Mechanical Behavior

of Concrete Materials
and Structures
Experimental Evidence and
Analytical Models
Edited by
Dario De Domenico and Luís Filipe Almeida Bernardo
Printed Edition of the Special Issue Published in Materials

www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Mechanical Behavior of Concrete
Materials and Structures:
Experimental Evidence and Analytical
Models
Mechanical Behavior of Concrete
Materials and Structures:
Experimental Evidence and Analytical
Models

Editors
Dario De Domenico
Luı́s Filipe Almeida Bernardo

MDPI ‚ Basel ‚ Beijing ‚ Wuhan ‚ Barcelona ‚ Belgrade ‚ Manchester ‚ Tokyo ‚ Cluj ‚ Tianjin
Editors
Dario De Domenico Luı́s Filipe Almeida Bernardo
Department of Engineering Centre of Materials and
University of Messina Building Technologies
Messina (C-MADE), Department of
Italy Civil Engineering and
Architecture
University of Beira Interior
Covilhã
Portugal

Editorial Office
MDPI
St. Alban-Anlage 66
4052 Basel, Switzerland

This is a reprint of articles from the Special Issue published online in the open access journal Materials
(ISSN 1996-1944) (available at: www.mdpi.com/journal/materials/special issues/mech concrete
structure).

For citation purposes, cite each article independently as indicated on the article page online and as
indicated below:

LastName, A.A.; LastName, B.B.; LastName, C.C. Article Title. Journal Name Year, Volume Number,
Page Range.

ISBN 978-3-0365-4912-5 (Hbk)

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© 2022 by the authors. Articles in this book are Open Access and distributed under the Creative
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The book as a whole is distributed by MDPI under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons
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Contents

About the Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Dario De Domenico and Luı́s F. A. Bernardo

Editorial for “Mechanical Behavior of Concrete Materials and Structures: Experimental
Evidence and Analytical Models”
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 4921, doi:10.3390/ma15144921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Luı́s F. A. Bernardo, Mafalda M. Teixeira, Dario De Domenico and Jorge M. R. Gama

Improved Equations for the Torsional Strength of Reinforced Concrete Beams for Codes of
Practice Based on the Space Truss Analogy
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 3827, doi:10.3390/ma15113827 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Zhongjie Shen, Ahmed Farouk Deifalla, Paweł Kamiński and Artur Dyczko
Compressive Strength Evaluation of Ultra-High-Strength Concrete by Machine Learning
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 3523, doi:10.3390/ma15103523 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Bi Sun, Rui Chen, Yang Ping, ZhenDe Zhu, Nan Wu and Zhenyue Shi
Research on Dynamic Strength and Inertia Effect of Concrete Materials Based on
Large-Diameter Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar Test
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 2995, doi:10.3390/ma15092995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Xiaojing Ni, Ahehehinnou Ougbe Anselme, Guannan Wang, Yuan Xing and Rongqiao Xu
Experimental Investigation of Shear Keys for Adjacent Precast Concrete Box Beam Bridges
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 1459, doi:10.3390/ma15041459 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Yijiang Peng, Semaoui Zakaria, Yucheng Sun, Ying Chen and Lijuan Zhang
Analysis of Tensile Strength and Failure Mechanism Based on Parallel Homogenization Model
for Recycled Concrete
Reprinted from: Materials 2021, 15, 145, doi:10.3390/ma15010145 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Tommaso D’Antino and Marco Andrea Pisani

A Proposal to Improve the Effectiveness of the Deflection Control Method Provided by
Eurocodes for Concrete, Timber, and Composite Slabs
Reprinted from: Materials 2021, 14, 7627, doi:10.3390/ma14247627 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Hela Garbaya, Abderraouf Jraba, Mohamed Amine Khadimallah and Elimame Elaloui
The Development of a New Phosphogypsum-Based Construction Material: A Study of the
Physicochemical, Mechanical and Thermal Characteristics
Reprinted from: Materials 2021, 14, 7369, doi:10.3390/ma14237369 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Ahmed Bahgat Tawfik, Sameh Youssef Mahfouz and Salah El-Din Fahmy Taher
Nonlinear ABAQUS Simulations for Notched Concrete Beams
Reprinted from: Materials 2021, 14, 7349, doi:10.3390/ma14237349 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Soheil Jahandari, Masoud Mohammadi, Aida Rahmani, Masoumeh Abolhasani, Hania

Miraki and Leili Mohammadifar et al.
Mechanical Properties of Recycled Aggregate Concretes Containing Silica Fume and Steel Fibres
Reprinted from: Materials 2021, 14, 7065, doi:10.3390/ma14227065 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Gun-Cheol Lee, Youngmin Kim, Soo-Yeon Seo, Hyun-Do Yun and Seongwon Hong
Influence of CNT Incorporation on the Carbonation of Conductive Cement Mortar
Reprinted from: Materials 2021, 14, 6721, doi:10.3390/ma14216721 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

v
Dario De Domenico, Davide Messina and Antonino Recupero
A Combined Experimental-Numerical Framework for Assessing the Load-Bearing Capacity of
Existing PC Bridge Decks Accounting for Corrosion of Prestressing Strands
Reprinted from: Materials 2021, 14, 4914, doi:10.3390/ma14174914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Mafalda Teixeira and Luı́s Bernardo

Evaluation of Smeared Constitutive Laws for Tensile Concrete to Predict the Cracking of RC
Beams under Torsion with Smeared Truss Model
Reprinted from: Materials 2021, 14, 1260, doi:10.3390/ma14051260 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Ayaz Ahmad, Furqan Farooq, Pawel Niewiadomski, Krzysztof Ostrowski, Arslan Akbar and
Fahid Aslam et al.
Prediction of Compressive Strength of Fly Ash Based Concrete Using Individual and Ensemble
Algorithm
Reprinted from: Materials 2021, 14, 794, doi:10.3390/ma14040794 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Alinda Dey, Akshay Vijay Vastrad, Mattia Francesco Bado, Aleksandr Sokolov and Gintaris
Kaklauskas
Long-Term Concrete Shrinkage Influence on the Performance of Reinforced Concrete Structures
Reprinted from: Materials 2021, 14, 254, doi:10.3390/ma14020254 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

Wanguo Dong, Chunlin Liu, Xueben Bao, Tengfei Xiang and Depeng Chen
Advances in the Deformation and Failure of Concrete Pavement under Coupling Action of
Moisture, Temperature, and Wheel Load
Reprinted from: Materials 2020, 13, 5530, doi:10.3390/ma13235530 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

vi
About the Editors
Dario De Domenico
Dario De Domenico is an Assistant Professor of Structural Engineering at the Department
of Engineering of the University of Messina, Italy, and Research Fellow at C.E.R.I.S.I. (Centre of
Excellence in Research and Innovation of Large Dimension Structures and Infrastructures). After
graduating in Civil Engineering, he achieved his PhD in Materials and Structural Engineering at the
University of Reggio Calabria. He has also been a Visiting Researcher at both the Department of
Civil and Structural Engineering, University of Sheffield, UK, and at the Laboratory of Mechanics
and Materials, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. He has more than 10 years of teaching
experience in academic courses, workshops, and specialized seminars in the subject area of civil
engineering, particularly structural engineering and structural seismic designs of structures. His
Ph.D. thesis, dealing with a numerical limit analysis procedure for composite materials and reinforced
concrete structures, has been awarded a special mention from the ACI (American Concrete Institute)
Italy Chapter, for the best PhD theses defended in 2012–2014 in Italy in the field of concrete structures.
His research activity, since the PhD thesis, has been directed towards the development of numerical
models for simulations of the mechanical behavior of concrete elements at ultimate limit states.
He has authored/co-authored over 80 articles in international scientific journals. He has been the
co-advisor of four PhD students and is currently the co-advisor of one PhD candidate, as well as more
than twenty Master’s students. He has produced editorial and scientific review work for numerous
international journals, having reviewed more than 200 articles.

Luı́s Filipe Almeida Bernardo

Luı́s F. A. Bernardo achieved his PhD in Civil Engineering (expertise in Mechanics of Structures
and Materials) in 2004 at the University of Coimbra, Portugal. Currently, he is an Associate
Professor with Aggregation and a Research Member at C-MADE (Centre of Materials and Building
Technologies) in the Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture at the University of Beira
Interior in Covilhã, Portugal. His research interests include structural analysis and design, numerical
modelling and the optimization of steel/concrete structures, and new structural materials and
building systems. He has been a researcher in several national research projects and he collaborates
with researchers from Portugal, Brazil, and Italy. He has authored/coauthored about 70 articles in
international peer-reviewed journals. He has been working as a reviewer for several international
scientific journals and has revised about 270 articles. He has supervised 21 MSc theses and 6 PhD
theses in his research field. He has also co-supervised some MSc and PhD Theses, including in Brazil.
Additionally, he has developed activities as a consulter and civil engineer for the structural design of
buildings and special structures in Portugal.

vii
 materials
Editorial
Editorial for “Mechanical Behavior of Concrete Materials and
Structures: Experimental Evidence and Analytical Models”
Dario De Domenico 1, * and Luís F. A. Bernardo 2

1 Department of Engineering, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy

2 Centre of Materials and Building Technologies (C-MADE), Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-0906765921

Concrete is one of the most widespread materials in the civil engineering field due to
its versatility for both structural and non-structural applications depending on the density
range, competitiveness in terms of durability and manufacturing costs, as well as ease in
finding raw constituent elements. For this reason, the mechanical behavior of concrete and,
even more, reinforced concrete (RC) has been a research theme tackled by many researchers
through different approaches for years. Although the relevant literature is full of papers on
this topic, ranging from experimental works to theoretical contributions, an accurate and
comprehensive description of the actual mechanical behavior exhibited by concrete and
reinforced concrete at service and ultimate conditions still remains a challenge in the field
of structural engineering. This is due to several intricate and interconnected phenomena
involved, such as tensile cracking, compression crushing, strain softening, interaction
between aggregates and matrix, interaction between concrete and reinforcement, stiffness
degradation, energy dissipation, and ductility exhibited under cycling loading.
Following these research motivations, this Special Issue collects 15 papers focused on
the mechanical behavior of concrete materials and structures, including both experimental
Citation: De Domenico, D.; Bernardo,
findings and numerical analyses using both conventional and advanced methodologies. In
L.F.A. Editorial for “Mechanical
Behavior of Concrete Materials and
the Editors’ opinion, each article contains clear scientific novelty from various standpoints
Structures: Experimental Evidence
(analytical, numerical, experimental, conceptual), thus representing a major contribution to
and Analytical Models”. Materials
the understanding of the mechanical behavior of concrete materials and structures. The
2022, 15, 4921. https://doi.org/ Editors hope that this article collection can somehow contribute, even if modestly, to the
10.3390/ma15144921 continuous research for a more thorough and reliable understanding of the mechanical
behavior of ordinary and prestressed concretes, as well as special concretes, including high-
Received: 7 July 2022
strength, recycled, and fiber-reinforced concretes, for both structural and non-structural
Accepted: 13 July 2022
applications, and for the development of related numerical/analytical predictive models.
Published: 15 July 2022
Among the experimental contributions, Ni et al. [1] presented static and dynamic shear
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral tests on four types of transverse connections used in adjacent precast concrete box-beam
with regard to jurisdictional claims in bridges to evaluate their shear transfer performance before and after cracking. In addition
published maps and institutional affil- to experimental tests, a finite element model was also developed to calibrate and validate
iations. the interfacial material parameters. This contribution provided quantitative information on
the effects of shear key cracking on vertical stiffness, and on the relationship between shear
transfer and relative displacement across the shear key.
Three contributions were focused on recycled concretes, from either an experimental
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
or numerical perspective. Garbaya et al. [2] incorporated phosphogypsum, which is a by-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
product of the production of phosphoric acid, into a new construction material. Based on
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
an experimental campaign comprising physicochemical, mechanical, and thermal analyses,
conditions of the Creative Commons
it was demonstrated that the different degrees of hydration that this material possesses
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// facilitate the exchange of water with the external environment by creating a water pump
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ that helps to condition the ambient air. Jahandari et al. [3] studied, through experimental
4.0/). tests, the compression behavior of concretes prepared with recycled coarse aggregates

1
Materials 2022, 15, 4921

at replacement levels of 50% and 100% of natural coarse aggregates, resulting from both
low- and high-strength concretes. The experimental campaign, including 60 tests, was
aimed to analyze the effect of hooked-end steel fibers and silica fume, introduced as a
partial replacement of cement, in such recycled concrete specimens. It was shown that
the addition of steel fibers and silica fume considerably increased the strength (especially
for recycled aggregates resulting from high-strength concretes), the elastic modulus, and
the post-peak ductility of concretes. The third paper pertinent to the field of recycled
concrete was authored by Peng et al. [4], who proposed a numerical analysis method for
recycled concrete called the parallel homogenization method. An equivalent meso-damage
model was developed through the base force element method, based on the complementary
energy principle. The recycled concrete was treated as a five-phase medium, including
the aggregate, the old mortar, the new mortar, the old interface, and the new interface.
Based on the simulation of experimental uniaxial tensile tests of recycled concrete, it was
demonstrated that the proposed method shows significant computational advantages over
alternative mesoscopic damage models.
The mechanical behavior of concrete was analyzed not only under static loading.
The dynamic characteristics of concrete were experimentally investigated by Sun et al. [5]
through large-diameter split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) tests performed on concretes
and mortars comparatively. The experimental tests made it possible to analyze the influence
of strain rate on the actual dynamic strength of concrete materials and the influence of
strain acceleration on inertial effects. It was also shown that the strain rate effect of concrete
is more sensitive than that of mortar, but the inertia effect of mortar is more sensitive than
that of concrete.
Another aspect playing a key role in structural serviceability analyses of RC structures
is the concrete shrinkage. Dey et al. [6] presented a comprehensive experimental program
aimed to investigate the long-term (estimated at five years from casting) shrinkage effects of
concrete on the deformative and tension stiffening response of RC members. Experimental
tests on 14 RC ties with various geometry and mechanical characteristics demonstrated
that the long-term shrinkage of concrete remarkably lowered the cracking load of the RC
members and caused an apparent tension stiffening reduction, especially for members with
higher reinforcement ratios.
The influence of multi-walled and single-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) on the
carbonation, compressive and flexural strength, electrical resistance, and porosity of special
mortars was experimentally analyzed by Lee et al. [7]. Based on the experimental outcomes,
the introduction of CNTs led to a decrease in compressive and flexural strengths compared
to plain mortars, due to an increase in the internal pore volume. However, the mortars
prepared with CNTs exhibited a much lower electrical resistance (of around 10–20% of
the plain specimens) and a higher acceleration rate of conductive cement mortar (the
carbonation rate of conductive cement mortar increased by 1.5 times as the dosage of CNT
was doubled in the mixture).
An increasing number of researchers have recently advanced the use of machine
learning methodologies for predicting the mechanical characteristics of concrete based
on training sets of data. For estimating the compressive strength of ultra-high-strength
concrete (UHSC), Shen et al. [8] used soft computing techniques by considering 372 different
mix proportions with 10 input variables, namely, cement content, fly ash, silica fume and
silicate content, sand and water content, superplasticizer content, steel fiber, steel fiber
aspect ratio, and curing time. The effect of these ten input parameters on the output
parameter (compressive strength) and their interaction was evaluated using SHapley
Additive exPlanations. It was demonstrated that the curing time has the highest impact on
UHSC compressive strength estimation, followed by silica fume, sand, and superplasticizer
content. Along a similar research line, Ahmad et al. [9] used supervised machine learning
techniques, in particular, for comparing individual and ensemble algorithms to predict the
compressive strength of fly-ash-based concretes, trained by 270 experimental data collected

2
Materials 2022, 15, 4921

from the literature. In this study, the input parameters included cement content, aggregates,
water, binder-to-water ratio, fly ash, and superplasticizer.
Bernardo et al. [10] addressed the problem of predicting the torsional strength of RC
members through an analytical approach, inspired by the space truss analogy, with some
empirical coefficients obtained by regression analysis. A wide database containing 202 tests
of RC beams tested under pure torsion was first compiled, including under- and over-
reinforced beams, plain and hollow beams, as well as normal- and high-strength concrete
beams. Based on this database, correlation studies between the torsional strength and
geometrical and mechanical parameters of the RC beams (compressive concrete strength,
concrete area enclosed within the outer perimeter of the cross section, and amount of rein-
forcement) were carried out, following which refined predicting equations were elaborated
to predict the torsional strength of RC beams. It was also demonstrated that the accuracy
of the proposed equations is superior to that of alternative code-based formulations. The
torsional behavior of RC beams, with particular attention to the transition from the un-
cracked to the cracked stage, was also investigated by Teixeira and Bernardo [11] through
the generalized softened variable angle truss-model (GSVATM). The GSVATM was used
to check the accuracy of some smeared constitutive laws for tensile concrete proposed in
the literature. Among five different smeared constitutive laws analyzed in this paper, the
formulation proposed by Belarbi and Hsu in 1994 exhibited the best accuracy and reliability
against a wide database of experimental results including 103 RC beams with plain and
hollow rectangular cross sections tested under pure torsion.
The deflection behavior of horizontal structural members was the object of the inves-
tigation of D’Antino and Pisani [12]. The recommendations of the various Eurocodes on
the maximum deflection limits were critically analyzed by focusing on the integrity of
the superstructures. Different types of horizontal members, namely, rib and clay pot (or
hollow block), composite steel–concrete, and timber beam slabs, were designed to respect
the deflection limit enforced by the Eurocodes. The authors proposed a curvature control
method in place of the deflection control method adopted by the Eurocodes; this approach
would allow for defining a general limit curvature value for floorings that could be adopted
as the minimum performance level of the standards and would be able to guarantee the
absence of flooring cracking.
One of the most complex phenomena to simulate in concrete structures is fracture
behavior, due to the heterogeneous microstructure and interaction between aggregates and
matrix. In this context, Tawfik et al. [13] employed state-of-the-art numerical techniques
for simulating the fracture behavior of concrete. In particular, the authors proposed
different crack simulation techniques, namely, the contour integral technique, the extended
finite element method, and the virtual crack closure technique, implemented within the
commercial finite element software ABAQUS, to investigate the flexural response and the
fracture behavior of notched plain and reinforced concrete beams under three-point bending
and four-point bending tests. The comparison of numerical outcomes with experimental
findings demonstrated that the extended finite element method exhibited the best fracture
energy estimation and solution-dependent crack path, and the most reliable results among
the analyzed numerical techniques.
It is well known that durability of existing concrete structures was not always regarded
as a crucial performance requirement in the past, and periodical maintenance plans have
not been performed over the years. As a consequence, many damage phenomena have
been recently observed in existing concrete structures dated from around 50 years ago; in
some extreme cases, these damage mechanisms have led to complete structural collapse,
as recently observed for bridges. One of the most serious factors negatively affecting the
durability of concrete structures is the corrosion of steel reinforcement. In this context,
De Domenico et al. [14] developed a systematic numerical-experimental approach for
the load-bearing capacity assessment of existing prestressed concrete bridge decks in
which the corrosion of prestressing strands was explicitly considered. The developed
procedure can represent a convenient assessment tool to rapidly identify critical portions

3
Materials 2022, 15, 4921

of a large infrastructure network prior to performing detailed analyses to establish a list of

intervention priorities in a timely and reasonable way.
Finally, the review paper by Dong et al. [15] illustrated the various methods proposed
in the literature to simulate the coupled hygro-thermo-mechanical behavior of concrete
pavement. Among the analyzed methods, it emerged that an area of research that was not
sufficiently explored by previous researchers is the deformation and failure mechanism
of pavement concrete under the coupling action of moisture, temperature, and wheel
load. In this context, COMSOL software was identified as a promising numerical tool for
performing such coupled hygro-thermal-mechanical analyses of concrete pavement.

