
studying intermittently or intensely;

PT
Exmpl.- Students who learn in an overall manner by means of studying intensely just
before an exam

N
are more successful at the exams;
• 5.The structure of the subject to be learnt: learning, as a whole is superior to learning
by parts; learning by parts is more efficient in case of a lengthy topic
Lecture:7

EL
PT
N
6. Participation: attention, motivation and readiness
7. Feedback: Knowledge of the results for improvements.
Classical Conditioning -is when an unconditioned stimulus and
response is manipulated with a conditioned stimulus to create a
conditioned response

EL
Operant Conditioning- is a controlled response with a reward/
punishment system according to the behavior
The learner needs reinforcements to keep interest

PT
 Stimuli are effective in controlling behavior
The behaviors can be measured to record learning success
N
• overall learning may fade away after a short time, can be forgotten if
the exam is delayed;
• Intermittent study is more efficient for those who want to achieve a
permanent learning
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
 Psychology
 The study of Human Behavior
 Derived from two Greek words: Psyche
(mind/soul) & Logos (study)
 Founders: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle,

EL
 The father of modern Psychology: Wilhelm Wundt
 He established the first psychological laboratory at the

PT
University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879
 Q.1. Are we creative when we think more
on it or think less on it?
N
Q2. Why some students do well in studies
and whereas some do well in sports?
 Learning can be defined as an observable change in the
behavior of a specific organism as a consequence of
regularities in the environment of that organism.
 In order to say that learning has occurred, two conditions
must be met:
• An observable change in behavior must occur during the

EL
lifetime of the organism.
• The change in behavior must be due to regularities in the

PT
environment.
• Learning is thus seen as an effect—that is, as an observable
change in behavior that is attributed to an element in the

N
environment (a regularity in the environment).
• Learning takes place whenever experience or practice
results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or
behavioral potential (Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2008).
 Cognitivism
• Cognitivism is a learning theory that focusses on how information
is received, organized, stored and retrieved by the mind.
• It uses the mind as an information processer, like a computer.
• Therefore, cognitivism looks beyond observable behavior,
viewing learning as internal mental processes.

EL
• According to this perspective, learners are actively involved in the
way they process information.

PT
• Knowledge, memory, thinking, and problem solving are areas for
development.
• Cognitivists objected to behaviorists because they felt that
N
behaviorists thought learning was simply a reaction to a stimulus
and ignored the idea that thinking plays an important role.
• Knowledge is an internal process rather than a product.
(J. Bruner)
• Cognitivist learning states - the way we learn is
determined by the way our mind takes in, stores,
processes, and then accesses information.
• When we learn new things, our brains are able to

EL
transfer the information we have learned and apply the
information to new situations or problems.
• Even when a student is trying to learn something new,

PT
there is usually some sort of prior knowledge that he can
use to anchor that new information and connect the
new knowledge to it; this is the basis of cognitivism.

N
• The mind is basically an internal processor that uses our
internally stored information and connects it to external
factors in order to create new learning.
• Cognitivists believe that their theory is the primary
foundation for explaining how we learn things.
• Cognitivism is viewed as the mainstream for all research
on learning designs.
• Cognitivism is the theory that focuses on how we
receive, organize, store, and recall information in our

EL
minds.
• Cognitivism theory of learning uses the concept that our
mind is like a computer and explains how it accesses

PT
schema (file folders) and then uses the stored
information to create new learning and store it in a
practical place.
N
• If the new information is stored properly and
permanently, then learning has taken place.
 Cognitivism holds that a person's behavior is more dependent
on insight into the relationships that exist in a situation.

 The whole is more than the sum of its parts. They put pressure
on the organization of observations for stimuli in the
environment as well as on the factors that influence

EL
consideration.

 Mental life encompasses cognitive, affective, conative

PT
symptoms to some degree, namely psychosomatics that
cannot be separated from each other.

