10/22/2021

Bahir Dar University

Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Water
Resources Engineering

Strength of Materials/Mechanics of Materials

Chapter II: Stress-Strain Behavior of Axially

Loaded Members

October, 2021
Dawit W. (MSc.)
1

Contents
 Introduction
 Normal Stress and Strain
 Stress-Strain Relations
 Poisson’s Ratio
 Generalized Hooke’s Law
 Volumetric Strain
 Deformation of Members Under Axial Loading
 Thermal Strain
 Allowable Stress and Factor of Safety

1
 10/22/2021

Introduction
• What is a stress?
• What is a strain?
• Whenever some external system of forces acts on a body, it
undergoes some deformation
• As the body undergoes deformation, its molecules set up
some resistance to deformation. This resistance per unit area
to deformation, is known as stress.

Introduction
• Stress is also defined as the intensity of internal force, which
is a distribution of force acting over the sectioned area which
holds each segment of the body in equilibrium when exposed
to an external load, at a point in the body.
• In general, there are 4 different types of internal resultant
loadings:
a) Normal force, N
b) Shear force, V
c) Torsional moment or torque, T
d) Bending moment, M 4

2
 10/22/2021

Introduction

Introduction

3
 10/22/2021

Introduction

Introduction
• The free body diagram of internal resultant loadings

4
 10/22/2021

Introduction
• Load will cause all material bodies to deform
• The deformation can be characterized by change in the
body’s shape and size
• Strain can be defined as the relative change in shape or size
of an object due to externally-applied forces.
• Strain describe the deformation in 2 ways:
1. Normal strain (σ) - epsilon
2. Shear strain (γ)- gamma

Normal Stress and Strain

Normal Stress
• The most fundamental types of stress exists is the normal
stress – the intensity of force or force per unit area
• Normal force acts perpendicular or normal to the cross
section of the load-carrying member

10

5
 10/22/2021

Normal Stress and Strain

Normal Stress
• Since normal stresses tend to compress or elongate a body,
they will either create tensile or compressive stresses
depending on the direction of the force.
• From the equilibrium of the body, the result should be equal
in magnitude and opposite in the direction of the applied load
P.
𝐩 𝐄𝐱𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐍𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝝈
𝐀 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

• The SI unit of stress is Pascal (Pa) 11

Normal Stress and Strain

Normal Stress

12

6
 10/22/2021

Normal Stress and Strain

Normal Strain
• Normal Strain can be defined as deformation of the member
per unit length
• The deformation might be contraction (negative) or
elongation (positive)
• Consider an axially loaded bar that undergoes a change in
length, becoming larger when in tension and shorter when in
compression.
• The change in length is denoted by the Greek letter δ (delta).
13

Normal Stress and Strain

Normal Strain
• The deformation of different bodies subjected to a particular
load is a function of size, which is the ratio of the original
length.
• The ratio is expressed in a non dimensional form which is
known as strain.

δ
ε
L
• Normal strain is a dimensionless quantity since it is a ratio of
two lengths 14

7
 10/22/2021

Stress-Strain relations (Diagrams)

• The ability of a material to sustain a load depends on its

strength and can be determine by experiment.
• The most important tests to perform in this regard are the
tension and compression test.
• Tensile testing – to pull apart a material until it breaks
• A compression test determines behavior of materials under
crushing loads (being pushed together)
• The specimen is compressed and deformation is recorded at
various loads
15

Stress-Strain relations (Diagrams)

Conventional Stress–Strain Diagram
• Nominal or engineering stress is obtained by dividing the
applied load P by the specimen’s original cross-sectional area

P
σ
𝐴
• Nominal or engineering strain is obtained by dividing the
change in the specimen’s gauge length by the specimen’s
original gauge length

δ
ε 16
𝐿

8
 10/22/2021

Stress-Strain relations (Diagrams)

Conventional Stress–Strain Diagram

• True stress can be calculated by using the actual area of the
bar, which can become significantly less than the initial area.
• After performing a tension or compression test and
determining the stress and strain at various magnitudes of the
load, we can plot a diagram of stress versus strain
• Such a stress-strain diagram is the characteristics of a
material and conveys important information about the
mechanical properties and type of the behavior.
17