Author Contributions: Writing—original draft preparation, D.D.D.; writing—review and editing,

D.D.D., L.F.A.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank all authors for their valuable contributions, the many
dedicated referees for their useful guidance to improve the papers, the Editorial Team of Materials
and, above all, Daisy Liu for her professional assistance and kindness during this Special Issue.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Ni, X.; Anselme, A.O.; Wang, G.; Xing, Y.; Xu, R. Experimental Investigation of Shear Keys for Adjacent Precast Concrete Box
Beam Bridges. Materials 2022, 15, 1459. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. Garbaya, H.; Jraba, A.; Khadimallah, M.A.; Elaloui, E. The Development of a New Phosphogypsum-Based Construction Material:
A Study of the Physicochemical, Mechanical and Thermal Characteristics. Materials 2021, 14, 7369. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Jahandari, S.; Mohammadi, M.; Rahmani, A.; Abolhasani, M.; Miraki, H.; Mohammadifar, L.; Rashidi, M. Mechanical properties
of recycled aggregate concretes containing silica fume and steel fibres. Materials 2021, 14, 7065. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Peng, Y.; Zakaria, S.; Sun, Y.; Chen, Y.; Zhang, L. Analysis of Tensile Strength and Failure Mechanism Based on Parallel
Homogenization Model for Recycled Concrete. Materials 2021, 15, 145. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Sun, B.; Chen, R.; Ping, Y.; Zhu, Z.; Wu, N.; Shi, Z. Research on Dynamic Strength and Inertia Effect of Concrete Materials Based
on Large-Diameter Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar Test. Materials 2022, 15, 2995. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. Dey, A.; Vastrad, A.V.; Bado, M.F.; Sokolov, A.; Kaklauskas, G. Long-term concrete shrinkage influence on the performance of
reinforced concrete structures. Materials 2021, 14, 254. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. Lee, G.C.; Kim, Y.; Seo, S.Y.; Yun, H.D.; Hong, S. Influence of CNT Incorporation on the Carbonation of Conductive Cement
Mortar. Materials 2021, 14, 6721. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
8. Shen, Z.; Deifalla, A.F.; Kamiński, P.; Dyczko, A. Compressive Strength Evaluation of Ultra-High-Strength Concrete by Machine
Learning. Materials 2022, 15, 3523. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
9. Ahmad, A.; Farooq, F.; Niewiadomski, P.; Ostrowski, K.; Akbar, A.; Aslam, F.; Alyousef, R. Prediction of compressive strength of
fly ash based concrete using individual and ensemble algorithm. Materials 2021, 14, 794. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
10. Bernardo, L.F.; Teixeira, M.M.; De Domenico, D.; Gama, J.M. Improved Equations for the Torsional Strength of Reinforced
Concrete Beams for Codes of Practice Based on the Space Truss Analogy. Materials 2022, 15, 3827. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
11. Teixeira, M.; Bernardo, L. Evaluation of Smeared Constitutive Laws for Tensile Concrete to Predict the Cracking of RC Beams
under Torsion with Smeared Truss Model. Materials 2021, 14, 1260. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. D’Antino, T.; Pisani, M.A. A Proposal to Improve the Effectiveness of the Deflection Control Method Provided by Eurocodes for
Concrete, Timber, and Composite Slabs. Materials 2021, 14, 7627. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. Tawfik, A.B.; Mahfouz, S.Y.; Taher, S.E.D.F. Nonlinear ABAQUS Simulations for Notched Concrete Beams. Materials 2021, 14, 7349.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. De Domenico, D.; Messina, D.; Recupero, A. A Combined Experimental-Numerical Framework for Assessing the Load-Bearing
Capacity of Existing PC Bridge Decks Accounting for Corrosion of Prestressing Strands. Materials 2021, 14, 4914. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
15. Dong, W.; Liu, C.; Bao, X.; Xiang, T.; Chen, D. Advances in the Deformation and Failure of Concrete Pavement under Coupling
Action of Moisture, Temperature, and Wheel Load. Materials 2020, 13, 5530. [CrossRef] [PubMed]

4
 materials
Article
Improved Equations for the Torsional Strength of Reinforced
Concrete Beams for Codes of Practice Based on the Space
Truss Analogy
Luís F. A. Bernardo 1, * , Mafalda M. Teixeira 1 , Dario De Domenico 2 and Jorge M. R. Gama 3

1 Centre of Materials and Building Technologies (C-MADE), Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal; [email protected]
2 Department of Engineering, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy; [email protected]
3 Center of Mathematics and Applications (CMA), Department of Mathematics, University of Beira Interior,
6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Design codes provide the necessary tools to check the torsional strength of reinforced
concrete (RC) members. However, some researchers have pointed out that code equations still need
improvement. This study presents a review and a comparative analysis of the calculation procedures
to predict the torsional strength of RC beams from some reference design codes, namely the Russian,
American, European, and Canadian codes for RC structures. The reliability and accuracy of the
normative torsional strengths are checked against experimental results from a broad database incor-
porating 202 RC rectangular beams tested under pure torsion and collected from the literature. The
results show that both the readability and accuracy of the codes’ equations should be improved. Based
on a correlation study between the experimental torsional strengths, and geometrical and mechanical
properties of the beams, refined yet simple equations are proposed to predict torsional strength. It
Citation: Bernardo, L.F.A.; Teixeira,
is demonstrated that the proposed formulation is characterized by a significant improvement over
M.M.; De Domenico, D.; Gama, J.M.R.
the reference design codes. The efficiency of the proposed formulae is also assessed against another
Improved Equations for the Torsional
Strength of Reinforced Concrete
equation earlier proposed in the literature, and an improvement is noted as well. From the results, it
Beams for Codes of Practice Based on can be concluded that the proposed equations in this study can contribute to a more accurate and
the Space Truss Analogy. Materials economical design for practice.
2022, 15, 3827. https://doi.org/
10.3390/ma15113827 Keywords: reinforced concrete; beams; torsional strength; correlation study; codes of practice; space
truss model; thin-walled tube analogy
Academic Editor: Angelo
Marcello Tarantino

Received: 26 April 2022

Accepted: 25 May 2022 1. Introduction
Published: 27 May 2022
In engineering practice, structural members under pure torsion are not a common
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral situation. Usually, torsional effects are combined with other internal forces in the critical
with regard to jurisdictional claims in sections of the member. However, there are several practical cases in structures in which
published maps and institutional affil- structural members must sustain primary torsional effects in their critical sections. Typical
iations. examples are encountered in bridge structures or geometrically complex building structures,
in which reinforced concrete (RC) girders and columns can be subjected to primary torsion
due to the high eccentricity of static loads or complex geometry of the members (e.g.,
curvature in plan). For such members, an accurate calculation of the torsional strength
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
is essential for the design or assessment of the torsional capacity, namely to guarantee
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
or check the safety at the ultimate limit states. For such purposes, current RC members
This article is an open access article
and structural engineers usually base their calculations on the rules from design codes.
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Nowadays, each country has its own set of design codes that govern structural design,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
namely for RC structures, and some of them have a high impact in other countries and also
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ constitute reference codes for the international community [1–7].
4.0/).

5
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

Despite all the research effort made in recent decades by the scientific community,
several current design codes for concrete structures are still somewhat scarce in providing
detailed and specific design rules for torsion. These include basic reinforcement detail-
ing rules and limits for important design variables to ensure a good performance of RC
members under torsion for both the ultimate and serviceability limit states. For example,
some design codes do not provide any specific rule regarding the minimum amount of
torsional reinforcement, which is considered a basic requirement to avoid a sudden failure
after concrete cracking. The same can be stated for the maximum amount of torsional
reinforcement to ensure ductility at failure (torsional reinforcement should yield before
concrete crushing). Although such a maximum amount can be indirectly computed from
the maximum compressive stress allowed for the concrete struts, this upper-stress limit can
vary substantially among design codes. As there is a lack of specific rules for torsion, some
codes refer to the rules related to the reinforcement requirements for other internal forces,
such as for bending (for the longitudinal reinforcement) and for shear (for the transverse
reinforcement). In addition to the aforementioned missing aspects, when the rules from
several design codes are used to predict the torsional strength of RC beams, small accuracy
and high dispersion of the results, including unsafe predictions, are still observed when
they are compared with experimental data [8,9]. This observation shows that research work
on the torsion of RC beams still needs to be carried out to propose more accurate design
rules to be incorporated in future revisions of design codes.
The first reference design codes, which incorporated specific design rules for torsion
for RC members, were based on the so-called skew-bending theory. This model was
proposed by Hsu in 1968 [10] and was established from empirical observations based on
the failure pattern observed in several experiments with RC rectangular beams under pure
torsion. This model showed to provide accurate predictions for the torsional strength
of RC beams with common rectangular cross-sections, such as the ones used in building
structures. However, when applied to cross-sections with large aspect ratios or to cross-
sections with more complex geometries, such as the ones used in bridge girders, this model
produces more complex formulations and shows to be much less accurate. In spite of this,
the skew-bending theory was developed over more than two decades [11–13] and had a
considerable influence on the design rules for torsion in some reference design codes, such
as the ACI code (American code) up to 1995. Presently, the design rules for torsion of the
Eurasian code SiNiP 2018 [1] are still based on the skew-bending theory.
Nowadays, the torsion design rules from most design codes for concrete structures are
based on the space truss analogy. This model, first proposed by Raush in 1929 [14], was later
combined with the classical thin tube theory from Bredt [15] and further developed in the
second half of the last century [16–19]. The space truss analogy allows for a better physical
understanding of how an RC beam behaves under torsion in the cracked stage and provides
simple equations to compute the torsional strength, even for geometrically complex cross-
sections. However, due to different hypotheses incorporated in the model, to allow for a
simple torsional design, the calculation procedures for torsion can be somewhat different
among the design codes. Because of this, noticeable differences can be observed in the
results when different design codes are used to predict the torsional strength of RC beams,
although all these codes are formally based on the same space truss resisting mechanism.
These observations justify the need for additional improvements to be incorporated in
future revisions of the codes.
Since the 1980s, refined versions of models based on the space truss analogy have been
proposed that allow one to compute with accuracy the strength of RC beams under pure
torsion [18,20–26], RC beams under torsion combined with other internal forces [27–30].
More advanced analytical models have also been proposed in the literature and applied to
beams under torsion and combined loadings [31–36]. Although these models have been
shown to be very reliable when compared with experimental results, they are not easy to be
used by practitioners as they require advanced calculation procedures to be implemented
on the computer. Hence, simple and reliable equations would be preferable for practice.

6
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

Based on these motivations and research needs, this study first presents a critical
overview and a comparative analysis of the calculation procedures from design codes to
predict the torsional strength of RC rectangular beams. For this, some reference design
codes considered important due to their territorial scope were chosen. Such design codes
are the following ones: the Eurasian code, SiNiP 2018 [1], two different versions of Amer-
ican codes, namely ACI 318R-89 [2] and ACI 318R-19 [3], the European codes MC90 [4],
MC10 [5] and Eurocode 2 [6], and the Canadian code CSA A23.3-14 [7]. For comparison
purposes, this list includes codes based on different mechanical models to establish the
design rules for torsion, namely the skew-bending theory and the space truss analogy,
and also codes with different application scopes (laws or recommendation documents).
The calculation procedures from the codes are summarized and checked against a broad
database incorporating 202 RC rectangular beams tested under pure torsion collected from
the literature. This database includes under- and over-reinforced beams, plain and hollow
beams, as well as normal- and high-strength concrete beams. Then, based on correlations
studies, improved and simple equations are proposed to compute the torsional strength of
RC beams. The proposed model correlates the torsional strength and three main properties
of the beams: the compressive concrete strength, the concrete area enclosed within the outer
perimeter of the cross-section, and the amount of torsional reinforcement. The accuracy
and reliability of the proposed equations are checked against the results from the reference
design codes. They are also checked against simple equations proposed by Rahal in 2013 [8],
which have a similar form to the ones proposed here and were based on a similar approach
to that used in this study (by fitting experimental results). For these reasons, the research
from Rahal [8] was considered a benchmark. The results show that the proposed equations
significantly improve the accuracy and reliability of the torsional strength of RC beams
when compared with the same ones from the reference design codes. They also give slightly
better results when compared with the ones from the equations previously proposed by
Rahal [8].
When compared to previous research, namely the one from Rahal [8], which constitutes
a reference study, the main novelty in this study is related to the higher number of reference
design codes studied, the higher number of reference beams considered in the database,
and the somewhat different methodology used to fit the experiment results in obtaining
simple and improved equations for torsional strength.
It should be noted that this article addresses only the particular case of RC beams
under pure torsion. It is well known that in real concrete structures, the critical section
of members usually carries combined loadings, for instance, torsion combined with other
internal forces (bending, shear, and axial forces). However, for some concrete members,
such as girders curved in plan and girders with eccentric loadings, torsion could be the
primary internal acting force. Furthermore, the design provisions to check the interaction
between internal forces requires the calculation of the torsional strength of the cross-section,
considering only torsion as loading. Hence, the ultimate strength of the cross-section needs
to be well known. This justifies the importance of this study.

2. Equations from the Reference Design Codes

From the studied design codes, the SiNiP 2018 [1] and ACI 318R-89 [2] codes are the
only ones whose equations for torsional design, i.e., to compute the torsional strength of
RC beams, are based on the skew-bending theory. Although ACI 318R-89 is no longer in
use, it was included in this study for comparison with SiNiP 2018 (which is still in use)
and to better understand the influence of the underlying mechanical model in the code
formulation. The calculation procedure for torsion for all the other reference design codes
(ACI 318R-19 [3], MC90 [4], MC10 [5], Eurocode 2 [6], and CSA A23.3-14 [7]) are based
on the space truss analogy. As far as the European design codes are concerned, it should
be stated that MC10 substituted MC90. However, as the design rules for torsion were
simplified in MC10, MC90 was also considered for comparison.

7
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

Table A1 in Appendix A summarizes the equations incorporated in each reference

design code for torsional design and to compute the torsional strength of RC beams. In
Table A1, all codes’ equations were rewritten to uniformize the symbology for better clarity
and to facilitate comparison. The meaning of the used symbology can be found in the
Nomenclature.
American and Canadian codes incorporate specific rules to design both the longitu-
dinal and transverse torsional reinforcement. In general, the European codes incorporate
specific equations to design longitudinal torsional reinforcement. However, they refer to
the rules for shear reinforcement to design the transverse torsional reinforcement.
From the presented equations in Table A1, one can highlight five main parameters
that can be defined by somewhat different rules but strongly influence the magnitude of
the calculated torsional strength:
• The limit of the wall’s thickness of the equivalent hollow beam, which determines
and limits the area enclosed within the flow of shear stress acting on the beam’s
cross-section;
• The flow of shear stress, which is induced by the external torque, and the correspond-
ing shear resultant forces in each wall;
• The criteria to compute the torsional strength, which, depending on the underlying
mechanical model and design code, consider separately the strength contributed by
the torsional tensile reinforcement and the strength contributed by the compressive
concrete;
• The maximum limit allowed for the compressive stress in the concrete struts to avoid
a brittle failure of the beam due to concrete crushing;
• The angle of the concrete struts to the longitudinal axis of the beam.
A more detailed analysis of the summarized equations in Table A1 can be found
in some of the reference design codes and also in a previous study from the two first
authors [9].

3. Database with Reference Beams

For this study, an extensive literature review was performed to compile the main
properties and experimental results of RC rectangular beams tested under pure torsion
until failure. A total of 202 beams were compiled from several studies [10,12,19,37–49] to
build the database (with 158 plain beams and 44 hollow beams). The number of beams
found in the literature was higher than 202; however, some of them were disregarded based
on the following criteria:
1. The main properties of the tested RC beams needed to compute the normative tor-
sional strength should be given;
2. The experimental torsional strength should be given and the RC beams should have
failed in pure torsion in their ultimate stage as expected;
3. The beams should comply with reinforcement requirements from ACI 318R-19 [3]. For
instance, and among other requirements, the spacing of the hoops should be less than
the upper limit set by the code to avoid untypical behavior (for instance, premature
failure) during testing. ACI 318R-19 [3] was the chosen code because it was found to
be the one that incorporates a higher number of specific detailing rules for RC beams
under torsion.
Table A2 in Appendix A summarizes the main geometric and mechanical properties
of the reference RC beams that are necessary to compute the torsional strength from the
design codes. The meaning of each parameter can be found in the Nomenclature.
Figure 1 presents graphs with the distribution of some key parameters for the
202 reference RC beams from the database. In the abscissa of the graphs, the parame-
ters are: f cm is the average compressive concrete strength, ρtot = ρl + ρt is the total ratio of
torsional reinforcement, f ly and f ty are the average yielding stresses for longitudinal and
transverse reinforcement, respectively.

8
 𝑓 𝜌 =𝜌 +𝜌
Materials 2022, 15, 3827 𝑓 𝑓

60 120

50 100

40 80
Nr. of beams

Nr. of beams
30 60
20
40
10
20
0
0
90–100
10–20
20–30
30–40
40–50
50–60
60–70
70–80
80–90

100–110

fcm [MPa] ρtot [%]

(a) (b)

50 60
45
50
40
35 40
Nr. of beams
Nr. of beams

30
25 30
20
20
15
10 10
5
0 0
250–300
300–350
350–400
400–450
450–500
500–550
550–600
600–650
650–700
700–750

fly [MPa] fty [MPa]

(c) (d)

Figure 1. Distribution of key parameters for the reference RC beams. (a) Concrete strength. (b) Total
reinforcement ratio. (c) Yielding stress of longitudinal reinforcement. (d) Yielding stress of transverse
reinforcement.

Figure 1 shows that 142 and 60 beams are built with normal- (up to 50 MPa) and
high-strength concrete (over 50 MPa, according to [5]), respectively. The average concrete
compressive strength ranges between 14 MPa and 110 MPa. The total reinforcement ratio
ranges between a minimum of 0.37% and a maximum of 6.36%, being for most of the beams
in the range of 1 to 2%. The yielding stress ranges between 308.8 MPa and 723.9 MPa for
the longitudinal reinforcement and between 285 MPa and 714.8 MPa for the transverse
reinforcement. For most of the beams, it ranges between 300 MPa and 500 MPa.

9
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

The database used in this study is wider than the ones used in previous studies on the
torsion of RC beams. For instance, the database used by Rahal [8], which is an important
reference for this study, included 50 beams less than the database used in this study.

4. Evaluation of Design Codes

For each reference beam from the database (see Table A2), the theoretical torsional
strength, TR,th , was computed according to the calculation procedures from each reference
design code (see Table A1). The obtained values are presented in Table A3 in Appendix A,
which also presents the corresponding experimental values, TR,exp . The calculated ratios
TR,exp /TR,th are presented in a Table A4 in Appendix A. Table 1 summarizes, for each
design code, the average value, x, and the coefficient of variation, cv, computed for the
ratios, TR,exp /TR,th , from all reference beams. The results are presented separately for plain
beams (P), hollow beams (H), and also for all beams together (P + H). This separation can
be justified because some design codes include corrections to the equations for hollow
beams, while others do not.