N
 Thus, cognitive psychology not only explores the basis of
typical cognitive symptoms but also from the affective
(interpretation and consideration that accompanies the
reaction of feelings), conative (will ,passion, decisions).
• The works of Edward C. Tolman, Jean Piaget, Lev
Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, and German Gestalt
psychologists were instrumental in engendering the
dramatic shift from behaviorism to cognitive theories.
• Tolman is usually considered a pioneer in initiating the
cognitive movement; saw motivation as the key to

EL
transmuting expectations into behavior; often treated
as a precursor of contemporary cognitive psychology.
• From a cognitive learning perspective, learning

PT
involves the transformation of information in the
environment into knowledge that is stored in the
mind.
N
• Learning occurs when new knowledge is acquired or
existing knowledge is modified by experience.
• Gestalt Psychology

EL
PT
N
Lecture:8

EL
PT
N
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
The information processing theory offers detail descriptions of cognitive processes.

EL
PT
N
 Intelligence
 Intelligence Individual’s abilities to understand
complex ideas to adapt effectively to the environment
, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms
of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by Careful
thought

EL
 “Intelligence is the global capacity of a person to act
purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal
effectively with his environment.“-Wechsler

PT
 Intelligence is typically measured as Intelligence
Quotient (IQ)

N
 Standardized tests of intelligence usually measure so-
called underlying cognitive ability: things like memory,
speed of reactions and attention, as opposed to
people’s knowledge of facts.
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence

EL
PT
N
• Howard Gardner identified seven intelligences in his studies in
psychology, human cognition, and human potential.
• These intelligences were named by Gardner as linguistic
intelligence, logical–mathematical intelligence, spatial
intelligence, bodily−kinesthetic intelligence, musical intelligence,
interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence.

EL
• Linguistic intelligence is the capacity to use words effectively,
whether orally or in writing. It involves the mastery of spoken
and written language to express oneself or remember things.

PT
• Logical–mathematical intelligence is the capacity to use
numbers effectively, detect patterns, think logically, reason
deductively, and carry out mathematical operations.
N
• These two kinds of intelligences are typically the abilities that
are expected by the traditional school environments to support
and assess most IQ measures or tests of achievement.
• Spatial intelligence is the ability to perceive the visual–
spatial world accurately and involves sensitivity to color,
line, shape, form, space, and the potential for recognizing
and manipulating the patterns of spaces.
• Bodily−Kinesthetic intelligence includes an expertise in
using one’s whole body or parts of the body to express
ideas and feelings; and solve problems or create products.

EL
• Musical intelligence is the capacity to perceive,
discriminate, transform, and express musical forms, and
use them for performance or composition.

PT
• Interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to perceive and
make distinctions in the moods, intentions, motivations,
and feelings of other people.
N
• The last intelligence is the intrapersonal intelligence, and
this intelligence is about self-knowledge and the ability to
act adaptively on the basis of that
knowledge.(Gardner,1991)
• Later on Gardner also proposed that one more
intelligence, naturalistic intelligence, met the criteria for
identification as an intelligence as well.
• Naturalistic intelligence involves high expertise in
recognition and classification of the numerous species—
the flora and fauna—of the environment.
• More recently, Gardner has added an additional

EL
intelligence, the existential intelligence.
• He defines this intelligence as-

PT
“The capacity to locate oneself with respect to the
furthest reaches of the cosmos—the infinite and the
infinitesimal—and the related capacity to locate oneself
N
with respect to such existential features of the human
condition as the significance of life, the meaning of death,
the ultimate fate of the physical and the psychological
worlds, and such profound experiences as love of another
person or total immersion in a work of art”(Gardner,1999).
Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of Intelligence

EL
PT
N
• Robert J. Sternberg, a well-known psychologist whose
research often focuses on human intelligence and
creativity.
• Sternberg proposed his theory in 1985 as an alternative
to the idea of the general intelligence factor.
• The general intelligence factor, also known as g, is what

EL
intelligence tests typically measure; refers only to
“academic intelligence.”
• Sternberg argued that practical intelligence—a person’s