Stress-Strain relations (Diagrams)

Conventional Stress–Strain Diagram

18

9
 10/22/2021

19

Stress-Strain relations (Diagrams)

• Proportional limit: is the maximum stress that a dental
material sustains without any deviation, or the magnitude of
elastic stress above which plastic deformation occurs.
• Yield Stress: is how much force needs to be applied to an
object to cause it to change from elastic deformation to plastic
deformation.
• Ultimate Stress(UTS): refers to the maximum stress that a
given material can withstand under an applied force.

20

10
 10/22/2021

Stress-Strain relations (Diagrams)

• Fracture: involves fracture without any appreciable plastic
deformation (i.e. energy absorption). Ductile Fracture in the
converse and involves large plastic deformation before
separation.
• Linear Region: In this region, the material undergoes only
elastic deformation and obeys the general Hooke’s law. It has
a slope known as Young’s modulus. The end of the stage is
the initiation point of plastic deformation.

21

Stress-Strain relations (Diagrams)

• Strain Hardening: In this region, the stress mainly increases
as the material elongates, except that for some materials such
as steel, there is a nearly flat region at the beginning. It starts
as the stress goes beyond the yielding point, reaching a
maximum at the ultimate strength point, which is the maximal
stress that can be sustained and is called the ultimate tensile
strength (UTS).

22

11
 10/22/2021

Stress-Strain relations (Diagrams)

• Necking region: Beyond tensile strength, a neck forms
where the local cross-sectional area becomes significantly
smaller than the average. The necking deformation is
heterogeneous and will reinforce itself as the stress
concentrates more at small section.
• In reality, the material withstands an increase in stress up to
failure (Point E'). For most practical purposes, however, the
conventional stress-strain curve OABCDE provides satisfactory
information for use in design.
23

Stress-Strain relations (Diagrams)

24

12
 10/22/2021

Poisson’s Ratio
• When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation
is accompanied by lateral contraction (normal to the direction
of the applied load),

25

Poisson’s Ratio
• The ratio of the strain in the lateral direction to the strain in
the axial direction is known as Poisson's ratio and is denoted
by the Greek letter ν (nu); thus

Lateral Strain
ν
Axail Strain
(the negative sign indicates opposite movement)

26

13
 10/22/2021

Poisson’s Ratio
• In order to calculate the Poisson’ ratio the material needs to
be: Elastic, Homogenous and Isotropic
o Homogenous – a material that has the same composition
throughout the body (the same elastic properties at every point)
o Isotropic - means that the elastic properties must be the
same in all directional perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.
• Poisson’ ratio is dimensionless and most metal has a value of
v between 1/3 and 1/4, the largest possible value of v is 1/2

27

Poisson’s Ratio
• Poisson’s ratio v, is named after the French mathematician
and physicist Siméon Denis Poisson (1781–1840)

28

14
 10/22/2021

Generalized Hooke’s Law

• Hooke’s Law defines the linear relationship between stress
and strain within the elastic region.
• The slope of the straight line , the elastic region on stress-
strain diagram, is called the modulus of elasticity or Young's
modulus, E
• Because strain is non dimensional, this slope has the same
units as stress

29

Generalized Hooke’s Law

• Modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus, E is named after the
19th-century British scientist Thomas Young

30

15
 10/22/2021

Volumetric Strain

• Because the dimensions of a bar in

tension or compression are changed
when the load is applied, the volume of
the bar changes too.
• The change in volume can be calculated
from the axial and lateral strains.
• Consider a small rectangular
parallelepiped element of isotropic
material cut from a bar in tension
31

Volumetric Strain

• The elongation of the element in the direction of the loading is

aε, where ε is the axial strain
• Because the lateral strains are -νε the lateral dimensions
decrease by bνε and cνε in the y and z directions respectively
32