Table 1. Comparative analysis between design codes.

P H P+H
Cross Section
TR,exp /TR,th TR,exp /TR,th TR,exp /TR,th
x= 1.21 1.47 1.25
SiNiP 2018 [1]
cv = 34% 20% 32%
x= 1.12 1.27 1.15
ACI 318R-89 [2]
cv = 23% 26% 24%
x= 1.40 1.38 1.40
ACI 318R-19 [3]
cv = 31% 18% 28%
x= 1.28 1.61 1.36
MC90 [4]
cv = 24% 29% 28%
x= 1.41 1.07 1.33
MC10 [5]
cv = 44% 33% 44%
x= 1.07 1.29 1.12
Eurocode 2 [6]
cv = 24% 31% 28%
x= 0.98 1.13 1.01
CSA A23.3-14 [7]
cv = 22% 27% 24%

From Table 1, it can be stated that all design codes show a relatively high dispersion for
the ratio TR,exp /TR,th (in general cv > 20%), which represents a motivation for developing
more accurate and reliable torsional strength equations.
Design codes based on the skew-bending theory, namely Si-NiP 2018 [1] and ACI
318R-89 [2] codes, present similar results. In general, they both tend to underestimate the
torsional strength, (x > 1), with x = 1.25 for Si-NiP 2018 code and x = 1.15 for ACI 318R-89
code. Among these two design codes, the ACI 318R-89 code shows the best results, with
x closer to 1 and less dispersion of the results disregarding the cross-section type (with
cv = 24%, against cv = 32% for SiNiP 2018 code). Regarding the cross-section type, it can
be observed that the accuracy of the ACI 318R-89 code seems to be better for plain beams
(with x = 1.12 and cv = 23% for plain beams and x = 1.27 and cv = 26% for hollow beams);
similar trends are observed for Si-NiP 2018 code (with x = 1.21 and cv = 34% for plain
beams and x = 1.47 and cv = 20% for hollow beams). This observation can be explained
because the model based on the skew-bending theory was calibrated for plain beams [10].
The other design codes based on the space truss analogy (ACI 318R-19 [3], MC90 [4],
MC10 [5], Eurocode 2 [6], and CSA A23.3-14 [7]) show results with some differences
among them. Among those design codes, and disregarding the cross-section type, the CSA
A23.3-14 code seems to be the most accurate (with x = 1.01 and cv = 24%), while the MC10
code seems to be one of the worst (with x = 1.33 and cv = 44%). ACI 318R-19, MC90, and
Eurocode 2 codes show the same level of dispersion (with cv = 28% for all of them), and all
tend to underestimate the torsional strength (with x ranging from 1.33 and 1.40). Regarding

10
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

the cross-section type, it can be observed that the CSA A23.3-14 code is the only one that
tends to slightly overestimate the torsional strength of hollow beams (with x = 0.98 and
cv = 22 %). Eurocode 2 seems to be one that provides the best results for plain sections
(with x = 1.07 and cv = 24%). For hollow beams, it is not so clear because of the higher
dispersion of the results.
It is also worth noting that the ACI 318R-89 code (currently not in use) provides, in
general, more accurate results and with less dispersion when compared with the ACI
318R-19 code. This is because the majority of the reference tested beams have small
rectangular cross-sections, for which the skew-bending theory provides better results (as
previously referred).
Based on the above considerations and balancing the accuracy with the degree of
safety, it can be concluded that, among the codes currently in use, Eurocode 2 seems to be
the one that presents the most satisfactory results. However, some caution is required with
this conclusion (and other ones previously stated) as the dispersion of the results is high
for all codes.
The predictive accuracy of each code formulation can be assessed in Figure 2, which
presents scatter plots relating to the experimental torsional strengths (in ordinate) with the
theoretical ones (in abscissa) for each of the reference codes. In the graphs, different markers
were used to distinguish the results for plain beams (“■”) and for hollow beams (“”).
In each graph, an inclined line with a 45◦ angle is drawn, which represents the location
of the points in case both the experimental and theoretical torsional strengths are equal, i.e.,
the code predicts exactly the torsional strength of the beam. Points located on the left side
of the referred line correspond to the case in which the code underestimates the torsional
strength of the beams. If the points are located on the right side of the line, then the code
overestimates the torsional strength.
From Figure 2, it can be seen that some of the design codes can overestimate the
torsional strength of several reference beams noticeably, in particular, for hollow beams.
This is the case for the MC10 and CSA A23.3-14 codes.
The results from Table 1 and Figure 2 show clearly that the level of accuracy of all
analyzed codes, as well as the level of safety for some of them, should be improved.

11
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

500 500

400 400

T R,exp [kNm]
T R,exp [kNm]
300 300

200 200

100 100

SNiP18 ACI 318R-89

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
T R,th [kNm] T R,th [kNm]
(a) (b)

500 600

500
400

T R,exp [kNm]
T R,exp [kNm]

400
300
300
200
200

100 100
ACI 318R-19 MC90
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
T R,th [kNm] T R,th [kNm]
(c) (d)

800
500
700
400 600
T R,exp [kNm]
T R,exp [kNm]

500
300
400
200 300

200
100
100
MC10 EC2
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
T R,th [kNm] T R,th [kNm]
(e) (f)

800

700

600
T R,exp [kNm]

500

400

300

200

100
CSA14
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
T R,th [kNm]
(g)

Figure 2. Experimental vs. theoretical torsional strengths (design codes). (a) SNiP18. (b) ACI 318R_89.
(c) ACI 318R_19. (d) MC90. (e) MC10. (f) EC2. (g) CSA14.

12
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

5. Equations Proposed by Rahal

Rahal, in 2013 [8], showed that for both the ACI and CSA codes, after some basic
algebraic manipulations, a general and simple torsional strength equation can be written
in the form of Equation (1). This equation is written here with some parameters stan-
dardized according to the nomenclature used in the code equations previously presented.
Equation (1) was used in some previous models [18,23].
s
Al f yl At f yt
TR = 2Ak (1)
uk s

It can be shown that the general form of Equation (1) can be obtained from all the code
equations, which are based on the space truss analogy. This is the case of the reference
codes considered in this study (ACI 318R-19 [3], MC90 [4], MC10 [5], Eurocode 2 [6], and
CSA A23.3-14 [7])).
Rahal [8] pointed out the following drawbacks for Equation (1) based on experimental
evidence:
1. In the hollow tube model used in the space truss analogy, the shear flow is constant
around the perimeter of the tube walls. Design code formulations consider a constant
effective thickness for all the walls. As a consequence, the model assumes the same
shear stress and shear. As pointed out by Rahal [8], this is not consistent with the
experimental results on RC rectangular beams under torsion that show different
conditions on the different faces of the cross-section [10,12,37]. Experiments show that
larger tensile strains are observed in the longer legs of the hoops and larger diagonal
strains are observed in the longer faces of the cross-section. In this regard and based on
these observations, a refined variable-angle space truss model incorporating different
strut inclination angles in the different faces of the cross-section was recently proposed
by De Domenico [50];
2. Rahal [8] also pointed out that Equation (1) disregards the effect of the concrete
compressive strength, while experiments [10,12] show that this parameter has a
significant influence on the torsional strength;
3. In addition, Rahal [8] also noted that in most experiments [17,40,51], the concrete
of the beams did not spall at the maximum torque or was limited to the corners of
the cross-section [37,42]. However, in Equation (1), the torsional strength is related
to the spalled concrete dimensions through area Ak (area enclosed within the shear
flow path).
To solve the first drawback, Rahal [8] proposed to reduce the power by 0.5 for the
reinforcement term in Equation (1) to compensate for the relatively smaller contribution
of the hoops and concrete on the shorter side of the cross-section. To solve the second
drawback, the author suggested incorporating an additional term to consider the effect
of the concrete compressive strength in Equation (1). For the third drawback, the author
simply suggested correcting Equation (1) to relate the torsional strength with the unspalled
concrete dimensions, substituting the reduced area, Ak , with the concrete area, Ac (area
enclosed within the outer perimeter of the cross-section), and the corresponding perimeter
is denoted as pc (in place of ph ).
Based on the experimental results collected from the literature (which included 152 RC
beams tested under torsion) and based on separated nonlinear correlations (using appro-
priate subsets of the reference beams) for each of the previously referred terms/parameters
to correct Equation (1), Rahal [8] proposed the improved Equations (2) and (3) to compute
the torsional strength of RC beams. These equations are written here according to the
nomenclature and metric units for the parameters used in this study (as referred to in
Section 6):
At f yt 0.35
 
TR = 0.33( f c )0.16 Ac Al f yl (2)
s

13
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

Ac 2
≤ 2500( f c )0.3 (3)
pc
It should be noted that, in Equation (2), the power for the concrete strength term was
empirically selected by Rahal [8] to provide good results.
Equation (2) governs the torsional strength for under-reinforced sections (the failure is
governed by the yielding of the torsional reinforcement) and includes the “reinforcement
term” (Al f yl At f yt /s) and the “concrete strength term” (a term related to f c ). The upper
limit stated in Equation (3) governs the torsional strength for over-reinforced sections (the
failure is governed by concrete crushing before reinforcement yielding) and includes the
“concrete strength term.” Equations (2) and (3) are not limited to rectangular cross-sections
and can be applied to arbitrary cross-section shapes.
Rahal [8] checked the results from Equations (2) and (3) against the experimental
results from the 152 test specimens and very good agreement was observed. In addition,
a comparison with the ACI and CSA codes showed that the proposed equations provide
better results, with higher accuracy and much less dispersion. The author also showed that
such good results were observed for both normal- and high-strength concrete beams, as
well as for under- and over-reinforced beams.
For this study, the torsional strengths computed from Equations (2) and (3) are
rechecked against the experimental results of all 202 RC beams included in the wider
database built for this research. The obtained results are presented for each reference beam
in Table A3 and the respective ratios TR,exp /TtheoRahal are presented in Table A4. The results

are summarized in Table 2 and Figure 3, in the same way as previously presented in Table 1
and Figure 2. The obtained results still confirm the conclusions from Rahal [8], namely
that Equations (2) and (3) provide accurate results (with x = 1.06) with a very acceptable
dispersion (with cv = 15%). Table 2 also shows that the results for both plain and hollow
sections are very similar.

Table 2. Comparative analysis for the torsional strength from improved equations.

P H P+H
Cross-Section
TR,exp /TR,th TR,exp /TR,th TR,exp /TR,th
x= 1.05 1.08 1.06
Rahal [8]
cv = 14% 17% 15%
x= 1.01 1.01 1.01
Equations (6) and (7)
cv = 14% 9% 13%
x= 0.96 0.96 0.96
Equations (8) and (9)
cv = 15% 9% 14%

6. Alternative Improvement of the Equations from Rahal

In this section, Equation (1) to compute the torsional strength of RC beams is improved
based on the wider database built for this study and also on a somewhat different correlation
methodology than the one used by Rahal [8], namely for under-reinforced beams. The
performed studies are presented separately for under- and over-reinforced beams.

6.1. Upper Limit to Control Concrete Crushing (Over-Reinforced Beams)

Following the same methodology from Rahal [8] to refine the upper limit stated in
Equation (3) to control concrete crushing, a subset of 70 beams (62 plain beams and 8 hollow
beams) was created from the database. The failure of such beams was governed by concrete
crushing in the struts without yielding the torsional reinforcement. These beams are marked
with an asterisk in Table A3 and represent beams with fragile failure. For these beams,
a scatter plot is presented in Figure 4, with the average concrete compressive strength
( f cm ) in abscissa and the factor TR,exp pc /Ac 2 in ordinate (with the following units: TR,exp
[kNm], pc [m], and Ac [m2 ]). From the scatterplot, a power trendline was computed to fit
the data (1494 f c0.4 ). In the same graph, the power trendline computed by Rahal [8] and

14
 𝑓 𝑇 , 𝑝 ⁄𝐴
Materials 2022, 15, 3827
𝑇 , 𝑝 𝐴
.
1494𝑓
.
2500𝑓

based on less reference beams is also plotted for comparison (2500 f c0.3 , see upper limit
stated in Equation (3)). This power trendline is slightly shifted up when compared to the
power trendline computed. from the scatter plot in Figure 4. After computing, the torsional
1494𝑓
strengths for the over-reinforced beams from the database using an equation based on
1494 f c0.4 and after a comparative analysis with the experimental strengths, it was observed
that more unsafe values were obtained for the reference beams (the predicted torsional
strength is higher than the real one for more beams, i.e., more points are located above the
trend curve). This observation can be explained due to the high dispersion observed for the
points in the scatter plot in Figure 4. For practical design, this situation is not acceptable
and a correction of the power trendline was studied. The results suggested that the power
trendline should be slightly shifted up to minimize the referred unsafe predictions. After .
some attempts, it was concluded that the power trendline suggested by Rahal [8] was quite2500𝑓
appropriate. For this reason, the power trendline 2500 f c0.3 was also adopted in this study
and the upper limit stated in Equation (3) remained unchanged to define the upper limit to
control concrete crushing (see upper limit stated in Equation (7)).

450
500 400

350
400
300
T R,exp [kNm]

T R,exp [kNm]
300 250

200
200
150

100
100
50
Proposed
Rahal model
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400
T R,th [kNm] T R,th [kNm]

(a) (b)

Figure 3. Experimental vs. theoretical torsional strengths (improved equations). (a) Model from
Rahal. (b) Proposed model.

14000

12000 y = 2 500x0.3
TR,exppc/Ac2 [kNm2/m2]

10000

8000
y = 1 494x0.4
6000

4000

2000

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
fcm [MPa]
Figure 4. Torsional strength in over-reinforced beams.

6.2. Reinforcement, Concrete Strength, and Concrete Area Terms (Under-Reinforced Beams)
For under-reinforced beams, Rahal [8] studied separated nonlinear correlations using
appropriate subsets of reference beams from its database to study the influence of both
the “reinforcement term” (Al f yl At f yt /s) and the “concrete strength term” (related to f c ).
𝐴 𝑓 𝐴 𝑓 ⁄𝑠) 𝑓

15
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

Additional explanations of the approach followed by the referred author can be found in [8].
In this study, a different correlation methodology was used. Considering 132 reference
under-reinforced beams from the database, a correlation was studied between the torsional
strength and three terms. Two terms are the ones referred to previously, namely the
“reinforcement term” and the “concrete strength term”. In addition, a third term was added
and related to the concrete area enclosed within the external perimeter of the cross-section,
the so-called “concrete area term” (related to Ac ). From preliminary analysis, it was found
that by adding this term the correlation is noticeably improved.
As Equation (1) is linearizable with a logarithmic transformation, a multiple linear re-
gression was performed. Applying a logarithmic transformation and adding the additional
“concrete area term,” Equation (1) can be rewritten in the following general linear form:

At f yt
 
ln( TR ) = A + B ln( f c ) + C ln( Ac ) + D ln Al f yl , (4)
s

where A, B, C, and D are numerical coefficients to be determined.

To perform the multiple linear regression, the data and terms for each reference beam
A f
from the database (TR , f c , Ac , and Al f yl ts yt ) were previously log-transformed. Then, a
multiple linear model was fitted, obtaining a high R2 equal to 0.984, and a mean squared
error equal to 0.013552. For this analysis, IBM SPSS software version 28 was used. The
obtained linear fitted model is the following:

At f yt
 
ln( TR ) = 0.087 + 0.218 ln( f c ) + 1.013 ln( Ac ) + 0.318 ln Al f yl (5)
s

From the previous equation, the equivalent Equation (6) can be written to compute
the torsional strength for under-reinforced beams.

6.3. Proposed Equations

From the results obtained in the previous subsections, Equations (6) and (7) are
proposed as an improvement for Equation (1) to compute the torsional strength of RC
beams. Equation (6) constitutes an alternative to Equation (2) proposed by Rahal in 2013 [8].
In Equations (6) and (7), the units of parameters are: f c [MPa], Ac [m2 ], Al [cm2 ], f yl [MPa],
At /s [cm2 /m], f yl [MPa], Ac [m2 ], and pc [m]. The torsional strength TR is computed in
units [kNm].
As for Equations (2) and (3), Equation (6) governs the torsional strength for under-
reinforced beams, while the upper limit stated in Equation (7) governs the torsional strength
for over-reinforced beams, respectively. Equations (6) and (7) can also be applied to arbitrary
cross-section shapes.
0.318
At f yt

0.218 1.013
TR = 1.091( f c ) ( Ac ) Al f yl (6)
s

Ac 2
≤ 2500( f c )0.3 , (7)
pc
The results from Equations (6) and (7) are checked against the results from all 202 tested
beams from the database. The torsional strengths computed from the previous equations
Prop Prop
for each reference beam (TT,th ) are presented in Table A3, and the ratios TR,exp /TT,th are
presented in Table A4. The results are summarized in Table 2 and Figure 3. They show
that Equations (6) and (7) provide accurate results (with x = 1.01) with a very acceptable
dispersion (with cv = 13%). The results are also good for both plain and hollow RC beams.
A comparison with the results from the reference codes used in this study (Table 1 and
Figure 2) shows that the proposed equations provide much better results, with higher
accuracy and much less dispersion. When compared with the results from Equations (2)

16
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

and (3) from Rahal [8], it can be concluded that they are quite similar, although the results
from the equations proposed in this study are slightly better. It should also be noted that
these good results were observed for both normal- and high-strength concrete beams, as
well as for under- and over-reinforced beams.
Finally, Table 2 also summarizes the obtained results substituting Equation (6) with
a simplified version, Equation (8). Table 2 shows that, despite the very small changes
in the powers and the numerical factors, the results show that the computed torsional
strengths tend to be slightly unsafe (with x = 0.96 < 1.00). This shows that the model is
highly sensitive to the precision of the numerical values (numerical factor and powers).

At f yt 0.32
 
TR = 1.09( f c )0.22 Ac Al f yl (8)
s

Ac 2
≤ 2500( f c )0.3 , (9)
pc
Although it is not discussed in this paper, it is worth noting that the calibration of
appropriate safety factors for material parameters as well as of a model uncertainty factor
γRd for Equations (6) and (7) would produce a code-formatted design capacity equation
compliant with a predefined reliability level [52], which could be used in the design of RC
beams failing in torsion.

7. Conclusions
In this study, a review and comparative analysis of the calculation procedures to com-
pute the torsional strength of RC beams from some reference design codes was performed.
For this, a wide database was built, incorporating the experimental torsional strengths
of 202 RC rectangular beams tested until failure and found in the literature. In addition,
based on the reference RC beams from the database and on correlation studies between the
torsional strength and some properties (amount of reinforcement, concrete strength, and
concrete area enclosed within the external perimeter of the cross-section), simple equations
to compute the torsional strength were proposed and checked.
From the obtained results, the following main conclusions can be drawn:
• In general, equations from the studied reference codes still need improvements to
increase the accuracy and reduce the observed statistical dispersion;
• Some reference design codes overestimate the torsional strength of several reference
RC beams from the database noticeably, which is not acceptable for design and justifies
further improvements;
• The proposed equations to compute the torsional strength of RC beams showed to be
much more reliable and accurate in comparison with code’s equations;
• The proposed equations are simple and can easily be used for practice to assess with
accuracy the torsional strength of RC members, including plain and hollow beams,
normal- and high-strength concrete beams, as well as under- and over-reinforced
beams;
• When compared with similar equations from a previous study [8], the proposed
equations were shown to be slightly better at predicting torsional strength;
• This study confirms that simple and reliable design equations can be obtained by
simply fitting the results with experimental data existing in the literature and related
to the torsional strength of the RC beams.