PT
ability to react and adapt to the world around them—as
well as creativity are equally important when measuring
an individual's overall intelligence.
• He also argued that intelligence isn’t fixed, but rather
N
comprises a set of abilities that can be developed.
• Sternberg's assertions led to the creation of his theory.
• The Triarchic theory of intelligence proposes that there are three
distinct types of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical.
• Sternberg broke his theory down into the following three sub-
theories:
• Contextual sub-theory: The contextual sub-theory says that
intelligence is intertwined with the individual’s environment.
• Thus, intelligence is based on the way one functions in their everyday

EL
circumstances, including one’s ability to
• a) adapt to one’s environment,
• b) select the best environment for oneself, or

PT
• c) shape the environment to better fit one’s needs and desires.
• Experiential sub-theory: The experiential sub-theory proposes that
there is a continuum of experience from novel to automation to

N
which intelligence can be applied.
• It’s at the extremes of this continuum that intelligence is best
demonstrated.
• At the novel end of the spectrum, an individual is confronted with
an unfamiliar task or situation and must come up with a way to
deal with it.
• At the automation end of the spectrum, one has become familiar
with a given task or situation and can now handle it with minimal
thought.
• Componential sub-theory: The componential theory outlines the

EL
various mechanisms that result in intelligence.
• This sub-theory is comprised of three kinds of mental processes
or components:

PT
• Meta-components enable us to monitor, control, and evaluate
our mental processing, so that we can make decisions, solve
problems, and create plans.
N
• Performance components are what enable us to take action on
the plans and decisions arrived at by the meta-components.
• Knowledge-acquisition components enable us to learn new
information that will help us carry out our plans.
• Kinds of Intelligence-
• Practical intelligence: Sternberg called one’s ability to
successfully interact with the everyday world practical
intelligence.
• Practical intelligence is related to the contextual sub-theory.

EL
• Practically intelligent people are especially adept at
behaving in successful ways in their external environment.
• Creative intelligence: The experiential sub-theory is related

PT
to creative intelligence, which is one’s ability to use existing
knowledge to create new ways to handle new problems or
cope in new situations.
N
• Analytical intelligence: The componential sub-theory is
related to analytical intelligence, which is essentially
academic intelligence.
• Analytical intelligence is used to solve problems and is the
kind of intelligence that is measured by a standard IQ test
Sternberg observed that all three kinds of intelligence are necessary for
successful intelligence, which refers to the ability to be successful in life
based on one’s abilities, personal desires, and environment.

EL
PT
N
Lecture:9

EL
PT
N
 PASS Model of Intelligence
(Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive (PASS)-Das, Naglieri, & Kirby (1994))

EL
PT
N
• PASS Theory of Intelligence
• The Planning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous and Successive
(PASS) theory of intelligence, was developed by Das, Nagliery
and Kirby (1994).
• PASS theory is useful to link PASS processes to the brain.
• This theory has taken its inspiration from the Pioneering

EL
neuropsychological researches of Alexander Luria.
• Luria described human cognitive processes within the
framework of three functional units.

PT
• The function of the first unit is cortical arousal and attention,
the second unit codes information using simultaneous and
successive processes and the third unit provides for planning,

N
self-monitoring, and structuring of cognitive activities.
• There are four main components of the theory, viz, Planning,
Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous, and Successive (PASS)
processing systems.
• Planning is a frontal lobe function. It is, more specifically,
associated with the prefrontal cortex and one of the main
abilities that distinguishes humans from other primates.
• The prefrontal cortex plays a central role in forming goals and
objectives and then in devising plans of action required to
attain these goals.
• It selects the cognitive skills required to implement the plans,

EL
coordinates these skills, and applies them in a correct order.
• Finally, the prefrontal cortex is responsible for evaluating our
actions as success or failure relative to our intentions.

PT
• Planning, helps us achieve through the selection or
development of plans or strategies needed to complete tasks
for which a solution is needed and is critical to all activities
N
where the child or adult has to determine how to solve a
problem.
• This includes generation, evaluation, and execution of a
plan as well as self-monitoring and impulse control.
• Thus, Planning allows for the solution of problems, control
of attention, simultaneous, and successive processes, as
well as selective utilization of knowledge and skills.