16
 10/22/2021

Volumetric Strain
• The final dimensions of the element are a(1+ε), b(1-νε),
and c(1 - νε), and the final volume is:
Vf = abc(1+ε)(1-νε)(1-νε)
Expanding the above expression
Vf = abc[1+ε-2νε-2νε2+v2ε2+ν2ε3]
• As ε is very small compared to unity, its square and cube are
negligible in comparison to ε itself. Therefore, the final volume
of the element is:
Vf = abc(1+ε-2νε)
33

Volumetric Strain
• The change in volume, ΔV can be calculated as:
ΔV=Vf-V0
ΔV=abc(1+ε-2νε) - abc
ΔV = abcε(1-2ν)
• The unit volume change, i.e. volumetric strain (e) is calculated
by taking the ratio of change in volume t the original volume

34

17
 10/22/2021

Deformation of Members Under Axial

Loading
• Using Hooke’s law and the definitions of stress and strain, we
are able to develop the elastic deformation of a member
subjected to axial loads
• Suppose an element subjected to loads,

35

Deformation of Members Under Axial

Loading
a) Constant Load and Cross-Sectional Area
• When a constant external force is applied at each end of the
member

36

18
 10/22/2021

Deformation of Members Under Axial

Loading
b) Bars of Varying Sections
• A bar of different lengths and of different diameters (and
hence of different cross-sectional areas) is shown in the next
figure
• Assume that this bar is subjected to an axial load P

37

Deformation of Members Under Axial

Loading
b) Bars of Varying Sections
• Though each section is subjected to the same axial load P, yet
the stresses, strains and change in lengths will be different.
The total change in length will be obtained by adding the
changes in length of individual section

38

19
 10/22/2021

Deformation of Members Under Axial

Loading
b) Bars of Varying Sections

• The total change in length of the bar

39

Deformation of Members Under Axial

Loading
c) Uniformly Tapering Circular Rod
• A bar uniformly tapering from a diameter D1 at one end to a
diameter D2 at the other end is shown in the following Figure

40

20
 10/22/2021

Deformation of Members Under Axial

Loading
c) Uniformly Tapering Circular Rod
• Consider a small element of length dx of the bar at a distance
x from the left end. Let the diameter of the bar be Dx at a
distance x from the left end

41

Deformation of Members Under Axial

Loading
c) Uniformly Tapering Circular Rod

42

21
 10/22/2021

Deformation of Members Under Axial

Loading
c) Uniformly Tapering Circular Rod

43

Deformation of Members Under Axial

Loading
c) Uniformly Tapering Circular Rod

44

22
 10/22/2021

Deformation of Members Under Axial

Loading
d) Bars of Composite Sections
• A bar, made up of two or more bars of equal lengths but of
different materials rigidly fixed with each other and behaving
as one unit for extension or compression when subjected to an
axial tensile or compressive loads, is called a composite bar.

45

Deformation of Members Under Axial

Loading
d) Bars of Composite Sections
For the composite bar the following two points are important
1) The extension or compression in each bar is equal.
Hence deformation per unit length i.e., strain in each bar
is equal.
2) The total external load on the composite bar is equal to
the sum of the loads carried by each different material.

46

23
 10/22/2021

Deformation of Members Under Axial

Loading
d) Bars of Composite Sections

47

Deformation of Members Under Axial

Loading
d) Bars of Composite Sections

• By solving the two equations simultaneously we can arrive to

the solution of the problem:
• The load carried by the two materials

48

24
 10/22/2021

Thermal Strain
• Change in temperature cause a material to change its
dimensions
• Since the material is homogeneous and isotropic:

For steel, α = 11.25 × 10–6 / °C.

49

Thermal Strain
• If temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, no
load or stress will be induced in the structure.
• In some cases where temperature deformation is not
permitted, an internal stress is created. The internal stress
created is termed as thermal stress.
• For a homogeneous rod mounted between unyielding supports
as shown, the thermal stress is computed as:

50

25
 10/22/2021

Thermal Strain
• Deformation due to temperature changes; δT =αLΔT
• Deformation due to equivalent axial stress;
δp = =
δp= δT
αLΔT=
σ=Eα ΔT

Where σ is the thermal stress in MPa and E is the modulus of

elasticity of the rod in MPa. If the wall yields a distance of x as
shown below, the following calculations will be made:
51

Thermal Strain
• Where σ represents the thermal stress. Take note that as the
temperature rises above the normal, the rod will be in
compression, and if the temperature drops below the normal,
the rod is in tension.