Author Contributions: L.F.A.B.—conceptualization, supervision, validation, writing—review and

editing. M.M.T.—methodology, investigation, formal analysis, and writing—original draft prepa-
ration. D.D.D.—validation and writing—review and editing. J.M.R.G.—data curation, software,
and writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.

17
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

area enclosed within the outer perimeter of

Ac uk perimeter of the area Ak
the cross-section
area within the centerline of wall’s thickness (assumed
Ak V alied shear force
to coincide with the shear flow path)
Al total area of longitudinal reinforcement VR resistance shear force
shear force due to the compressive stresses resisted
Al1 area of bottom longitudinal reinforcement VRc
by concrete
shear force due to the axial stresses resisted by the
Al2 area of tensile longitudinal steel near the vertical face VRl
longitudinal reinforcement
Ao area enclosed within circular shear flow VR,max maximum resistance shear force
shear force due to shear stresses resisted by the
Aoh area enclosed within centerline of hoops VRt
transverse reinforcement
At area for one bar of the hoop x smaller dimension of the cross-section
fc average compressive strength of concrete x1 smaller dimension of hoops
characteristic value of the compressive strength of
f ck y larger dimension of the cross-section
concrete at 28 days
f yl average yield strength of longitudinal reinforcement y1 larger dimension of hoops
length of wall i, equal to the distance between the
f yt average yield strength of tranerse reinforcement zi
centerline intersection of adjacent walls
kc concrete reduction factor α angle of the hoops to the longitudinal axis
coefficient to account for the stress state of the
pc gross perimeter of the cross-section αcw
compressed chord
ph perimeter of the centerline of hoop αt efficiency coefficient
q shear stress flow due to torsion γc partial safety factor for concrete properties
s longitudinal spacing between hoops δ numerical coefficient to account for imperfections
angle of the diagonal compressive stresses in concrete
T applied torsional moment θ
struts to the longitudinal axis
t Wall’s thickness of the equivalent hollow section ν strength reduction factor for cracked concrete
Tc torsional moment resisted by concrete ρl ratio of longitudinal reinforcement: ρl = Al /xy
Tmax maximum torsional mome ρt ratio of transverse reinforcement: ρt = At u/As
TR torsional moment resistance τ shear stress due to torsion
TR,exp experimental torsional moment resistance φ reduction coefficient
TR,th theoretical torsional moment resistance φc concrete resistance factor
Ts torsional moment resisted by the reinforcement φs reinforcement resistance factor
Tu ultimate torsional moment

18
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

Appendix A

Table A1. Equations from the reference design codes.

SinNiP 2018 ACI 318R-89

Limit of the section
wall thickness

Wall thickness of the hollow section:

If t ≥ x/4
Not available the section is considered as a plain section;
If x/10t ≤ t < x/4
the section is considered as an equivalent plain section.
Shear stresses and
shear forces due
to torsion

Not available Not available

Condition:
Tu ≤ TR
where
Condition: TR = Tc + Ts
Safety condition

TR ≤ Tmax For plain section:

where Tc = 0.8( f c )1/2 x2 y
TR = min{ TR1 ; TR2 } For hollow section: 
x2 y
Tc = 0.8( f c )1/2 x2 y 4t
 
TR1 = 0.5Al1 f yl y + At f yt s(2y+ x ) x
 2 
TR2 = 0.5Al2 f yl x +
y x
At f yt s(2x+y) Ts = As t αt x1 y1 f ty
where
αt = 0.66 + 0.33(y1 /x1 ) ≤ 1.5
and x1 ≤ y1
Maximum limit by

concrete struts
the tension in

Maximum limit:
If Ts ≤ 4Tc , then
Maximum limit:
TR = Tc + Ts
Tmax = 0.1 f c x2 y
If Ts > 4Tc , then
TR = 5Tc

Not available Not available

*

* Angle between the concrete struts and the longitudinal axis of the beams.

19
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

ACI 318R-19 MC 90
Wall thickness of the hollow section:
Wall thickness of the hollow section: If t = A/u ≤ treal
Limit of the section
wall thickness

If t ≥ Aoh /ph the section is considered as a hollow section;

the section is considered as a plain If t = A/u > treal
section; the section is considered as a plain section (equivalent
If t < Aoh /ph hollow section).Wall thickness of the plain section
the section is considered as an equivalent (equivalent hollow section):
plain section. t = A/u and t > 2x distance between the face of the section
and the axis of the longitudinal reinforcement.
Shear flow for a thin-walled tube: Shear flow at a wall
Shear stresses and
shear forces due

q = τt i:
to torsion

Shear stress along the perimeter of the τi ti = 2ATo δ

section: Shear stress at a wall
τ = 2ATo t i:
Tzi
with Ao = 0.85Aoh Vi = 2A oδ
where δ = 1.0 − 0.25( x/y), with y ≥ x.
Condition: Condition:
Tu ≤ φTR VR = min{( a); (b); (c)}
Safety condition

where φ = 1 (for the present study). (a) Shear force due to the force on the longitudinal
TR = min{( a); (b)} reinforcement:
VRl ≤ Al f yl / cot θ
( a) TR = 2Ao As t f yt cos θ (c) Shear force due to the force on the transverse
reinforcement:
(b) TR = 2Al f yl tan
ph
θ
VRt = At f yt uk cot θ/s
Maximum limit by

Maximum limit to plain section: Maximum limit:

concrete struts
the tension in

A2oh Shear force due to the force on the concrete struts:

Tu ≤ φ8( f c )1/2 1.7 ph VRc ≤ f cd2 tuk cos θ sin θ
Maximum limit to hollow section: where
Tu ≤ φ8( f c )1/2 1.7Aoh t f cd2 = 0.60(1 − f ck /250) f c
where φ = 1 (for the present study).

Al f yl s Al f yl s
cot2 θ = cot2 θ =
*

At f yt ph At f yt uk

* Angle between the concrete struts and the longitudinal axis of the beams.

20
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

MC 10 Eurocode 2
Wall thickness of the hollow section:
Wall thickness of the hollow section: If t = A/u ≤ treal
Limit of the section
wall thickness

t = treal the section is considered as a hollow section;

Wall thickness of the plain section If t = A/u > treal
(equivalent hollow section): the section is considered as a plain section (equivalent
t = 2x distance between the face of the hollow section).Wall thickness of the plain section
section and the axis of the longitudinal (equivalent hollow section):
reinforcement and t ≤ x/8. t = A/u e t > 2x distance between the face of the section
and the axis of the longitudinal reinforcement.
Shear stresses

Shear flow at a wall i:

forces due
and shear

to torsion

T
Shear stress at a wall i: τi ti = 2A k
Tzi
Vi = 2A k
Shear stress at a wall i:
Vi = τi ti zi

Condition:
condition

VR = VRc + VRt ≤ VR,max Condition:

Safety

T
Approximation level II: TR,max ≤ 1.0
VRc = 0 At
VR = s uk f yt cot θ
VRt = As t uk f yt cot θ
by the tension in
Maximum limit

Maximum limit:
concrete struts

    Maximum limit:
VR,max = k c γckc tuk cot θ −cot α
f
1+cot2 θ TR,max = 2ναcw f c Ak t sin θ cos θ
Approximation level II: where
k c = 0.55(30/ f ck )1/3 ≤ 0.55 ν = 0.6[1 − ( f ck /250)]
and α = 90 and αcw = 1, for non-prestressed beams.

2Al f yl s Al f yl s
cot2 θ = cot2 θ =
*

At f yt uk At f yt uk

* Angle between the concrete struts and the longitudinal axis of the beams.

CSA A23.3-14
section wall
Limit of the

Wall thickness of the hollow section:

thickness

If t ≥ Aoh /ph
the section is considered as a plain section; If t < Aoh /ph
the section is considered as an equivalent plains section.
Shear stresses

forces due
and shear

to torsion

Not available

Condition:
condition

Tu ≤ TR
Safety

where
TR = 2Ao φs As t f yt cos θ
with Ao = 0, 85Aoh and φs = 1 (for the present study).
by the tension in
Maximum limit

concrete struts

Maximum limit to plain section:

A2
Tu ≤ 0.25φc f c 1.7 pohh
Maximum limit to hollow section: Tu ≤ 0.25φc f c 1.7Aoh t
where φc = 1 (for the present study).

Al f yl s
cot2 θ =
*

0.45At f yt ph

* Angle between the concrete struts and the longitudinal axis of the beams.

21
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

Table A2. Geometric and mechanical properties of the reference RC beams.

x y t x1 y1 Al1 Al2 Al At /s fc fyl fyt

Ref.

Beam **
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (cm2 ) (cm2 ) (cm2 ) (cm2 /m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
B1 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 2.53 2.53 5.07 4.68 27.6 314.0 341.0
B3 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 5.73 5.73 11.36 10.16 28.1 327.6 320.0
B4 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 7.74 7.74 15.48 14.01 29.2 320.0 323.4
B5 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 10.20 10.20 20.39 18.47 30.6 332.4 321.4
B6 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 12.90 12.90 25.81 22.58 28.8 331.7 322.8
B7 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 2.53 2.53 5.16 10.16 26.0 320.0 318.6
B8 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 2.53 2.53 5.16 22.58 26.8 322.1 320.0
B9 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 5.73 5.73 11.36 4.66 28.8 319.3 342.8
B10 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 12.90 12.90 25.8 4.66 26.5 334.0 342.0
C2 P 0.254 0.254 - 0.216 0.216 2.53 2.53 5.07 6.07 26.5 334.0 345.0
C4 P 0.254 0.254 - 0.216 0.216 5.73 5.73 11.36 13.11 27.2 336.6 327.6
C5 P 0.254 0.254 - 0.216 0.216 7.74 7.74 15.48 17.67 27.2 328.3 329.0
C6 P 0.254 0.254 - 0.216 0.216 10.20 10.20 20.39 23.91 27.6 315.9 327.6
G2 P 0.254 0.508 - 0.216 0.470 3.97 3.97 7.94 5.91 30.9 323.0 334.0
G3 P 0.254 0.508 - 0.216 0.470 5.73 5.73 11.36 8.29 26.8 338.6 327.6
G4 P 0.254 0.508 - 0.216 0.470 7.74 7.74 15.48 11.29 28.3 325.5 321.4
G5 P 0.254 0.508 - 0.216 0.470 10.20 10.20 20.39 15.05 26.9 331.0 327.6
G6 P 0.254 0.508 - 0.216 0.470 2.53 3.80 7.60 5.61 29.9 334.0 350.0
G7 P 0.254 0.508 - 0.216 0.470 3.97 5.96 12.00 8.84 31.0 319.3 322.8
Hsu (1968)

G8 P 0.254 0.508 - 0.216 0.470 5.73 8.60 17.03 12.32 28.3 322.1 329.0
I2 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 3.97 3.97 7.94 7.25 45.2 325 349
I3 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 5.73 5.73 11.36 10.16 44.8 343.4 333.8
I4 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 7.74 7.74 15.48 14.01 45.0 315.2 326.2
I5 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 10.20 10.20 20.39 18.47 45.0 310.3 325.5
I6 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 12.90 12.90 25.81 22.58 45.8 325.5 329.0
J1 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 2.53 2.53 5.16 4.66 14.3 327.6 346.2
J2 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 3.97 3.97 8.00 7.21 14.6 320.0 340.7
J3 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 5.73 5.73 11.36 10.16 16.9 388.6 337.2
J4 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 7.74 7.74 15.48 14.01 16.8 324.1 331.7
K2 P 0.152 0.495 - 0.114 0.457 2.53 3.80 7.74 6.77 30.6 335.9 337.9
K3 P 0.152 0.495 - 0.114 0.457 3.97 5.96 12.00 10.42 29.0 315.9 320.7
K4 P 0.152 0.495 - 0.114 0.457 5.73 8.60 17.03 15.05 28.6 344.1 340.0
M1 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 3.97 3.97 8.00 4.76 29.9 326.2 353.1
M2 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 5.73 5.73 11.36 6.77 30.6 329.0 357.2
M3 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 7.74 7.74 15.48 9.24 26.8 322.1 326.2
M4 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 10.20 10.20 20.39 12.33 26.6 318.6 326.9
M5 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 12.90 12.90 25.81 15.63 28.0 335.2 331.0
M6 P 0.254 0.381 - 0.216 0.343 10.20 15.30 30.58 15.63 29.4 317.9 340.7
N1 P 0.152 0.305 - 0.130 0.283 1.43 1.43 2.84 3.50 29.5 352.4 341.4
N1a P 0.152 0.305 - 0.130 0.283 1.43 1.43 2.84 3.50 28.7 346.2 344.8
** P—Plain section; H—Hollow section.

22
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

x y t x1 y1 Al1 Al2 Al At /s fc fyl fyt

Ref.

Beam **
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (cm2 ) (cm2 ) (cm2 ) (cm2 /m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
N2 P 0.152 0.305 - 0.130 0.283 2.53 2.53 5.16 6.35 30.4 331.0 337.9
N2a P 0.152 0.305 - 0.130 0.283 2.53 2.53 1.61 6.21 28.4 333.1 360.7
N3 P 0.152 0.305 - 0.130 0.283 1.43 2.14 4.26 5.08 27.3 351.7 351.7
N4 P 0.152 0.305 - 0.130 0.283 2.53 3.25 6.58 7.98 27.3 340.9 355.9
[17]

T4 P 0.500 0.500 - 0.454 0.454 5.65 5.65 18.10 10.28 35.3 356.7 356.7

VB2 P 0.440 0.240 - 0.420 0.220 2.63 1.46 7.01 5.84 26.4 541.4 541.4
VB3 P 0.440 0.240 - 0.420 0.220 2.63 1.46 7.01 5.84 39.1 541.4 541.4
VB4 P 0.440 0.240 - 0.420 0.220 2.63 1.46 7.01 5.84 49.8 541.4 541.4
VM1 P 0.294 0.160 - 0.280 0.146 1.50 1.00 3.00 3.63 39.1 442.4 568.9
VM2 P 0.440 0.240 - 0.420 0.220 3.30 2.20 6.60 5.32 36.1 431.6 436.5
Leonhardt, Schelling (1974)

VM3 P 0.587 0.320 - 0.561 0.294 6.42 4.28 12.84 7.14 40.0 461.0 442.4
VQ1 P 0.324 0.324 - 0.304 0.304 1.15 1.15 3.46 2.88 19.0 557.1 557.1
VQ3 P 0.580 0.186 - 0.560 0.166 1.83 0.61 4.27 3.05 17.6 432.6 432.6
VQ9 P 0.806 0.140 - 0.786 0.120 2.54 0.56 5.08 2.82 19.5 441.4 441.4
VS2-VQ2 P 0.440 0.240 - 0.420 0.220 1.53 0.92 3.66 3.05 19.0 432.6 432.6
VS3 P 0.440 0.240 - 0.420 0.220 2.14 1.22 5.49 4.55 19.5 432.6 432.6
VS4-VQ5 P 0.440 0.240 - 0.420 0.220 2.75 1.53 7.32 6.10 19.0 432.6 432.6
VS9 P 0.440 0.240 - 0.420 0.220 1.16 1.16 3.48 2.90 17.6 570.9 570.9
VS10-VB1 P 0.440 0.240 - 0.420 0.220 2.61 1.45 6.96 5.80 19.0 570.9 570.9
VU1 P 0.440 0.240 - 0.420 0.220 1.40 0.84 3.36 5.60 19.5 441.4 441.4
VU2 P 0.440 0.240 - 0.420 0.220 1.96 1.12 5.04 5.60 19.5 441.4 441.4
VU3 P 0.440 0.240 - 0.420 0.220 2.52 1.40 6.72 4.18 18.5 441.4 441.4
VU4 P 0.440 0.240 - 0.420 0.220 2.52 1.40 6.72 2.80 18.5 441.4 441.4
A2 P 0.254 0.254 - 0.222 0.222 2.53 2.53 5.16 7.82 38.2 380.0 285.0
McMullen, Rangan

A3 P 0.254 0.254 - 0.219 0.219 3.97 3.97 8.00 8.94 39.4 352.4 360.0
A4 P 0.254 0.254 - 0.219 0.219 5.73 5.73 11.36 12.42 39.2 351.0 360.0
(1978)

B1r P 0.178 0.356 - 0.146 0.324 1.43 1.43 2.85 3.87 36.3 360.0 285.0
B2 P 0.178 0.356 - 0.146 0.324 2.53 2.53 5.07 7.19 39.6 380.0 285.0
B3 P 0.178 0.356 - 0.143 0.321 3.97 3.97 8.00 8.60 38.6 352.4 360.0
B4 P 0.178 0.356 - 0.143 0.321 5.73 5.73 11.36 11.76 38.5 351.0 360.0
B30.1 P 0.160 0.275 - 0.120 0.235 5.15 7.72 15.44 8.73 41.7 620.0 665.0
B30.2 P 0.160 0.275 - 0.120 0.235 5.15 7.72 15.44 8.73 38.2 638.0 669.0
Rasmussen, Baker (1995)

B30.3 P 0.160 0.275 - 0.120 0.235 5.15 7.72 15.44 8.73 36.3 605.0 672.0
B50.1 P 0.160 0.275 - 0.120 0.235 5.15 7.72 15.44 8.73 61.8 612.0 665.0
B50.2 P 0.160 0.275 - 0.120 0.235 5.15 7.72 15.44 8.73 57.1 614.0 665.0
B50.3 P 0.160 0.275 - 0.120 0.235 5.15 7.72 15.44 8.73 61.7 612.0 665.0
B70.1 P 0.160 0.275 - 0.120 0.235 5.15 7.72 15.44 8.73 77.3 617.0 658.0
B70.2 P 0.160 0.275 - 0.120 0.235 5.15 7.72 15.44 8.73 76.9 614.0 656.0
B70.3 P 0.160 0.275 - 0.120 0.235 5.15 7.72 15.44 8.73 76.2 617.0 663.0
B110.1 P 0.160 0.275 - 0.120 0.235 5.09 7.63 15.44 8.73 109.8 618.0 655.0
B110.2 P 0.160 0.275 - 0.120 0.235 5.09 7.63 15.44 8.73 105.0 634.0 660.0
** P—Plain section; H—Hollow section.

23
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

x y t x1 y1 Al1 Al2 Al At /s fc fyl fyt

Ref.