EL
• Attention is a mental process that is closely related to the
orienting response.
• The base of the brain allows the organism to direct

PT
focused selective attention toward a stimulus over time
and resist loss of attention to other stimuli.

N
• The longer attention is required the more the activity can be one
that demands vigilance.
• Attention is controlled by intentions and goals and involves
knowledge and skills as well as the other PASS processes.
• Knowledge base is closely associated with the PASS model and all
processes are found within this framework.

EL
• Knowledge base of the PASS model represents all information
obtained from the cultural and social background and throws
light on various parts of behavior.

PT
• Simultaneous Processing is essential for organization of
information into groups or a coherent whole.

N
• The parietal-occipital-temporal brain regions provide a critical
ability to see patterns as interrelated elements.
• Planning processes provide for the programming, regulation
and verification of behavior and are responsible for behaviors,
such as asking questions, problem solving, and the capacity for
self-monitoring.
• Successive Processing is involved with the use of stimuli
arranged in a specific serial order.
• Whenever information must be remembered or completed in a

EL
specific order successive processing will be involved.
• Importantly, however, the information must not be able to be
organized into a pattern (like the number 9933811 organized

PT
into 99-33-8-11) but instead each element can only be related
to those that precede it.
• The PASS theory is an alternative to approaches to intelligence
N
that have traditionally included verbal, nonverbal, and
quantitative tests.
• PASS theory puts emphasis on basic psychological processes and
precludes verbal achievement like tests such as vocabulary.
• The functions of the brain are considered the building blocks of ability
conceptualized within a cognitive processing framework.
• PASS theory applications are spread over developmental and
educational psychology.

EL
• For the children in the age group of 8 to 17 years,
Ability/achievement, Ability/reading and ability/ mathematics
normative taxonomies for reading and mathematics have been
developed from the PASS theory scales of the CAS (Cognitive

PT
Assessment System).

N
 Salient features of PASS theory:
• It tests intelligence as a set of cognitive processes.
• The PASS theory of intelligence examines what the
major processes are and guides us in the remediation
of cognitive processing difficulties.
• Cognition is a dynamic mechanism that works inside

EL
the setting of the individual’s knowledge base; it is also
liable to developmental varieties.
• Cognitive evaluation for planning, attention,

PT
simultaneous, and successive processing of individuals
can be done through CAS test battery based on PASS
theory.
N
Cognitivism
BRAIN-BASED LEARNING

EL
PT
N
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
BBL deals with the concept of learning in a neuro-
physiological context
Explains the process of learning as a bio-chemical or electro-
chemical change
Learning, is a process of establishing a connection between
brain cells and an intercellular connection; a new connection

EL
is established between brain cells with each new learning
(Jensen, 2000)
Structure and processing of brain, intercellular relations,

PT
brain hemispheres and lobes (parts), processes at which
each part is good at and structural qualities of brain
hemispheres are some of the features of BBL
N
Brain is a structure that is composed of a number of parallel
processors that carryout a lot of processes at the same time
N
PT
EL
Brain based learning(BBL) is a new science that shapes
learning process.”Eric Jensen, 2000
Brain based learning is an approach that is based on the
structure and function of human brain
Caine and Caine (2002);
 Making sense in brain is much more important than

EL
receiving knowledge
Brain creates meanings in line with patterns,
connections and feelings

PT
Jensen (1998),- “How can brain learn best?”
BBL focuses on- how brain perceives, operates,

N
interprets, establishes connection, stores (such as
establishing connection, coding, structuring matrixes)
and remembers messages in learning process
Factors that ensure learning to be meaningful and
permanent
1. Relaxed alertness: When a person is in an
environment where he feels relaxed and calm,
learning will be influenced by this environment
positively

EL
2. Orchestrated immersion: When a certain level of
integrity and inter correlativity is ensured, learners

PT
will use memory systems in order to explore content
and reach learning goals
3. Active processing: A learning brain is an active brain;