δT =x + δp
αLΔT =x+
52

26
 10/22/2021

Allowable stress and factor of

Safety
• A factor of safety is needed to obtained allowable load
• The factor of safety (F.S.) is a ratio of the failure load divided
by the allowable load

53

Example 1
The pin connected truss shown below is subjected to 50kN and
20kN vertical load at joint C and E respectively. Determine the
area of cross-section of member CE,DE and CD if the ultimate
stress is set 350MPa in tension and 250MPa in compression. Use
factor of safety of 2.5. 50kN 20kN

A C E
2m

B D

2m 2m
54

27
 10/22/2021

Example 2
Design a steel rod to sustain a load of 80kN with a factor of
safety of 2.5. What is the maximum permissible length of the rod
if the allowable deformation is 0.5mm. Assume a yield stress of
230MPa and elastic modulus of 195MPa.

55

Example 3
A short wall of circular cast iron cylinder is to support an axial
compressive load of P=200kN. The ultimate stress in
compression for the material is 250MPa. It is decided to design a
cylinder with a wall thickness of 4cm and a factor of safety of 2
with respect to the ultimate strength. Compute the minimum
required outside diameter of the cylinder.

56

28
 10/22/2021

Example 4
A horizontal bar ABCD having a length of 2.2m is subjected to a
loading system as shown below. The vertical member AB has a
cross-sectional area of 540mm2. Determine the magnitude of
the load P so that it produces a normal stress of 50MPa in
member AB.

1.6m

2.2m P
57

Example 5
A rod is subjected to five forces as shown below. What is the
maximum value of P for the stress known to be exceed 100MPa
in tension and 140MPa in compression. Determine the change in
length of the rod to maximum value of P. Use E=1000MPa.

P 6P 4P P 2P
A=225mm2 A=400mm2
A=900mm2

2m 4m 1m 2m
58

29
 10/22/2021

Example 6
A rigid bar ABC attached to two vertical bars as shown in the
figure and a load P is applied at point B. Determine the vertical
movement at point B.

Steel
L=4m
Aluminum A=300mm2
L=3m E=200GPa
A=500mm2
E=70GPa

59

Example 7
An aluminum rod of 20mm diameter passes through a steel sleeve
of internal diameter of 22mm and external diameter of 33mm. The
sleeve is 450mm long and the rod is 0.3mm longer than the sleeve.
The assembly is supported by a rigid plate at both ends and loaded
in compression as shown in the figure below. Determine:
a) The load at which only the rod is stressed
b) The maximum load on the assembly if the allowable stress in
aluminum and steel are 120MPa and 180MPa respectively
c) The deformation of the assembly under the maximum load.
Elastic modulus of steel Es=210GPa and EA=70GPa 60

30
 10/22/2021

Example 7

Aluminum
Steel Steel
Sleeve Sleeve

Sectional Side View

Sectional Top View 61

Example 8
A copper bar AB of length 1m is placed in position at room
temperature with a gap of 0.2mm between end A and rigid
strength. Calculate the axial string stress in the bar with a
temperature raise of 50oC. (For copper αc=17x10-6/oC, E=110GPa)

0.2mm
A

1m

B
62

31
 10/22/2021

Example 9
A rod consisted of two cylinders AB and BC, which are restrained at
both end. Portion AB is made of steel characterized b Es=200GPa
and αs=11.7x10-6/oC and portion BC is made of brass with
Eb=105GPa and αb=20.9x10-6/oC. Knowing that the rod is initially
unstressed determine:
a) The normal stress induced in portion AB and BC b temperature
raise of 50oC
b) The corresponding deflection of point B.

63

Example 9

A
Steel
250mm d=30mm

Brass
300mm d=50mm

64

32