Beam **
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (cm2 ) (cm2 ) (cm2 ) (cm2 /m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

B110.3 P 0.160 0.275 - 0.120 0.235 5.15 7.72 15.44 8.73 105.1 629.0 655.0

B5UR1 P 0.203 0.305 - 0.165 0.267 2.53 2.53 5.16 6.56 39.6 386.0 373.0
B7UR1 P 0.203 0.305 - 0.165 0.267 2.53 2.53 5.16 6.56 64.6 386.0 399.0
Koutchoukali, Belarbi

B9UR1 P 0.203 0.305 - 0.165 0.267 2.53 2.53 5.16 6.56 75.0 386.0 373.0
B12UR1 P 0.203 0.305 - 0.165 0.267 2.53 2.53 5.16 6.56 80.6 386.0 399.0
(2001)

B12UR2 P 0.203 0.305 - 0.165 0.267 2.53 2.53 5.16 6.95 76.2 386.0 386.0
B12UR3 P 0.203 0.305 - 0.165 0.267 2.53 3.25 6.58 7.46 72.9 379.5 386.0
B12UR4 P 0.203 0.305 - 0.165 0.267 2.53 3.80 7.74 7.88 75.9 373.0 386.0
B12UR5 P 0.203 0.305 - 0.165 0.267 3.97 3.97 8.00 10.13 76.7 380.0 386.0
B14UR1 P 0.203 0.305 - 0.165 0.267 2.53 2.53 5.16 6.56 93.9 386.0 386.0

H-06-06 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 3.97 9.93 11.92 7.13 78.5 440.0 440.0
H-06-12 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 5.07 12.67 20.65 7.10 78.5 410.0 440.0
H-07-10 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 5.73 14.33 17.03 7.89 68.4 500.0 420.0
H-07-16 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 8.60 22.92 28.39 7.89 68.4 500.0 420.0
H-12-12 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 5.07 12.67 20.65 14.19 78.5 410.0 440.0
H-12-16 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 8.60 18.62 28.39 14.19 78.5 520.0 440.0
Fang, Shiau (2004)

H-14-10 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 5.73 14.33 17.03 16.13 68.4 500.0 360.0
H-20-20 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 8.60 22.92 34.06 23.46 78.5 560.0 440.0
N-06-06 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 3.97 9.93 12.00 7.10 35.5 440.0 440.0
N-06-12 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 5.07 12.67 20.65 7.10 35.5 410.0 440.0
N-07-10 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 5.73 14.33 17.03 7.89 33.5 500.0 420.0
N-07-16 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 8.60 20.06 28.39 7.89 33.5 500.0 420.0
N-12-12 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 5.07 12.67 20.65 14.19 35.5 410.0 440.0
N-12-16 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 8.60 20.06 28.39 14.19 35.5 520.0 440.0
N-14-10 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 5.73 14.33 17.03 16.13 33.5 500.0 360.0
N-20-20 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 8.60 22.92 34.06 23.46 35.5 560.0 440.0

HAS-51-50 P 0.420 0.420 - 0.370 0.370 3.80 3.25 9.03 5.94 76.0 396.0 385.0
NAS-61-35 P 0.420 0.420 - 0.370 0.370 4.68 4.69 10.80 4.19 48.0 394.0 385.0
HAS-90-50 P 0.420 0.420 - 0.370 0.370 5.96 5.96 15.89 5.94 78.0 400.0 385.0
Chiu et al. (2007)

NBS-43-44 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 2.53 3.80 7.60 5.09 35.0 400.0 385.0
HBS-74-17 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 5.73 6.44 12.89 2.02 67.0 505.0 600.0
HBS-82-13 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 5.73 7.16 14.31 1.49 67.0 493.0 600.0
NBS-82-13 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 5.73 7.16 14.31 1.49 35.0 493.0 600.0
HBS-60-61 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 3.97 5.24 10.48 7.13 67.0 402.0 385.0
HCS-52-50 P 0.250 0.700 - 0.200 0.650 2.53 4.51 9.03 5.09 76.0 396.0 385.0
HCS-91-50 P 0.250 0.700 - 0.200 0.650 3.97 7.94 15.89 5.09 78.0 400.0 385.0

T1-1 P 0.300 0.350 - 0.260 0.310 2.53 2.53 5.07 5.48 43.2 410.0 370.0
Lee and Kim

T1-2 P 0.300 0.350 - 0.260 0.310 2.53 3.80 7.60 8.39 44.0 410.0 370.0
(2010)

T1-3 P 0.300 0.350 - 0.260 0.310 2.53 5.07 10.14 10.97 41.7 410.0 370.0
T1-4 P 0.300 0.350 - 0.260 0.310 3.97 5.96 11.92 16.89 42.6 510.0 355.0
T2-2 P 0.300 0.350 - 0.260 0.310 3.97 5.96 7.94 5.48 41.7 510.0 370.0

** P—Plain section; H—Hollow section.

24
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

x y t x1 y1 Al1 Al2 Al At /s fc fyl fyt

Ref.

Beam **
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (cm2 ) (cm2 ) (cm2 ) (cm2 /m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

T2-3 P 0.300 0.350 - 0.260 0.310 3.97 5.96 11.92 8.10 42.7 510.0 370.0
T2-4 P 0.300 0.350 - 0.260 0.310 5.73 7.00 14.00 9.51 42.6 512.4 370.0

SW12-1 P 0.150 1.200 - 0.100 1.150 2.26 11.31 22.62 3.93 44.2 480.0 459.0
Peng, Wong (2011)

SW10-1 P 0.150 1.000 - 0.100 0.950 2.26 9.05 18.10 3.93 29.5 499.0 459.0
SW10-2 P 0.150 1.000 - 0.098 0.948 2.26 9.05 18.10 7.54 44.2 480.0 480.0
SW10-3 P 0.150 1.000 - 0.098 0.948 2.26 9.05 18.10 11.31 29.5 499.0 499.0
SW10-4 P 0.150 1.000 - 0.094 0.944 4.02 16.08 32.16 16.08 33.8 497.0 497.0
SW8-1 P 0.150 0.800 - 0.102 0.752 1.57 7.07 14.14 4.02 29.5 459.0 433.0
SW8-2 P 0.150 0.800 - 0.098 0.748 1.57 7.07 14.14 11.31 29.5 459.0 499.0

RA-SD4-3.2-0.3-3.28 P 0.300 0.400 - 0.270 0.370 11.91 11.91 30.97 7.13 73.7 452.0 484.0
RA-SD5-3.2-0.3-3.21 P 0.300 0.400 - 0.270 0.370 11.61 11.61 30.97 6.48 73.7 499.0 538.0
RA-SD6-3.2-0.2-3.21 P 0.300 0.400 - 0.270 0.370 11.61 11.61 30.97 6.48 73.7 630.0 538.0
Joh et al. (2019)

RA-SD4-3.2-0.5-2.13 P 0.300 0.400 - 0.270 0.370 5.73 8.60 17.19 7.13 84.7 456.0 484.0
RA-SD5-3.2-0.7-1.63 P 0.300 0.400 - 0.270 0.370 3.97 5.96 11.92 6.48 84.7 529.0 538.0
RA-SD6-3.2-0.6-1.63 P 0.300 0.400 - 0.270 0.370 3.97 5.96 11.92 6.48 84.7 627.0 538.0
RA-SD4-3.2-1.1-1.33 P 0.300 0.400 - 0.270 0.370 2.53 3.80 7.60 7.13 83.1 474.0 484.0
RA-SD5-3.2-1.0-1.26 P 0.300 0.400 - 0.270 0.370 2.53 3.80 7.60 6.48 83.1 522.0 538.0
RA-SD6-3.2-0.8-1.26 P 0.300 0.400 - 0.270 0.370 3.97 3.97 7.94 6.48 83.1 627.0 538.0

MR30-0.77 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 2.53 3.80 7.60 3.96 29.3 489.8 467.5
Ju et al.

MT30-1.32 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 5.73 8.60 17.19 3.96 29.3 500.4 467.5
(2019)

MT40-1.32 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 5.73 8.60 17.19 3.96 40.3 500.4 467.5
MT40-1.89 P 0.350 0.500 - 0.300 0.450 5.73 8.60 17.19 10.57 40.3 489.8 489.8

NSC-S1-C30 P 0.200 0.300 - 0.168 0.268 2.26 2.26 4.52 6.28 42.1 689.7 534.1
Ibrahim et al.

NSC-S1-C45 P 0.200 0.300 - 0.138 0.238 2.26 2.26 4.52 6.28 39.4 689.7 534.1
(2020)

HSC-C30 P 0.200 0.300 - 0.168 0.268 2.26 2.26 4.52 6.28 60.8 689.7 534.1
HSC-C45 P 0.200 0.300 - 0.138 0.238 2.26 2.26 4.52 6.28 60.8 689.7 534.1

S08-3-65 P 0.400 0.600 - 0.310 0.510 5.24 7.77 18.08 10.97 35.4 313.3 334.9
S08-4-90 P 0.400 0.600 - 0.310 0.510 2.85 5.23 13.30 7.92 35.4 474.6 485.8
S08-5-122.5 P 0.400 0.600 - 0.310 0.510 3.80 3.96 10.45 5.82 35.4 569.6 595.9
Kim et al. (2020)

S10-3-52.5 P 0.400 0.600 - 0.310 0.510 5.24 9.93 22.39 13.58 35.4 320.5 334.0
S10-4-72.5 P 0.400 0.600 - 0.310 0.510 5.07 5.78 16.63 9.83 35.4 467.6 485.1
S10-5-100 P 0.400 0.600 - 0.310 0.510 3.80 5.23 12.98 7.13 35.4 567.6 595.2
S06-3-90 P 0.400 0.600 - 0.310 0.510 2.85 5.23 13.30 7.92 35.4 319.4 334.3
S10-5-90 P 0.400 0.600 - 0.310 0.510 3.96 5.78 14.41 7.92 35.4 569.6 594.8
S08-3-72.5 P 0.400 0.600 - 0.310 0.510 5.07 5.78 16.63 9.83 35.4 308.8 334.8
S12-5-72.5 P 0.400 0.600 - 0.310 0.510 5.24 7.77 18.05 9.83 35.4 565.1 595.2

D3 H 0.254 0.381 0.064 0.216 0.343 * * 11.36 10.16 28.4 341.4 333.1
(1968)
Hsu

D4 H 0.254 0.381 0.064 0.216 0.343 30.97 30.97 15.48 14.01 30.6 330.3 333.1

T0 H 0.500 0.500 0.080 0.430 0.430 * * 32.16 10.28 45.1 345.2 357.0
[17,38]

T1 H 0.500 0.500 0.080 0.454 0.454 4.52 4.52 18.10 10.28 35.3 356.7 356.7
T2 H 0.500 0.500 0.080 0.430 0.430 * * 18.10 10.28 35.3 357.0 357.0

* No sufficient data; ** P—Plain section; H—Hollow section.

25
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

x y t x1 y1 Al1 Al2 Al At /s fc fyl fyt

Ref.

Beam **
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (cm2 ) (cm2 ) (cm2 ) (cm2 /m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

T5 H 0.800 0.400 0.080 0.730 0.330 * * 10.00 10.28 47.1 528.6 512.9

VH1 H 0.324 0.324 0.080 0.304 0.304 1.15 1.15 3.46 2.88 17.2 447.3 447.3
[19]

VH2 H 0.324 0.324 0.080 0.304 0.304 * * 6.91 5.76 17.2 447.3 447.3

A1 H 0.600 0.600 0.098 0.537 0.547 * * 6.53 3.14 48.4 695.9 636.7
A2 H 0.600 0.600 0.107 0.538 0.531 4.62 4.62 13.95 6.28 47.3 672.4 695.9
A3 H 0.600 0.600 0.109 0.535 0.535 5.65 5.65 18.10 8.27 46.2 672.4 714.8
A4 H 0.600 0.600 0.104 0.520 0.525 7.95 7.95 23.75 11.22 54.8 723.9 714.8
A5 H 0.600 0.600 0.104 0.528 0.528 9.68 9.68 30.66 14.14 53.1 723.9 672.4
Bernardo, Lopes (2009)

B2 H 0.600 0.600 0.108 0.533 0.534 4.78 4.78 14.58 6.70 69.8 672.4 695.9
B3 H 0.600 0.600 0.109 0.535 0.537 7.95 7.95 23.75 11.22 77.8 723.9 714.8
B4 H 0.600 0.600 0.112 0.523 0.536 10.05 10.05 32.17 15.08 79.8 723.9 672.4
B5 H 0.600 0.600 0.117 0.518 0.518 12.06 12.06 40.21 18.85 76.4 723.9 672.4
C1 H 0.600 0.600 0.097 0.540 0.549 * * 6.53 3.14 91.7 695.9 636.7
C2 H 0.600 0.600 0.100 0.532 0.533 4.62 4.62 13.95 6.28 94.8 672.4 695.9
C3 H 0.600 0.600 0.103 0.545 0.540 7.95 7.95 23.75 10.47 91.6 723.9 714.8
C4 H 0.600 0.600 0.103 0.546 0.545 9.68 9.68 30.66 14.14 91.4 723.9 672.4
C5 H 0.600 0.600 0.104 0.540 0.543 12.32 12.32 36.69 17.40 96.7 723.9 672.4
C6 H 0.600 0.600 0.104 0.533 0.529 14.07 14.07 48.25 22.62 87.5 723.9 672.4
Chiu et al.

HAH-81-35 H 0.420 0.420 0.075 0.370 0.370 5.73 6.44 14.31 4.19 78.0 493.0 385.0
(2007)

NCH-62-33 H 0.250 0.700 0.075 0.200 0.650 3.97 5.40 10.80 3.40 48.0 394.0 385.0
HCH-91-42 H 0.250 0.700 0.075 0.200 0.650 3.97 7.94 15.89 4.32 78.0 400.0 385.0

A095c H 0.497 0.711 0.145 0.437 0.651 * * 13.16 9.93 35.1 371.0 381.0
A120a H 0.502 0.719 0.184 0.442 0.659 * * 20.00 7.59 27.6 464.0 380.0
B065b H 0.503 0.710 0.092 0.443 0.650 * * 50.97 9.93 39.2 452.0 380.0
Jeng (2014)

B080a H 0.500 0.721 0.112 0.440 0.661 * * 28.39 12.90 46.5 454.0 392.0
B110a H 0.498 0.710 0.155 0.438 0.650 * * 20.00 8.60 48.1 453.0 369.0
C100a H 0.499 0.723 0.127 0.439 0.663 * * 28.39 12.90 90.6 466.0 447.0
D075a H 0.498 0.734 0.087 0.438 0.674 * * 28.39 12.90 94.9 469.0 381.0
D090a H 0.501 0.722 0.105 0.441 0.662 * * 28.39 12.90 105.7 466.0 447.0

H08-3-65 H 0.400 0.600 0.100 0.310 0.510 5.24 7.77 18.08 10.97 36.5 361.1 352.2
H08-4-90 H 0.400 0.600 0.100 0.310 0.510 3.96 5.23 13.30 7.92 36.5 445.7 448.9
H08-5-100 H 0.400 0.600 0.100 0.310 0.510 3.25 5.23 11.88 7.13 36.5 545.5 539.8
Kim et al. (2020)

H10-3-52.5 H 0.400 0.600 0.100 0.310 0.510 5.96 9.21 22.39 13.58 36.5 356.9 352.4
H10-4-72.5 H 0.400 0.600 0.100 0.310 0.510 5.07 5.78 16.63 9.83 36.5 444.5 447.9
H10-5-80 H 0.400 0.600 0.100 0.310 0.510 3.96 5.78 14.41 8.91 36.5 546.3 538.6
H06-3-90 H 0.400 0.600 0.100 0.310 0.510 2.85 5.23 13.30 7.92 36.5 359.1 351.0
H10-5-135 H 0.400 0.600 0.100 0.310 0.510 3.25 3.8 9.02 5.28 36.5 548.1 540.3
H08-3-72.5 H 0.400 0.600 0.100 0.310 0.510 5.07 5.78 16.63 9.83 36.5 359.4 352.7
H12-5-72.5 H 0.400 0.600 0.100 0.310 0.510 5.07 5.78 16.63 9.83 36.5 404.1 538.7

* No sufficient data; ** P—Plain section; H—Hollow section.

26
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

Table A3. Theoretical torsional strengths.

Prop
TR,exp TSiNiP18 TACI89 TACI19 TMC90 TMC10 TEC2 TCSA14 TRahal TR,th
Ref.

R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th

Beam **
(kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm)

B1 P 22.30 16.71 22.58 19.0 20.4 12.7 24.9 20.0 21.3 22.97
B3 P 37.48 37.32 37.16 29.4 32.0 27.0 38.4 43.6 36.8 37.87
B4 * P 47.30 50.25 44.11 29.9 43.6 29.2 52.3 59.5 46.0 46.51
B5 * P 56.11 67.68 45.14 30.6 57.2 31.2 70.0 63.7 51.5 51.42
B6 * P 61.64 70.86 43.85 29.7 54.9 28.9 68.2 60.1 50.6 50.54
B7 P 26.87 23.25 36.71 27.5 21.3 25.3 25.5 29.0 27.3 28.73
B8 P 32.51 33.00 42.25 28.7 31.9 24.5 38.2 43.5 36.4 37.40
B9 P 29.80 29.86 22.77 28.7 22.1 23.1 26.5 30.2 28.6 30.14
B10 P 34.40 61.33 22.39 28.6 34.1 15.4 40.9 46.5 38.1 38.94
C2 P 15.30 15.23 15.28 14.7 15.3 10.5 22.4 16.9 15.8 16.79
C4 * P 25.29 33.72 25.50 14.8 24.0 15.2 32.0 29.1 27.2 27.48
C5 * P 29.69 44.64 28.42 14.8 26.9 15.4 37.2 29.1 27.6 27.60
C6 * P 34.21 45.21 28.60 14.9 27.5 15.9 37.9 29.5 27.7 27.71
G2 P 40.30 29.01 39.72 33.2 40.3 36.1 42.6 34.9 36.7 39.24
G3 P 49.56 42.17 49.28 43.9 37.2 35.8 56.3 50.2 46.3 47.91
G4 P 64.80 55.40 57.91 45.1 49.3 39.4 69.0 66.4 56.8 57.91
G5 * P 71.91 74.68 56.48 44.0 66.5 37.4 76.0 85.8 69.4 69.29
G6 P 39.10 26.53 39.41 32.9 25.7 39.5 29.4 34.7 36.3 38.78
G7 P 52.61 39.56 52.00 47.2 38.1 43.3 43.5 51.3 48.1 50.14
Hsu (1968)

G8 P 73.38 57.33 57.98 45.1 54.3 39.1 62.1 73.2 60.8 61.64
I2 P 36.00 26.87 33.17 30.4 30.0 37.4 31.3 32.1 32.0 34.54
I3 P 45.61 39.05 40.66 37.1 33.4 46.2 40.1 45.6 40.9 43.14
I4 P 58.02 49.93 51.03 37.2 43.4 47.8 52.1 59.3 49.2 51.00
I5 P 70.67 65.14 54.81 37.2 56.7 48.5 68.0 77.4 57.8 57.77
I6 * P 76.65 84.13 55.27 37.5 71.1 49.0 85.3 95.4 58.1 58.06
J1 P 21.45 17.22 20.33 19.7 15.2 8.2 18.2 20.7 19.6 20.37
J2 * P 29.13 26.33 27.78 21.1 23.1 8.7 27.7 30.3 26.4 26.66
J3 * P 35.22 41.53 33.57 22.8 33.3 11.7 41.3 35.2 36.7 36.40
J4 * P 40.64 41.19 33.44 22.7 33.3 12.1 41.3 34.9 42.6 41.72
K2 P 23.71 20.43 21.15 14.9 17.6 18.6 19.0 21.4 22.7 23.95
K3 * P 28.45 29.96 20.60 14.5 23.8 17.5 25.8 29.5 29.3 30.11
K4 * P 35.00 32.92 20.45 14.4 35.2 17.1 38.2 29.1 30.1 30.08
M1 P 30.37 23.41 23.66 24.9 19.2 26.5 23.1 26.3 26.1 27.80
M2 P 40.53 33.98 30.26 30.6 27.6 27.9 33.2 37.7 33.7 35.17
M3 P 43.80 44.15 34.87 28.7 35.6 23.5 42.8 48.6 39.4 40.16
M4 * P 49.56 57.97 42.09 28.5 47.0 23.6 56.4 55.3 47.8 47.83
M5 * P 55.65 68.83 43.22 29.3 51.8 25.5 64.3 58.4 50.1 50.10
M6 * P 60.06 72.22 44.27 30.0 52.8 26.3 65.5 61.2 50.9 50.82
N1 P 9.09 6.62 8.63 7.5 5.9 8.5 6.7 7.9 7.9 8.72
N1a P 8.99 6.58 8.65 7.5 5.8 8.2 6.7 7.9 7.9 8.65
* Fragile failure; ** P—Plain section; H—Hollow section.