N
learning activity takes place by means of new
connections (dendrites and synapses) established as
a result of data transfer between neurons
Principles of BBL: How to realize effective learning?
Caine and Caine (1998; 2000)-
The brain is a parallel processor; learning is also affected
by psycho-social qualities of the individual & chemical
structure of the organism; these interactions reflect on

EL
the process of learning
1. Learning engages the entire physiology
2. The search for meaning is innate

PT
3. The search for meaning occurs through patterning
4. Emotions are critical to patterning
N
5. The brain processes wholes and parts simultaneously
6. Learning involves both focused attention and
peripheral perception; also affected by environmental
factors,
7. Concepts such as awareness, conscious,
automatization (unconscious behaviour), feeling,
sense & attention are all known to originate from
brain and can be called the factors of learning
process
8.Learning involves both conscious and unconscious

EL
processes
9. We have two types of memory: STM ,LTM

PT
10. We understand and remember best when facts
and skills are embedded in natural, spatial memory

by threat
12. Each brain is unique
N
11. Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited

Factors that affect BBL-

EL
• Exercise
• Nutrition

PT
• Genetic factors
• Lifestyle
• Stress / anxiety
• Motivation
N
• Social / physical / educational environment
• Health
• 1 Memory:
• 2 Stress, fear and anxiety
• 3 Attention
• 4 Rewards and punishment
• 5 Social fluency

EL
• 6 Individual development
• 7 Scientific research

PT
• 8 Information literacy
• 9 Artistic expression

N
“Brain based learning is a new science that
shapes learning process.”(Eric Jensen, 2000)
 Summary
Brain needs sufficient nutrition, water and rest to realize
best L.
Feelings can weaken or strengthen learning
New learning is built upon previous learning
Brain stores data in more than one place

EL
Brain processes the gathered data beyond the
awareness of learners
Reflection is an important part of learning and

PT
processing information
Brain has got two memory systems: STM , LTM
Brain can acquire information both through a holistic
view and in a detailed manner
N
Lecture:10

EL
PT
N
According to Guilford's Structure of Intellect (SI) theory (1955),
an individual's performance on intelligence tests can be traced
back to the underlying mental abilities or factors of intelligence.
SI theory comprises up to 180 different intellectual abilities
organized along three dimensions: operations, content, and
products.

EL
PT
N
• Structure of Intellect (J.P. Guilford)
• In Guilford’s Structure of Intellect (SI) theory, intelligence is viewed
as comprising operations, contents, and products.
• There are 6 kinds of operations (cognition, memory recording,
memory retention, divergent production, convergent production,
evaluation),
• 6 kinds of products (units, classes, relations, systems,

EL
transformations, and implications), and
• 5 kinds of contents (visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic, behavioral).

PT
• Since each of these dimensions is independent, there are
theoretically 180 different components of intelligence.

N
• Guilford researched and developed a wide variety of psychometric
tests to measure the specific abilities predicted by SI theory.
• A major impetus for Guilford’s theory was his interest in creativity
(Guilford, 1950).
• The divergent production operation identifies a number of different
types of creative abilities.
• SI theory is intended to be a general theory of human
intelligence; its major application has been in education,
personnel selection and placement.
• Principles
• Reasoning and problem-solving skills (convergent and

EL
divergent operations) can be subdivided into 30 distinct
abilities (6 products x 5 contents).
• Memory operations can be subdivided into 30 different

PT
skills (6 products x 5 contents).
• Decision-making skills (evaluation operations) can be
subdivided into 30 distinct abilities (6 products x 5
contents). N
• Language-related skills (cognitive operations) can be
subdivided into 30 distinct abilities (6 products x 5
contents).
• Gagne’s Conditions Of Learning Theory
• Gagne’s Conditions of Learning, also known as Nine
Events of Instruction, is a set of instructional design
principles developed by psychologist Robert Gagne.
• These conditions outline a sequence of events that

EL
enhance the learning process and promote effective
instruction.
• Gagne’s theory of instructional learning offers a more

PT
rounded theory of learning and instruction that which
offers far more directive advice on how the teacher
should manage individual lessons.