27
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

Prop
TR,exp TSiNiP18 TACI89 TACI19 TMC90 TMC10 TEC2 TCSA14 TRahal TR,th
Ref.

R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th

Beam **
(kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm)

N2 P 14.45 11.37 12.97 10.2 10.3 9.3 11.7 13.9 11.8 12.54
N2a P 13.21 11.63 12.54 7.6 5.9 9.1 6.7 8.0 7.9 8.66
N3 P 12.19 9.33 11.53 9.7 8.8 7.6 10.0 11.9 10.4 11.08
N4 * P 15.69 15.04 12.29 9.7 13.5 8.2 15.5 18.3 14.1 14.60
[17]

T4 P 138.61 80.95 124.21 126.6 83.8 121.6 111.7 133.4 124.7 128.92

VB2 * P 42.11 24.55 53.57 38.7 34.4 17.3 39.8 50.7 39.6 40.73
VB3 P 46.40 24.55 57.01 47.1 34.4 29.0 39.8 50.7 42.2 44.37
VB4 P 48.54 24.55 59.50 48.1 34.4 35.3 39.8 50.7 43.9 46.77
VM1 P 13.89 8.58 16.66 12.5 9.0 10.2 10.4 13.1 11.2 12.23
VM2 P 39.17 26.14 46.25 35.7 25.5 29.9 29.5 37.6 33.8 36.08
VM3 P 100.80 70.62 113.58 92.8 66.1 76.4 76.5 97.7 88.0 92.02
Leonhardt, Schelling (1974)

VQ1 P 21.11 15.99 24.54 25.1 15.8 12.3 21.1 26.4 23.3 24.48
VQ3 P 19.98 9.62 35.85 20.5 15.1 9.0 16.4 21.6 21.7 22.95
VQ9 P 21.90 11.08 44.31 19.9 14.9 10.6 15.6 21.0 24.2 25.64
VS2-VQ2 P 19.53 11.74 29.19 20.1 14.3 10.4 16.6 21.2 20.4 21.74
VS3 P 28.56 16.07 37.12 30.0 21.5 10.8 24.8 31.6 27.2 28.25
VS4-VQ5 * P 34.32 20.53 44.92 32.8 28.7 10.4 33.2 42.3 33.1 33.79
VS9 * P 21.56 16.31 32.69 25.2 18.0 9.1 20.8 26.5 23.6 24.70
VS10-VB1 * P 33.30 25.70 52.94 32.8 36.0 10.4 41.7 53.1 38.8 39.03
VU1 P 23.93 13.75 43.11 26.6 19.0 11.4 22.0 28.0 24.9 26.15
VU2 * P 30.37 16.47 43.11 32.6 23.3 11.2 26.9 34.3 28.7 29.75
VU3 * P 31.04 17.77 35.28 32.4 23.2 9.4 26.9 34.2 28.5 29.36
VU4 P 25.96 16.39 28.02 26.6 19.0 8.4 22.0 28.0 24.7 25.85

A2 P 22.58 17.01 17.62 18.6 13.0 21.6 17.4 19.6 18.1 19.43
McMullen, Rangan

A3 P 27.77 24.69 22.16 18.7 18.8 23.6 25.1 27.7 23.4 24.68
A4 * P 34.43 35.16 28.10 18.6 26.3 23.8 35.1 38.8 29.6 30.55
(1978)

B1r P 12.30 8.08 11.79 8.8 12.3 9.9 10.8 9.3 11.0 12.29
B2 P 20.80 15.05 18.22 16.5 20.8 16.5 17.7 17.4 17.2 18.62
B3 P 25.29 22.23 23.21 15.9 19.8 21.6 22.6 25.2 22.6 23.78
B4 * P 31.72 31.27 23.17 15.9 26.7 21.6 30.5 35.1 28.0 28.00

B30.1 * P 16.62 29.36 15.11 8.2 21.2 11.1 25.7 19.9 17.0 17.04
B30.2 * P 15.29 26.89 14.46 7.8 19.6 10.3 23.8 18.2 16.6 16.59
Rasmussen, Baker (1995)

B30.3 * P 15.25 25.56 14.09 7.6 19.1 9.8 23.1 17.3 16.4 16.34
B50.1 * P 19.95 43.51 18.39 9.9 28.6 15.3 34.8 29.4 19.2 19.17
B50.2 * P 18.46 40.20 17.68 9.6 27.0 14.3 32.9 27.2 18.7 18.72
B50.3 * P 19.13 43.44 18.37 9.9 28.6 15.2 34.8 29.4 19.2 19.16
B70.1 * P 20.06 49.42 20.57 11.1 31.2 17.9 36.5 36.8 20.5 20.50
B70.2 * P 20.74 49.19 20.51 11.1 31.1 17.9 36.4 36.6 20.5 20.47
B70.3 * P 20.96 49.46 20.42 11.0 31.3 17.8 36.7 36.3 20.4 20.41
B110.1 * P 24.72 48.95 24.51 13.3 31.2 23.1 36.5 44.4 22.8 22.78
B110.2 * P 23.62 50.12 23.97 13.0 31.7 22.3 37.1 45.2 22.5 22.47

* Fragile failure; ** P—Plain section; H—Hollow section.

28
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

Prop
TR,exp TSiNiP18 TACI89 TACI19 TMC90 TMC10 TEC2 TCSA14 TRahal TR,th
Ref.

R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th

Beam **
(kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm)

B110.3 * P 24.77 50.24 23.98 13.0 31.5 22.3 36.8 44.8 22.5 22.48

B5UR1 P 19.40 16.42 18.14 16.0 14.5 22.4 17.4 18.8 18.1 19.46
B7UR1 P 18.90 16.87 20.50 18.4 15.0 25.7 18.0 19.4 20.0 22.11
Koutchoukali, Belarbi

B9UR1 P 21.10 16.42 20.12 17.8 14.5 24.8 17.4 18.8 20.0 22.36
B12UR1 P 19.40 16.87 21.28 18.4 15.0 25.7 18.0 19.4 20.8 23.21
(2001)

B12UR2 P 18.40 17.04 21.41 18.6 15.2 26.0 18.2 19.6 20.8 23.10
B12UR3 P 22.50 19.10 22.29 21.6 17.6 30.1 21.2 22.8 22.9 25.15
B12UR4 P 23.70 19.09 23.28 22.1 19.5 33.3 23.4 25.2 24.7 27.03
B12UR5 P 24.00 25.70 27.89 22.2 22.2 37.7 26.6 29.3 27.5 29.83
B14UR1 P 21.00 16.64 21.43 18.1 14.8 25.2 17.7 19.1 21.0 23.74

H-06-06 P 92.00 57.90 85.00 76.0 57.8 113.1 70.1 80.1 87.4 95.25
H-06-12 P 115.10 66.14 84.79 96.4 73.3 135.1 88.9 101.6 103.1 110.75
H-07-10 P 126.70 86.66 85.35 99.6 75.8 128.9 91.8 104.9 103.2 109.71
H-07-16 P 144.50 122.53 85.35 113.5 97.8 109.1 118.5 135.5 123.4 129.06
H-12-12 P 155.30 80.31 133.52 121.6 103.7 158.3 125.7 143.6 131.5 138.06
H-12-16 P 196.00 140.15 133.52 121.6 137.0 146.3 166.0 189.7 159.7 164.77
Fang, Shiau (2004)

H-14-10 P 135.20 97.96 124.21 113.5 100.3 149.9 121.5 138.9 125.6 131.16
H-20-20 * P 239.00 167.22 180.32 121.6 200.1 158.5 242.5 277.1 166.9 166.74
N-06-06 P 79.70 57.84 72.98 76.1 57.9 80.6 70.2 80.2 77.0 80.17
N-06-12 P 95.20 66.14 72.98 81.8 73.3 70.1 88.9 101.6 90.8 93.16
N-07-10 P 111.70 86.66 75.24 79.4 75.8 68.7 91.8 104.9 92.1 93.90
N-07-16 P 117.30 122.53 75.24 79.4 97.8 58.2 118.5 135.5 110.1 110.46
N-12-12 * P 116.80 80.31 121.26 81.8 103.7 82.1 125.7 143.6 115.8 116.13
N-12-16 * P 138.00 140.15 121.26 81.8 137.0 75.9 166.0 183.3 131.5 131.41
N-14-10 * P 125.00 97.96 114.11 79.4 100.3 79.9 121.5 138.9 112.0 112.26
N-20-20 * P 158.00 167.22 121.26 81.8 155.4 82.2 195.1 183.3 131.5 131.41

HAS-51-50 P 84.90 40.48 73.94 54.7 37.9 82.9 50.6 57.7 68.6 76.34
NAS-61-35 P 74.70 48.22 56.00 50.2 34.8 75.0 46.3 52.8 60.0 65.34
HAS-90-50 P 104.23 63.51 74.50 73.0 50.6 109.1 67.4 76.9 84.2 92.19
Chiu et al. (2007)

NBS-43-44 P 60.60 34.20 54.67 45.8 34.8 69.1 42.2 48.2 53.8 57.82
HBS-74-17 P 62.20 65.76 52.24 52.7 40.1 78.5 48.6 55.5 65.9 72.85
HBS-82-13 P 56.30 68.29 47.26 47.1 35.8 70.1 43.4 49.6 60.9 67.83
NBS-82-13 P 52.90 68.29 38.02 47.1 35.8 47.5 43.4 49.6 54.9 58.88
HBS-60-61 P 93.70 52.35 76.14 63.7 48.5 94.8 58.8 67.2 75.3 82.25
HCS-52-50 P 73.54 40.26 63.60 44.9 37.4 65.8 41.1 47.3 64.5 72.11
HCS-91-50 P 95.86 59.72 63.93 59.9 49.9 86.1 54.8 63.1 79.2 87.07

T1-1 P 32.90 23.41 30.99 26.4 19.3 38.6 24.5 27.8 29.6 32.32
Lee and Kim

T1-2 P 45.90 27.93 40.26 39.9 29.2 50.6 37.1 42.1 39.7 42.27
(2010)

T1-3 P 54.10 30.94 47.99 41.6 38.5 48.2 49.1 55.6 47.8 49.85
T1-4 P 62.40 54.32 64.60 42.0 56.7 51.1 72.1 81.7 62.8 63.97
T2-2 P 38.10 41.82 30.76 36.8 26.9 42.2 34.2 38.8 37.2 39.67

* Fragile failure; ** P—Plain section; H—Hollow section.

29
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

Prop
TR,exp TSiNiP18 TACI89 TACI19 TMC90 TMC10 TEC2 TCSA14 TRahal TR,th
Ref.

R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th

Beam **
(kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm)

T2-3 P 50.20 44.88 39.14 42.1 40.1 42.8 51.0 57.7 49.3 51.36
T2-4 P 56.40 62.46 43.55 42.0 47.1 43.4 60.0 68.0 55.2 56.94

SW12-1 P 74.00 66.82 43.22 39.7 48.7 59.0 50.3 57.8 87.3 91.40
Peng, Wong (2011)

SW10-1 P 50.70 54.79 33.97 26.4 39.8 30.7 41.3 47.5 63.9 65.62
SW10-2 P 68.00 58.02 49.70 31.0 52.2 59.0 54.3 64.5 76.3 76.21
SW10-3 P 74.30 62.29 40.61 25.3 66.5 39.8 69.1 51.7 67.6 67.51
SW10-4 * P 80.50 76.05 43.46 24.9 87.1 44.2 91.6 54.5 70.4 70.32
SW8-1 P 40.40 30.61 26.43 21.1 30.8 24.6 32.3 35.3 44.8 46.59
SW8-2 P 60.10 34.63 32.48 19.5 50.2 31.7 52.7 39.8 52.3 52.30

RA-SD4-3.2-0.3-3.28 * P 86.80 97.32 58.91 75.6 74.0 60.9 91.1 110.0 86.5 90.30
RA-SD5-3.2-0.3-3.21 * P 88.00 103.65 59.32 75.6 78.2 58.9 96.2 116.2 89.8 93.41
RA-SD6-3.2-0.2-3.21 * P 89.40 126.46 59.32 75.6 87.8 53.7 108.1 130.5 93.5 93.41
Joh et al. (2019)

RA-SD4-3.2-0.5-2.13 * P 76.30 63.56 60.39 78.1 55.4 80.1 68.1 82.3 72.2 77.41
RA-SD5-3.2-0.7-1.63 * P 74.50 53.42 60.80 70.4 49.9 82.7 61.4 74.2 67.1 72.47
RA-SD6-3.2-0.6-1.63 * P 70.00 61.20 60.80 76.7 54.3 79.0 66.9 80.8 71.2 76.49
RA-SD4-3.2-1.1-1.33 * P 74.20 35.28 60.18 53.0 37.5 78.8 46.2 55.8 54.8 60.21
RA-SD5-3.2-1.0-1.26 * P 67.70 37.83 60.59 55.9 39.6 83.1 48.7 58.9 56.9 62.29
RA-SD6-3.2-0.8-1.26 * P 69.90 54.08 60.59 62.6 44.4 86.2 54.6 66.0 61.6 66.96

MR30-0.77 P 55.00 39.38 50.92 49.2 37.4 55.3 45.4 51.9 55.0 58.27
Ju et al.

MT30-1.32 * P 57.00 80.08 50.92 74.3 56.9 43.7 69.0 78.8 73.8 76.05
(2019)

MT40-1.32 * P 58.30 80.08 54.73 74.8 56.9 64.7 69.0 78.8 77.6 81.52
MT40-1.89 P 98.40 93.65 106.57 87.1 94.1 89.9 114.1 130.4 110.4 112.27

NSC-S1-C30 * P 19.70 24.21 23.08 17.0 20.8 20.9 24.9 27.9 23.1 24.34
Ibrahim et al.

NSC-S1-C45 * P 12.50 24.21 18.54 10.2 16.9 21.1 20.3 21.9 22.9 23.99
(2020)

HSC-C30 * P 19.90 24.21 24.13 20.5 20.8 28.0 24.9 27.9 24.5 26.37
HSC-C45 * P 13.80 24.21 19.75 12.6 16.9 28.7 20.3 21.9 24.5 26.37

S08-3-65 P 123.00 71.29 107.84 95.8 82.9 143.1 99.4 100.9 114.5 118.81
S08-4-90 P 124.00 63.67 111.18 102.4 89.6 149.3 107.5 109.0 120.9 124.81
S08-5-122.5 P 89.00 80.78 103.94 95.4 82.5 142.5 99.1 100.5 114.2 118.51
S10-3-52.5 P 126.00 77.60 124.27 102.4 103.7 150.3 124.4 126.2 133.9 136.98
Kim et al.

S10-4-72.5 * P 109.00 99.74 128.72 102.4 110.7 149.5 132.8 134.7 140.2 142.79
(2020)

S10-5-100 * P 108.00 90.17 118.70 102.4 101.6 147.7 121.9 123.7 132.1 135.24
S06-3-90 P 101.00 43.20 88.35 70.4 60.9 105.2 73.1 74.2 92.3 97.71
S10-5-90 * P 106.00 95.94 127.61 102.4 113.0 147.6 135.6 137.6 142.3 144.70
S08-3-72.5 P 106.00 66.73 100.60 86.3 74.7 129.0 89.7 91.0 106.5 111.23
S12-5-72.5 * P 120.00 123.96 149.33 102.4 140.4 147.6 168.5 170.9 165.6 166.13

D3 H 39.11 66.5 27.11 28.3 26.2 23.6 31.5 35.8 32.1 38.97
(1968)
Hsu

D4 * H 47.93 75.27 45.20 29.4 44.9 29.6 53.9 61.2 47.3 47.92

T0 H 185.50 116.4 91.25 112.2 99.9 139.4 133.3 146.6 146.8 161.65
[17,38]

T1 H 140.01 70.87 106.45 110.6 83.8 132.0 111.7 133.4 124.7 128.92
T2 H 143.10 74.0 87.13 99.3 76.2 127.2 101.6 111.8 116.7 128.99

* Fragile failure. ** P—Plain section; H—Hollow section.

30
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

SiNiP18 Prop
TR,exp TR,th TACI89 TACI19 TMC90 TMC10 TEC2 TCSA14 TRahal TR,th
Ref.

R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th

Beam **
(kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm)

T5 H 156.88 87.7 192.68 135.1 109.3 216.9 124.9 142.3 165.6 185.69

VH1 H 21.79 12.84 21.04 20.1 12.7 14.5 16.9 21.2 19.6 20.82
[19]

VH2 * H 34.50 25.6 46.24 32.9 30.2 15.5 41.6 51.2 49.9 32.35

A1 H 150.79 108.5 122.50 101.7 67.9 150.9 90.6 107.1 134.7 147.43
A2 H 254.08 145.39 193.85 212.2 144.6 313.0 192.8 223.6 227.8 236.84
A3 H 299.92 185.31 239.37 239.4 192.6 317.6 256.7 298.2 277.2 281.58
A4 H 368.22 269.46 291.30 238.1 266.6 352.9 355.5 398.5 357.8 359.54
A5 * H 412.24 324.19 334.84 238.9 328.7 338.0 438.3 499.1 412.2 408.84
Bernardo, Lopes (2009)

B2 H 273.28 152.10 216.87 223.3 152.7 329.1 203.6 235.3 251.7 266.80
B3 H 355.85 269.46 321.28 312.1 266.6 471.8 355.5 414.1 378.5 388.14
B4 * H 437.85 339.83 374.47 317.1 347.8 480.9 463.7 529.4 457.6 463.09
B5 * H 456.19 413.87 434.23 309.5 434.7 474.4 579.6 641.3 496.1 495.73
C1 H 151.76 109.4 146.65 102.5 67.9 151.5 90.6 108.0 149.2 169.46
C2 H 266.14 145.39 215.62 211.0 144.6 319.0 192.8 222.4 254.5 275.56
C3 H 351.17 263.00 314.00 326.1 257.6 508.0 343.5 407.3 379.2 393.43
C4 * H 450.31 324.19 374.22 330.7 328.7 506.0 438.3 524.1 449.6 460.21
C5 * H 467.26 407.83 436.52 338.1 398.9 532.7 531.9 629.1 519.5 526.94
C6 * H 521.33 487.91 464.52 309.2 521.6 494.1 695.5 798.7 516.7 516.31
Chiu et al.