N
• The nine events provide a framework for designing and
delivering instruction in a structured and systematic
manner. Such as :
Theory of Learning & Instruction: Robert Gagne
GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS of Learning & Instruction:
1. Gain attention of the students
2. Inform students of the objectives -
 Describe required performance
 Describe criteria for standard performance

EL
 Learner establishes criteria for standard performance
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning

PT
4. Present the content
5. Provide learning guidance

N
6. Elicit performance (practice)
7. Provide feedback
8. Assess performance
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job
• Gain Attention: This event aims to capture the learners’
attention and engage them in the learning process.
• It can be achieved through the use of stimulating and
relevant stimuli or by posing questions or problems.
• Inform Learners of the Objective: Learners need to be

EL
aware of the specific learning objectives or goals they are
expected to achieve.
• Clear communication of these objectives helps to focus

PT
their attention and motivate them to learn.
• Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge: Activating learners’
prior knowledge helps them connect new information to
existing mental frameworks.
N
• By reviewing relevant concepts or experiences, learners
can build upon what they already know.
• Present the Content: The instructional content is presented
to the learners in a structured and organized manner.
• It should be logically sequenced, chunked into manageable
units, and delivered using appropriate instructional
strategies such as lectures, visuals, or multimedia.
• Provide Guidance: Learners need guidance and support to

EL
understand and acquire new knowledge or skills.
• This event involves providing clear explanations, examples,

PT
demonstrations, and instructions to assist learners in
grasping the content.
• Elicit Performance: Learners are given opportunities to
N
practice what they have learned.
• This active participation helps reinforce the newly acquired
knowledge or skills and allows for feedback and correction
if needed.
• Provide Feedback: Learners receive feedback on their
performance, indicating whether they have achieved the
desired learning outcomes.
• Feedback helps them assess their progress, identify areas
for improvement, and reinforce correct understanding or
behavior.
• Assess Performance: This event involves assessing

EL
learners’ performance to determine the extent to which
they have achieved the learning objectives.
• Various assessment methods such as quizzes, tests, or

PT
practical exercises, can be used to evaluate their progress.
• Enhance Retention and Transfer: The final event focuses

N
on promoting long-term retention and transfer of the
learned material to real-world contexts.
• Strategies such as providing opportunities for review,
application in different situations, and promoting transfer
of knowledge to other domains are employed to solidify
learning.
Mastery Learning Model : (Bloom and Carroll)

What Is Mastery Learning?

EL
PT
N
N
PT
EL
1. Cognitive Entry Behaviours: language ability, & reading
comprehension
2.Affective Entry Characteristics: interests, attitudes & learning
readiness

EL
PT
N
• Elements of Mastery Learning
Pre-assessment-
Determining students’ prior knowledge and skills
Monitoring student progress
Communicating expectations
Focusing students’ attention on learning targets

EL
Checking for misconceptions
Identifying students’ interests, talents, and preferred ways of learning

PT
Group-based initial instruction
Instruction must be multifaceted, context-adapted, and student-
oriented (Guskey, 2010)
Regular formative assessments
N
The use of regular formative assessments.
This could be in the form of quizzes, written assignments, oral
presentations, skill demonstrations, or performances, depending on
the subject area, the grade level, and the learning outcomes involved
Corrective Instruction
Teachers provide “high-quality corrective instructions” to
mend learning problems that the assessments have identified,
 CI to be versatile enough to accommodate different student
learning styles, modalities, and intelligence levels

EL
Parallel formative assessments
A second, parallel formative assessment to determine the
effectiveness of the corrective instruction.

PT
Enrichment activities
Aiming to provide challenging yet rewarding learning
N
experiences, these activities enable students to explore a
greater depth of related topics that pick their interests.
Enrichment activities could be in the form of academic games
and exercises, various multimedia projects, and peer
discussions.
• Concept of Personalization and Academic
Self-Concept
• QUALITY OF INSTRUCTION
• Cues, Participation, Reinforcing
• Feedback and Correction

EL
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Learning Level and Learning Speed

PT
• Affective Outcomes
• POSITIVE SIDES OF MASTERY LEARNING:
•
•
N
1. student learns in his own capacity and speed,
2. increases the achievements on affective and
cognitive level
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=efjDq-kO7lE
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GWa48XRnLh0
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tBiz04uGqA4

EL
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ej1qP8o2Sp4
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N1ESb1RGZ7g

PT
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sGQBbRqdaVM

N
Pl. Visit the sites for Better Learning
 Constructivism

EL
Jean Piaget (1896-1983),
Lev Vigotsky (1896-1934)

PT
N
• Constructivism is ‘an approach to learning that holds that people
actively construct or make their own knowledge and that reality
is determined by the experiences of the learner’ (Elliott et al.,
2000).
• Constructivism is crucial to understand as an educator because it

EL
influences the way all of our students learn.
• Teachers and instructors who understand the constructivist
learning theory understand that their students bring their own

PT
unique experiences to the classroom every day.
• Their background and previous knowledge impacts how they are
able to learn.
N
• Types of constructivism-
• 1. Cognitive- Cognitive constructivism focuses on the idea that learning
should be related to the learner’s stage of cognitive development.
• It comes from the work of Jean Piaget and his research on cognitive
development in children.
•

EL
2. Social- Social constructivism focuses on the collaborative nature of
learning. Knowledge develops from how people interact with each other,
their culture, and society at large.

PT
• Lev Vygotsky, and is closely connected to cognitive constructivism with
the added element of societal and peer influence.
• 3. Radical- Radical constructivism is very different from cognitive and

N
social constructivism. It focuses on the idea that learners and the
knowledge they construct tell us nothing real, only help us function in our
environment.
• This theory was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld in 1974.
N
PT
EL
• Constructivism: A Learning Theory
• Constructivism is a learning theory that says we create our own
knowledge from our experiences and interactions,
• It challenges the idea that knowledge is fixed and objective, and
that teachers can simply transfer it to students,

EL
• Constructivists see learning as a dynamic and social process,
where learners build on their prior knowledge and collaborate

PT
with others,
• Constructivism encourages learners to be active, creative,
reflective, and critical thinkers who can construct their own
N
understanding of the world,
 Basic Concepts of Constructivism
 Cognition (learning) is the result of mental construction
 People construct their own understanding and knowledge of the
world, through experiencing things & reflecting on those
experiences

EL
 Human learning is constructed; learners build new knowledge
upon the foundation of previous learning

PT
 Constructivist learning is transferable
 Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn
 Students in constructivist classrooms learn to question things
N
 Promotes social & communication skills through collaboration and
exchange of ideas
Cognitive constructivism is based on the work of Jean Piaget & Social
constructivism is based on the work of Lev Vygotsky.
 Principles of Constructivism: (Tam ,2000)
 Knowledge will be shared between teachers and students
 Teachers and students will share authority

EL
 The teacher’s role is one of a facilitator or guide
 Learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students

PT
 To embed learning in social experience,(collaboration) & realistic context
 To encourage awareness of the knowledge construction process (reflection,
metacognition)
N
• Learning is an individual and social process.
• Learning is an organizational process - new knowledge is assimilated with old
knowledge to construct new meanings and understandings.
• Learning is based on personal experiences - different people understand 'truth'
differently.

EL
• The concept of reality is based on individual interpretation.
• Learning is socially situated and enhanced through meaningful context - situated

PT
learning focuses on creating meaning from the real activities of daily life.
• Language plays an essential role in learning - the sharing of knowledge happens through
communication.
N
• Motivation is key to learning - individuals must want to actively engage and reflect on
their prior knowledge in learning.
Jean Piaget (1896-1983): Learning and Cognitive
Development
 Knowledge is actively constructed
 In the process of constructing knowledge, children adhere to
their experiences

EL
 Knowledge is constructed in schemas
 After new learning, these schemas are organized & developed

PT
better and new connections are established
 Learning & cognitive development occurs with processes of
assimilation and accommodation
N
 Knowledge is subjective because people construct it
 Cognitive development occurs step by step
N
PT
EL
Stages of Cognitive Development