HAH-81-35 H 94.31 68.82 52.95 64.6 44.8 96.7 59.7 68.1 77.4 85.31
(2007)

NCH-62-33 H 64.14 39.94 45.64 40.0 33.3 57.7 36.6 42.1 55.2 60.60
HCH-91-42 H 87.51 56.61 58.00 55.0 45.8 79.4 50.3 58.0 74.6 82.64

A095c H 209.98 184.5 142.52 108.4 79.9 137.5 96.8 114.3 134.4 168.97
A120a H 215.25 189.8 96.76 101.6 65.4 112.1 79.3 107.0 124.7 184.33
B065b H 278.00 252.2 128.27 187.4 174.4 151.5 211.9 250.3 237.8 286.31
Jeng (2014)

B080a H 300.66 275.2 243.23 250.9 198.2 309.1 239.8 283.5 267.9 273.75
B110a H 237.48 212.0 127.34 117.3 83.7 143.6 101.6 123.6 149.4 208.45
C100a H 370.15 344.7 308.37 291.2 214.7 393.6 259.4 306.8 315.3 333.10
D075a H 339.48 314.0 251.86 272.3 201.1 418.3 242.2 287.0 305.0 324.75
D090a H 343.08 317.6 298.37 292.0 214.9 424.1 260.1 307.6 324.0 345.40

H08-3-65 H 128.00 79.94 112.05 104.0 91.2 146.4 109.5 111.1 123.1 127.15
H08-4-90 H 130.00 74.29 106.20 96.4 83.4 146.8 100.1 101.6 115.6 120.10
H08-5-100 H 117.00 76.27 111.77 104.0 90.7 146.5 108.9 110.5 122.6 126.70
Kim et al. (2020)

H10-3-52.5 H 143.00 92.53 129.59 104.0 112.4 146.7 134.8 136.8 142.4 145.15
H10-4-72.5 H 127.00 94.04 122.35 104.0 103.7 146.6 124.4 126.2 134.6 137.91
H10-5-80 H 125.00 93.70 129.86 104.0 111.7 147.2 134.0 136.0 141.8 144.59
H06-3-90 H 102.00 47.39 91.44 76.5 66.2 122.2 79.5 80.6 98.3 103.69
H10-5-135 H 95.00 70.56 92.83 78.9 68.2 126.0 81.9 83.1 100.4 105.70
H08-3-72.5 H 114.00 75.47 104.53 95.6 82.7 145.9 99.3 100.7 114.9 119.46
H12-5-72.5 H 129.00 93.25 139.33 104.0 108.4 152.7 130.1 132.0 138.9 141.88

* Fragile failure. ** P—Plain section; H—Hollow section.

31
Materials 2022, 15, 3827

Table A4. Ratios of experimental to theoretical torsional strengths.

Ref.

TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp

Beam ** Prop
TSiNiP18
R,th TACI89
R,th TACI19
R,th TMC90
R,th TMC10
R,th TEC2
R,th TCSA14
R,th TRahal
R,th TR,th

B1 P 1.33 0.99 1.17 1.09 1.76 0.90 1.11 1.05 0.97

B3 P 1.00 1.01 1.28 1.17 1.39 0.98 0.86 1.02 0.99
B4 P 0.94 1.07 1.58 1.09 1.62 0.90 0.80 1.03 1.02
B5 P 0.83 1.24 1.83 0.98 1.80 0.80 0.88 1.09 1.09
B6 P 0.87 1.41 2.07 1.12 2.13 0.90 1.03 1.22 1.22
B7 P 1.16 0.73 0.98 1.26 1.06 1.05 0.93 0.98 0.94
B8 P 0.99 0.77 1.13 1.02 1.33 0.85 0.75 0.89 0.87
B9 P 1.00 1.31 1.04 1.35 1.29 1.12 0.99 1.04 0.99
B10 P 0.56 1.54 1.20 1.01 2.24 0.84 0.74 0.90 0.88
C2 P 1.00 1.00 1.04 1.00 1.46 0.68 0.90 0.97 0.91
C4 P 0.75 0.99 1.71 1.05 1.67 0.79 0.87 0.93 0.92
C5 P 0.67 1.04 2.00 1.10 1.93 0.80 1.02 1.07 1.08
C6 P 0.76 1.20 2.29 1.24 2.15 0.90 1.16 1.23 1.23
G2 P 1.39 1.01 1.22 1.00 1.12 1.16 1.15 1.10 1.03
G3 P 1.18 1.01 1.13 1.33 1.38 1.15 0.99 1.07 1.03
G4 P 1.17 1.12 1.44 1.32 1.64 0.58 0.98 1.14 1.12
G5 P 0.96 1.27 1.64 1.08 1.92 0.95 0.84 1.04 1.04
G6 P 1.47 0.99 1.19 1.52 0.99 1.33 1.13 1.08 1.01
G7 P 1.33 1.01 1.12 1.38 1.22 1.21 1.03 1.09 1.05
Hsu (1968)

G8 P 1.28 1.27 1.63 1.35 1.88 1.18 1.00 1.21 1.19

I2 P 1.34 1.09 1.18 1.20 0.96 1.15 1.12 1.13 1.04
I3 P 1.17 1.12 1.23 1.36 0.99 1.14 1.00 1.12 1.06
I4 P 1.16 1.14 1.56 1.34 1.21 1.11 0.98 1.18 1.14
I5 P 1.08 1.29 1.90 1.25 1.46 1.04 0.91 1.22 1.22
I6 P 0.91 1.39 2.04 1.08 1.57 0.90 0.80 1.32 1.32
J1 P 1.25 1.06 1.09 1.41 2.62 1.18 1.04 1.09 1.05
J2 P 1.11 1.05 1.38 1.26 3.36 1.05 0.96 1.11 1.09
J3 P 0.85 1.05 1.55 1.06 3.01 0.85 1.00 0.96 0.97
J4 P 0.99 1.22 1.79 1.22 3.36 0.98 1.16 0.95 0.97
K2 P 1.16 1.12 1.59 1.35 1.27 1.25 1.11 1.04 0.99
K3 P 0.95 1.38 1.96 1.20 1.63 1.10 0.97 0.97 0.94
K4 P 1.06 1.71 2.42 0.99 2.05 0.92 1.20 1.16 1.16
M1 P 1.30 1.28 1.22 1.58 1.14 1.31 1.16 1.17 1.09
M2 P 1.19 1.34 1.32 1.47 1.45 1.22 1.07 1.20 1.15
M3 P 0.99 1.26 1.53 1.23 1.86 1.02 0.90 1.11 1.09
M4 P 0.85 1.18 1.74 1.05 2.10 0.88 0.90 1.04 1.04
M5 P 0.81 1.29 1.90 1.07 2.19 0.87 0.95 1.11 1.11
M6 P 0.83 1.36 2.00 1.14 2.28 0.92 0.98 1.18 1.18
N1 P 1.37 1.05 1.20 1.55 1.07 1.36 1.14 1.15 1.04
N1a P 1.37 1.04 1.20 1.54 1.10 1.35 1.13 1.14 1.04
N2 P 1.27 1.11 1.41 1.41 1.56 1.23 1.04 1.23 1.15
** P—Plain section; H—Hollow section.

32
Materials 2022, 15, 3827
Ref.

TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp

Beam ** Prop
TSiNiP18
R,th TACI89
R,th TACI19
R,th TMC90
R,th TMC10
R,th TEC2
R,th TCSA14
R,th TRahal
R,th TR,th

N2a P 1.14 1.05 1.75 2.25 1.45 1.97 1.66 1.67 1.52
N3 P 1.31 1.06 1.26 1.39 1.60 1.22 1.03 1.17 1.10
N4 P 1.04 1.28 1.62 1.16 1.91 1.02 0.86 1.12 1.07
[17]

T4 P 1.71 1.12 1.10 1.65 1.14 1.24 1.04 1.11 1.08

VB2 P 1.72 0.79 1.09 1.23 2.43 1.06 0.83 1.06 1.03
VB3 P 1.89 0.81 0.98 1.35 1.60 1.17 0.92 1.10 1.05
VB4 P 1.98 0.82 1.01 1.41 1.38 1.22 0.96 1.11 1.04
VM1 P 1.62 0.83 1.11 1.55 1.36 1.34 1.06 1.24 1.14
VM2 P 1.50 0.85 1.10 1.54 1.31 1.33 1.04 1.16 1.09
VM3 P 1.43 0.89 1.09 1.53 1.32 1.32 1.03 1.14 1.10
Leonhardt, Schelling (1974)

VQ1 P 1.32 0.86 0.84 1.34 1.72 1.00 0.80 0.91 0.86
VQ3 P 2.08 0.56 0.98 1.32 2.23 1.21 0.93 0.92 0.87
VQ9 P 1.98 0.49 1.10 1.47 2.07 1.41 1.04 0.90 0.85
VS2-VQ2 P 1.66 0.67 0.97 1.36 1.88 1.18 0.92 0.96 0.90
VS3 P 1.78 0.77 0.95 1.33 2.64 1.15 0.90 1.05 1.01
VS4-VQ5 P 1.67 0.76 1.04 1.20 3.31 1.03 0.81 1.04 1.02
VS9 P 1.32 0.66 0.86 1.20 2.38 1.04 0.81 0.91 0.87
VS10-VB1 P 1.30 0.63 1.01 0.93 3.21 0.80 0.63 0.86 0.85
VU1 P 1.74 0.56 0.90 1.26 2.09 1.09 0.85 0.96 0.92
VU2 P 1.84 0.70 0.93 1.31 2.70 1.13 0.88 1.06 1.02
VU3 P 1.75 0.88 0.96 1.34 3.32 1.16 0.91 1.09 1.06
VU4 P 1.58 0.93 0.98 1.37 3.08 1.18 0.93 1.05 1.00

A2 P 1.33 1.28 1.21 1.73 1.05 1.30 1.15 1.25 1.16

McMullen, Rangan

A3 P 1.12 1.25 1.49 1.48 1.17 1.11 1.00 1.19 1.13

A4 P 0.98 1.23 1.85 1.31 1.45 0.98 0.89 1.16 1.13
(1978)

B1r P 1.52 1.04 1.39 1.00 1.24 1.24 1.32 1.12 1.00
B2 P 1.38 1.14 1.26 1.00 1.26 1.26 1.20 1.21 1.12
B3 P 1.14 1.09 1.59 1.28 1.17 1.12 1.00 1.12 1.06
B4 P 1.01 1.37 2.00 1.19 1.47 1.04 0.90 1.13 1.13

B30.1 P 0.57 1.10 2.03 0.78 1.49 0.65 0.84 0.97 0.98
B30.2 P 0.57 1.06 1.96 0.78 1.49 0.64 0.84 0.92 0.92
B30.3 P 0.60 1.08 2.00 0.80 1.55 0.66 0.88 0.93 0.93
Rasmussen, Baker (1995)

B50.1 P 0.46 1.08 2.01 0.70 1.31 0.57 0.68 1.04 1.04
B50.2 P 0.46 1.04 1.93 0.68 1.29 0.56 0.68 0.99 0.99
B50.3 P 0.44 1.04 1.92 0.67 1.26 0.55 0.65 1.00 1.00
B70.1 P 0.41 0.98 1.80 0.64 1.12 0.55 0.55 0.98 0.98
B70.2 P 0.42 1.01 1.87 0.67 1.16 0.57 0.57 1.01 1.01
B70.3 P 0.42 1.03 1.90 0.67 1.18 0.57 0.58 1.03 1.03
B110.1 P 0.50 1.01 1.86 0.79 1.07 0.68 0.56 1.08 1.09
B110.2 P 0.47 0.99 1.82 0.75 1.06 0.64 0.52 1.05 1.05
B110.3 P 0.49 1.03 1.91 0.79 1.11 0.67 0.55 1.10 1.10

B5UR1 P 1.18 1.07 1.21 1.34 0.87 1.11 1.03 1.07 1.00

** P—Plain section; H—Hollow section.

33
Materials 2022, 15, 3827
Ref.

TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp

Beam ** Prop
TSiNiP18
R,th TACI89
R,th TACI19
R,th TMC90
R,th TMC10
R,th TEC2
R,th TCSA14
R,th TRahal
R,th TR,th

B7UR1 P 1.12 0.92 1.03 1.26 0.74 1.05 0.97 0.94 0.85
Koutchoukali, Belarbi

B9UR1 P 1.29 1.05 1.19 1.45 0.85 1.21 1.12 1.05 0.94
B12UR1 P 1.15 0.91 1.05 1.29 0.76 1.08 1.00 0.93 0.84
B12UR2 P 1.08 0.86 0.99 1.21 0.71 1.01 0.94 0.89 0.80
(2001)

B12UR3 P 1.18 1.01 1.04 1.28 0.75 1.06 0.99 0.98 0.89
B12UR4 P 1.24 1.02 1.07 1.22 0.71 1.01 0.94 0.96 0.88
B12UR5 P 0.93 0.86 1.08 1.08 0.64 0.90 0.82 0.87 0.80
B14UR1 P 1.26 0.98 1.16 1.42 0.83 1.18 1.10 1.00 0.88

H-06-06 P 1.59 1.08 1.21 1.59 0.81 1.31 1.15 1.05 0.97
H-06-12 P 1.74 1.36 1.19 1.57 0.85 1.29 1.13 1.12 1.04
H-07-10 P 1.46 1.48 1.27 1.67 0.98 1.38 1.21 1.23 1.15
H-07-16 P 1.18 1.69 1.27 1.48 1.32 1.22 1.07 1.17 1.12
H-12-12 P 1.93 1.16 1.28 1.50 0.98 1.24 1.08 1.18 1.12
H-12-16 P 1.40 1.47 1.61 1.43 1.34 1.18 1.03 1.23 1.19
Fang, Shiau (2004)

H-14-10 P 1.38 1.09 1.19 1.35 0.90 1.11 0.97 1.08 1.03
H-20-20 P 1.43 1.33 1.97 1.19 1.51 0.99 0.86 1.43 1.43
N-06-06 P 1.38 1.09 1.05 1.38 0.99 1.14 0.99 1.03 0.99
N-06-12 P 1.44 1.30 1.16 1.30 1.36 1.07 0.94 1.05 1.02
N-07-10 P 1.29 1.48 1.41 1.47 1.63 1.22 1.06 1.21 1.19
N-07-16 P 0.96 1.56 1.48 1.20 2.02 0.99 0.87 1.07 1.06
N-12-12 P 1.45 0.96 1.43 1.13 1.42 0.93 0.81 1.01 1.01
N-12-16 P 0.98 1.14 1.69 1.01 1.82 0.83 0.75 1.05 1.05
N-14-10 P 1.28 1.10 1.57 1.25 1.56 1.03 0.90 1.12 1.11
N-20-20 P 0.94 1.30 1.93 1.02 1.92 0.81 0.86 1.20 1.20

HAS-51-50 P 2.10 1.15 1.55 2.24 1.02 1.68 1.47 1.24 1.11
NAS-61-35 P 1.55 1.33 1.49 2.15 1.00 1.61 1.41 1.25 1.14
HAS-90-50 P 1.64 1.40 1.43 2.06 0.96 1.55 1.36 1.24 1.13
NBS-43-44 P 1.77 1.11 1.32 1.74 0.88 1.44 1.26 1.13 1.05
Chiu et al.

HBS-74-17 P 0.95 1.19 1.18 1.55 0.79 1.28 1.12 0.94 0.85
(2007)

HBS-82-13 P 0.82 1.19 1.20 1.57 0.80 1.30 1.14 0.92 0.83
NBS-82-13 P 0.77 1.39 1.12 1.48 1.11 1.22 1.07 0.96 0.90
HBS-60-61 P 1.79 1.23 1.47 1.93 0.99 1.59 1.40 1.24 1.14
HCS-52-50 P 1.83 1.16 1.64 1.97 1.12 1.79 1.55 1.14 1.02
HCS-91-50 P 1.61 1.50 1.60 1.92 1.11 1.75 1.52 1.21 1.10

T1-1 P 1.41 1.06 1.25 1.71 0.85 1.34 1.18 1.11 1.02
Lee and Kim (2010)

T1-2 P 1.64 1.14 1.15 1.57 0.91 1.24 1.09 1.16 1.09
T1-3 P 1.75 1.13 1.30 1.40 1.12 1.10 0.97 1.13 1.09
T1-4 P 1.15 0.97 1.49 1.10 1.22 0.87 0.76 0.99 0.98
T2-2 P 0.91 1.24 1.04 1.42 0.90 1.11 0.98 1.03 0.96
T2-3 P 1.12 1.28 1.19 1.25 1.17 0.98 0.87 1.02 0.98
T2-4 P 0.90 1.30 1.34 1.20 1.30 0.94 0.83 1.02 0.99

SW12-1 P 1.11 1.71 1.86 1.52 1.25 1.47 1.28 0.85 0.81

** P—Plain section; H—Hollow section.

34
Materials 2022, 15, 3827
Ref.

TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp

Beam ** Prop
TSiNiP18 TACI89 TACI19 TMC90 TMC10 TEC2 TCSA14 TRahal T
R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th

SW10-1 P 0.93 1.49 1.92 1.28 1.65 1.23 1.07 0.79 0.77
Peng, Wong (2011)

SW10-2 P 1.17 1.37 2.19 1.30 1.15 1.25 1.05 0.89 0.89
SW10-3 P 1.19 1.83 2.93 1.12 1.86 1.08 1.44 1.10 1.10
SW10-4 P 1.06 1.85 3.23 0.92 1.82 0.88 1.48 1.14 1.14
SW8-1 P 1.32 1.53 1.91 1.31 1.64 1.25 1.15 0.90 0.87
SW8-2 P 1.74 1.85 3.08 1.20 1.90 1.14 1.51 1.15 1.15

RA-SD4-3.2-0.3-3.28 P 0.89 1.47 1.15 1.17 1.42 0.95 0.79 1.00 0.96
RA-SD5-3.2-0.3-3.21 P 0.85 1.48 1.16 1.13 1.49 0.91 0.76 0.98 0.94
RA-SD6-3.2-0.2-3.21 P 0.71 1.51 1.18 1.02 1.66 0.83 0.68 0.96 0.96
Joh et al. (2019)

RA-SD4-3.2-0.5-2.13 P 1.20 1.26 0.98 1.38 0.95 1.12 0.93 1.06 0.99
RA-SD5-3.2-0.7-1.63 P 1.39 1.23 1.06 1.49 0.90 1.21 1.00 1.11 1.03
RA-SD6-3.2-0.6-1.63 P 1.14 1.15 0.91 1.29 0.89 1.05 0.87 0.98 0.92
RA-SD4-3.2-1.1-1.33 P 2.10 1.23 1.40 1.98 0.94 1.61 1.33 1.35 1.23
RA-SD5-3.2-1.0-1.26 P 1.79 1.12 1.21 1.71 0.81 1.39 1.15 1.19 1.09
RA-SD6-3.2-0.8-1.26 P 1.29 1.15 1.12 1.58 0.81 1.28 1.06 1.13 1.04

MR30-0.77 P 1.40 1.08 1.12 1.47 0.99 1.21 1.06 1.00 0.94
Ju et al.