EL
PT
N
 Preoperational stage: children begin to use language; memory and imagination;
Intelligence is egocentric and intuitive, not logical
 Concrete operational stage: use of logical and systematic manipulation of symbols;
Thinking becomes less egocentric with increased awareness of external events;

EL
involves concrete references
Formal operational stage: use symbols related
to abstract concepts, can formulate hypotheses,& think about abstract relationships

PT
and concepts
Intellectual development is a lifelong process, adults involve developing more

N
complex schema through knowledge acquisition
Schema Formation: Assimilation & Accommodation

EL
PT
N
N
PT
EL
“Constructivism is a theory in education which posits that individuals or learners do not
acquire knowledge and understanding by passively perceiving it within a direct process of
knowledge transmission, rather they construct new understandings and knowledge through
experience and social discourse, integrating new information with what they already know
(prior knowledge)”.

EL
 Educational Implications of Constructive Learning-
 Learners are active participants in their learning, and learning by doing, or experiential

PT
learning is central to constructivist leaning in practice (Howe et al.,2000)
 Learners are self-regulated and they construct and monitor their learning, where meta-
cognition plays an important role in meaningful learning.

N
 Social interactions is essential for meaningful learning.
 Vygotsky's constructivism is a theory of child development that emphasizes the role of
social interaction and collaboration in learning.
 Vygotsky argued that cognitive functions are the products of social negotiations and that
learning occurs in the zone of proximal development, which is the gap between what a

EL
learner can do independently and what they can do with the help of a more
knowledgeable other.
 Vygotsky also rejected the idea that learning can be separated from its social context.

PT
 Social constructivism shifts the responsibility of knowledge acquisition from the teacher
to the student,
 Transforms the student from a passive listener to an active participant and a co-
N
constructor of knowledge among co-learners.
 Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934):
Social interaction leads to continuous
step-by-step changes in children's thought
& behaviour that can vary greatly from
culture to culture
Development depends on interaction

EL
with people and the tools that the culture
provides to help form their own view of the
world

PT
Three ways a cultural tool can be passed
from one individual to another-

N
 a) Imitative learning, where one person
tries to imitate or copy another
 b) Instructed learning which involves
remembering the instructions of the
teacher & then using these instructions to
self-regulate the learning behaviour.
 c) Cultural tools are passed on to others is through collaborative
learning, which involves a group of peers who strive to understand each
other and work together to learn a specific skill

EL
PT
N
 Vygotsky’s position is a form of dialectical (cognitive)
constructivism because it emphasizes the interaction
between persons and their environments; Mediation is the
key mechanism in development and learning
 A key concept is the Zone of proximal development (ZPD),

EL
defined as “the distance between the actual
developmental level as determined by independent
problem solving and the level of potential development as

PT
determined through problem solving under adult guidance
or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky,
1978).
N
 Schooling is important not because it is where children are
Scaffolded but, because it allows them to develop greater
awareness of themselves, their language, & their role in the
world order
 Helping students acquire cognitive mediators (e.g., signs,

EL
symbols) through the social environment can be accomplished in
many ways
 Concept of instructional scaffolding, which refers to the process

PT
of controlling task elements that are beyond the learners’
capabilities so that they can focus on and master those features
of the task that they can grasp quickly
N
 Reciprocal teaching involves an interactive dialogue between a
teacher and small group of students.
• Peer collaboration, which reflects the notion of collective activity
• Apprenticeships- novices work closely with experts in joint work-related activities
• Many mental processes are acquired as a result of social interactions
• Successful people’s help let students reach difficult targets
• The difficulties encountered in achieving the works contribute to the highest level of
cognitive development

EL
• Games, for children, aren’t waste of time but rather they include activities that get them
into adults’ world successfully, through future planning

PT
N
N
PT
EL
• https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/processing-the-
environment/cognition/v/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2qVHU8CTIM8

EL
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hcXkp0c_q4c
• https://educationaltechnology.net/constructivist-learning-theory/

PT
• https://edpsych.pressbooks.sunycreate.cloud/chapter/social-constructivism-
vygotskys-theory/