MT30-1.32 P 0.71 1.12 0.77 1.00 1.30 0.83 0.72 0.77 0.75
(2019)

MT40-1.32 P 0.73 1.07 0.78 1.02 0.90 0.85 0.74 0.75 0.72
MT40-1.89 P 1.05 0.92 1.13 1.05 1.09 0.86 0.75 0.89 0.88

NSC-S1-C30 P 0.81 0.85 1.16 0.95 0.94 0.79 0.71 0.85 0.81
Ibrahim et al.

NSC-S1-C45 P 0.52 0.67 1.23 0.74 0.59 0.62 0.57 0.55 0.52
(2020)

HSC-C30 P 0.82 0.82 0.97 0.96 0.71 0.80 0.71 0.81 0.75
HSC-C45 P 0.57 0.70 1.09 0.82 0.48 0.68 0.63 0.56 0.52

S08-3-65 P 1.73 1.14 1.28 1.48 0.86 1.24 1.22 1.07 1.04
S08-4-90 P 1.95 1.12 1.21 1.38 0.83 1.15 1.14 1.03 0.99
S08-5-122.5 P 1.10 0.86 0.93 1.08 0.62 0.90 0.89 0.78 0.75
Kim et al. (2020)

S10-3-52.5 P 1.62 1.01 1.23 1.22 0.84 1.01 1.00 0.94 0.92
S10-4-72.5 P 1.09 0.85 1.06 0.98 0.73 0.82 0.81 0.78 0.76
S10-5-100 P 1.20 0.91 1.05 1.06 0.73 0.89 0.87 0.82 0.80
S06-3-90 P 2.34 1.14 1.43 1.66 0.96 1.38 1.36 1.09 1.03
S10-5-90 P 1.10 0.83 1.03 0.94 0.72 0.78 0.77 0.75 0.73
S08-3-72.5 P 1.59 1.05 1.23 1.42 0.82 1.18 1.17 1.00 0.95
S12-5-72.5 P 0.97 0.80 1.17 0.85 0.81 0.71 0.70 0.72 0.72

D3 H 0.59 1.44 1.38 1.49 1.65 1.24 1.09 1.22 1.00

(1968)
Hsu

D4 H 0.64 1.06 1.63 1.07 1.62 0.89 0.78 1.01 1.00

T0 H 1.59 2.03 1.65 1.86 1.33 1.39 1.27 1.26 1.15

T1 H 1.98 1.32 1.27 1.67 1.06 1.25 1.05 1.12 1.09
[17,38]

T2 H 1.93 1.64 1.44 1.88 1.12 1.41 1.28 1.23 1.11

T5 H 1.79 0.81 1.16 1.44 0.72 1.26 1.10 0.95 0.84

VH1 H 1.70 1.04 1.08 1.72 1.50 1.29 1.03 1.11 1.05
[19]

VH2 H 1.35 0.75 1.05 1.14 2.22 0.83 0.67 0.69 1.07

A1 H 1.39 1.23 1.48 2.22 1.00 1.66 1.41 1.12 1.02

** P—Plain section; H—Hollow section.

35
Materials 2022, 15, 3827
Ref.

TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp TR,exp

Beam ** Prop
TSiNiP18 TACI89 TACI19 TMC90 TMC10 TEC2 TCSA14 TRahal T
R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th R,th

A2 H 1.75 1.31 1.20 1.76 0.81 1.32 1.14 1.12 1.07

A3 H 1.62 1.25 1.25 1.56 0.94 1.17 1.01 1.08 1.07
A4 H 1.37 1.26 1.55 1.38 1.04 1.04 0.92 1.03 1.02
A5 H 1.27 1.23 1.73 1.25 1.22 0.94 0.83 1.00 1.01
Bernardo, Lopes (2009)

B2 H 1.80 1.26 1.22 1.79 0.83 1.34 1.16 1.09 1.02

B3 H 1.32 1.11 1.14 1.33 0.75 1.00 0.86 0.94 0.92
B4 H 1.29 1.17 1.38 1.26 0.91 0.94 0.83 0.96 0.95
B5 H 1.10 1.05 1.47 1.05 0.96 0.79 0.71 0.92 0.92
C1 H 1.39 1.03 1.48 2.23 1.00 1.68 1.40 1.02 0.90
C2 H 1.83 1.23 1.26 1.84 0.83 1.38 1.20 1.05 0.97
C3 H 1.34 1.12 1.08 1.36 0.69 1.02 0.86 0.93 0.89
C4 H 1.39 1.20 1.36 1.37 0.89 1.03 0.86 1.00 0.98
C5 H 1.15 1.07 1.38 1.17 0.88 0.88 0.74 0.90 0.89
C6 H 1.07 1.12 1.69 1.00 1.06 0.75 0.65 1.01 1.01
Chiu et al.

HAH-81-35 H 1.37 1.78 1.46 2.11 0.97 1.58 1.39 1.22 1.11
(2007)

NCH-62-33 H 1.61 1.41 1.60 1.93 1.11 1.75 1.52 1.16 1.06
HCH-91-42 H 1.55 1.51 1.59 1.91 1.10 1.74 1.51 1.17 1.06

A095c H 1.13 1.47 1.94 2.63 1.53 2.17 1.84 1.56 1.24
A120a H 1.08 2.22 2.12 3.29 1.92 2.72 2.01 1.73 1.17
B065b H 1.06 2.17 1.48 1.59 1.83 1.31 1.11 1.17 0.97
Jeng (2014)

B080a H 1.06 1.24 1.20 1.52 0.97 1.25 1.06 1.12 1.10
B110a H 1.12 1.86 2.02 2.84 1.65 2.34 1.92 1.59 1.14
C100a H 1.06 1.20 1.27 1.72 0.94 1.43 1.21 1.17 1.11
D075a H 1.06 1.35 1.25 1.69 0.81 1.40 1.18 1.11 1.05
D090a H 1.05 1.15 1.18 1.60 0.81 1.32 1.12 1.06 0.99

H08-3-65 H 1.60 1.14 1.23 1.40 0.87 1.17 1.15 1.04 1.01
H08-4-90 H 1.75 1.22 1.35 1.56 0.89 1.30 1.28 1.12 1.08
H08-5-100 H 1.53 1.05 1.12 1.29 0.80 1.07 1.06 0.95 0.92
Kim et al. (2020)

H10-3-52.5 H 1.55 1.10 1.37 1.27 0.97 1.06 1.05 1.00 0.99
H10-4-72.5 H 1.35 1.04 1.22 1.22 0.87 1.02 1.01 0.94 0.92
H10-5-80 H 1.33 0.96 1.20 1.12 0.85 0.93 0.92 0.88 0.86
H06-3-90 H 2.15 1.12 1.33 1.54 0.83 1.28 1.27 1.04 0.98
H10-5-135 H 1.35 1.02 1.20 1.39 0.75 1.16 1.14 0.95 0.90
H08-3-72.5 H 1.51 1.09 1.19 1.38 0.78 1.15 1.13 0.99 0.95
H12-5-72.5 H 1.38 0.93 1.24 1.19 0.84 0.99 0.98 0.93 0.91

** P—Plain section; H—Hollow section.

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41. Fang, I.-K.; Shiau, J.-K. Torsional behavior of normal- and high-strength concrete beams. ACI Struct. J. 2004, 101, 304–313.

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42. Chiu, H.-J.; Fang, I.-K.; Young, W.-T.; Shiau, J.-K. Behavior of reinforced concrete beams with minimum torsional reinforcement.
Eng. Struct. 2007, 29, 2193–2205. [CrossRef]
43. Lee, J.-Y.; Kim, S.-W. Torsional strength of RC beams considering tension stiffening effect. J. Struct. Eng. 2010, 136, 1367–1378.
[CrossRef]
44. Joh, C.; Kwahk, I.; Lee, J.; Yang, I.-H.; Kim, B.-S. Torsional behavior of high-strngth concrete beams with minimum reinforcemente
ratio. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2019, 2019, 1432697.
45. Ju, H.; Han, S.-J.; Zhang, D.; Kim, J.; Wu, W.; Kim, K.S. Estimation of minimum torsional reinforcement of reinforced concrete and
steel fiber-reforced concrete members. Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2019, 2019, 4595363. [CrossRef]
46. Ibrahim, M.S.; Gebreyouhannes, E.; Muhdin, A.; Gebre, A. Effect of concrete cover on the pure torsional behavior of reinforced
contrete beams. Eng. Struct. 2020, 216, 110790. [CrossRef]
47. Kim, M.-J.; Kim, H.-G.; Lee, Y.-J.; Kim, D.-H.; Lee, J.-Y.; Kim, K.-H. Pure torsional behavior of RC beams in relation to the amount
of torsional reinforcment and cross-sectional properties. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 260, 119801. [CrossRef]
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49. Jeng, C.-H. Unified softened membrane model for torsion in hollow and solid reinforced concrete members modeling the entire
pre- and post-cracking behavior. J. Struct. Eng. 2015, 141, 1–20. [CrossRef]
50. De Domenico, D. Torsional strength of RC members using a plasticity-based variable-angle space truss model accounting for
non-uniform longitudinal reinforcement. Eng. Struct. 2021, 228, 111540. [CrossRef]
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 materials
Article
Compressive Strength Evaluation of Ultra-High-Strength
Concrete by Machine Learning
Zhongjie Shen 1, *, Ahmed Farouk Deifalla 2, * , Paweł Kamiński 3 and Artur Dyczko 4

1 Xijing University, Xi’an 710123, China

2 Structural Engineering and Construction Management Department, Faculty of Engineering and Technology,
Future University in Egypt, Cairo 11835, Egypt
3 Faculty of Civil Engineering and Resource Management, AGH University of Science and Technology,
Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Kraków, Poland; [email protected]
4 Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences, J. Wybickiego 7a,
31-261 Kraków, Poland; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (Z.S.); [email protected] (A.F.D.)

Abstract: In civil engineering, ultra-high-strength concrete (UHSC) is a useful and efficient building
material. To save money and time in the construction sector, soft computing approaches have been
used to estimate concrete properties. As a result, the current work used sophisticated soft computing
techniques to estimate the compressive strength of UHSC. In this study, XGBoost, AdaBoost, and
Bagging were the employed soft computing techniques. The variables taken into account included
cement content, fly ash, silica fume and silicate content, sand and water content, superplasticizer
content, steel fiber, steel fiber aspect ratio, and curing time. The algorithm performance was evaluated
using statistical metrics, such as the mean absolute error (MAE), root mean square error (RMSE),
and coefficient of determination (R2 ). The model’s performance was then evaluated statistically. The
XGBoost soft computing technique, with a higher R2 (0.90) and low errors, was more accurate than
Citation: Shen, Z.; Deifalla, A.F.; the other algorithms, which had a lower R2 . The compressive strength of UHSC can be predicted
Kamiński, P.; Dyczko, A. using the XGBoost soft computing technique. The SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analysis
Compressive Strength Evaluation of showed that curing time had the highest positive influence on UHSC compressive strength. Thus,
Ultra-High-Strength Concrete by scholars will be able to quickly and effectively determine the compressive strength of UHSC using
Machine Learning. Materials 2022, 15, this study’s findings.
3523. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma15103523 Keywords: UHSC; building material; compressive strength; soft computing technique; concrete
Academic Editors: Dario De Domenico
and Luís Filipe Almeida Bernardo

Received: 13 April 2022

1. Introduction
Accepted: 7 May 2022
Published: 13 May 2022
Ultra-high-strength concrete (UHSC) is becoming increasingly popular because of
its superior mechanical qualities, increased ductility, and longer life expectancy [1]. If
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral UHSC is cured for 28 days, it will have a compressive strength of more than 120 MPA,
with regard to jurisdictional claims in even after cracking. To attain excellent characteristics, UHSC’s maximum density was
published maps and institutional affil-
carefully designed. Particle packing density in UHSC results in low permeability and
iations.
dense microstructures [2,3]. Due to the inclusion of distributed discrete fibers, UHSC
has increased mechanical strength and crack resistance. There are a variety of civil engi-
neering applications using UHSC, which range from building to rehabilitation to repair.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
The mechanical characteristics of UHSC are now being evaluated in current practice, by
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
conducting complete experimental examinations. Experimental approaches can be used to
This article is an open access article
determine the precise link between material qualities and mix design, but this requires a
distributed under the terms and significant investment, in terms of both time and money [4]. Variables for UHSC include
conditions of the Creative Commons the cement content, the water content, the additive material content, the fiber content
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// (e.g., steel fibers), the content and type of admixtures, and aggregates content and type
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ (e.g., superplasticizer) [5–7]. The addition of dispersed short-discrete fibers to concrete
4.0/). increased crack resistance and improved mechanical characteristics [8–16]. Steel fibers

39
Materials 2022, 15, 3523

are employed to increase the toughness and post-cracking behavior of the cementitious
material [17–20]. Despite several experimental studies in the literature, it is still difficult
to predict the characteristics of UHSCs containing various mixtures of components using
computational methodologies. Thus, in this work, an attempt was made to anticipate the
compressive property of UHSC using soft computing techniques.
Complex issues in a variety of engineering domains can be effectively solved using
soft computing approaches. Machine learning (ML) approaches may be used to predict the
final output after being provided an input data set. In order to forecast the characteristics
of concrete, two ML strategies were used, i.e., a standalone approach (based on a single
model) and an ensemble approach (such as AdaBoost and bagging). Ensemble models beat
individual ML models in terms of performance, according to studies. However, there are
examples of ML models that may be used to predict cement composites characteristics.
There has been a detailed evaluation of the use of ML approaches to anticipate concrete
mechanical characteristics [21]. In addition, a number of studies have been done to predict
the mechanical characteristics of different types of concretes, such as high-performance
concrete (HPC) [22], self-healing concrete [23], recycled aggregate concrete (RCA) [24],
phase change material-integrated concrete [25], etc. Han, et al. [26] employed a machine
learning technique to forecast HPC compressive strength. Cement, fine aggregates, FA,
GGBFS, coarse aggregates, age, water, and five other combination variables were included
in the dataset’s input parameters. The compressive strength of HPC was accurately pre-
dicted by the established model. This article forecasts the compressive strength of UHSC
using soft computing techniques and will serve as a baseline to save time and money for
future researchers.
The previous studies were related to high performance concrete with a compressive
strength around 10–80 MPa [27]. However, this study is related to ultra-high strength
concrete (UHSC) with a compressive strength of 100–160 MPa, where the particle packing
theory is important. Additionally, the effect of raw ingredients on compressive strength
was not investigated by previous studies, which remains a research gap. Therefore, the
effect of input parameters (raw materials) on the output parameter (compressive strength)
was evaluated using SHapley Additive exPlanations and their interaction was explained.
The compressive strength of UHSC may also be predicted using machine learning methods
in an alternate approach, to save experimental time and money. In this paper, a variety
of ensembled machine learning approaches were used to estimate the compressive of
UHSC. XGBoost, AdaBoost, and Bagging are included as ensemble machine learning
models. In addition, all models were tested using statistical criteria, and a comparison
was made between several machine learning models. A better model was then proposed
based on the performance of several statistical parameters to predict UHSC outcomes.
Furthermore, a post hoc model-agnostic technique, i.e., SHapley Additive exPlanations
(SHAP), was also implemented to give ML model insight [28,29]. The integration of SHAP
with ML algorithms was performed in the current research to provide a comprehensive
understanding of the mix design of concrete, regarding its strength parameters through
its non-linear complex behavior, and to describe the contribution of input parameters by
assigning a weight factor to each input parameter. This will be highly beneficial for the
development of durable and sustainable concrete mixes.

2. Soft Computing Techniques

In order to get the best results, ensemble learning trains numerous base learners to
aggregate their findings according to a predetermined methodology [30]. The design and
building of fundamental learners, as well as their integration, is critical to ensemble learning
algorithms. Based on how base learners collaborate, ensemble learning may be divided
into parallel and sequential forms. No substantial connections between individual learners
can be found in the parallel ensemble, as demonstrated by the bagging technique. Learners
in a sequential ensemble are highly interdependent and sequentially formed, as shown by
boosting [31]. Here, the fundamentals of ensemble approaches are briefly discussed.

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Iteratively updating the previous classifier’s parameters reduces the gradient of the
loss function and generates a new classifier. The regression tree group is assured to have
the highest generalization ability by minimizing the error of prediction across numerous
regression trees. The loss function of the model is enhanced by including the regular term.
As part of this process, a Taylor expansion of the loss function is used to calculate the split
node. The performance of generalization and computation has been enhanced by the use of
the regularization approach and second-order derivative information [32]. Figure 1 shows
the XGBoost algorithm’s structure.

Figure 1. Structure of XGBoost algorithm [32].

A sequential ensemble may be built using the boosting approach. It creates a mediocre
learner based on the first set of data. After that, a new weak learner is created to try to
correct the mistakes of the previous weak learner. To approach the final prediction model,
all weak learners must be included into it. All samples are given equal weight when
AdaBoost is used to start the dataset. When a new learner makes a mistake, the samples
that it gains weight on, obtain the weight that the first learner gets right. This process
has a predetermined number of repetitions, before an error occurs. Updating the training
sample weights in subsequent rounds takes the weaker learners’ performance into account.
Figure 2 depicts an ensembled support vector regressor technique with AdaBoost.

Training set Data collection Testing set

Training set Data collection Testing set

Weak learner weights
SVR Validation
Weight distribution D1 Weak learner G1 WeakW
learner
1 weights
SVR Validation
Weight distributionUpdate
D1 Weak learner G1
the sample weights W1

SVR
Update the sample weights
Weight distribution D2 Weak learner G2 W2 Strong learner
SVR
Weight distribution D2 Weak learner G2 W2 Strong learner
Update the sample weights

Update the sample weights

Weight distribution Dn Weak learner Gn Wn Resultant model

Weight distribution Dn Weak learner G Wn Resultant model

Figure 2. AdaBoost algorithm [33]. n

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Materials 2022, 15, 3523

Bootstrapping and aggregation are two parts of the process of bagging. Training sev-
eral models is made possible by regularly dividing the full dataset into smaller groups (base
learners). The final forecast is the sum of the individual model results. These estimations
are averaged together to obtain this forecast in the regression example. According to the
categorization example, the voting process is used to make a final forecast. Algorithms
such as support vector regressor, adaptive boosting, and bagging were used in this work
to predict concrete properties, all of which have been demonstrated to perform well in
previous studies for normal strength concrete. The process flow of the bagging algorithm is
shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Process flow of bagging algorithm [34].

3. Interpretability of Model Using SHAP

The establishment of a robust prediction tool is gaining attention due to the ML models
learning ability from recognized data and for prediction responses in unknown areas. How-
ever, lower interpretability and greater complexity is common in most machine learning
modelling approaches [35]. SHAP is derived from game theory Shapley values [36]. Its
employment is intended to determine the importance of different features within mod-
els [35,37]. In SHAP, the feature importance (j) for model outcome f ; φ j ( f ), is allotted
weight for feature contribution summation towards output of model f ( xi ) for the overall
𝑓 𝜙 𝑓
potential combinations of features [38]. The expression for φ j ( f ) is shown in Equation (1),
as given below:
𝑓 𝑥
𝜙 𝑓
| S |!( p − | S | − 1)!  
φj ( f ) = ∑S⊆{x1 ,......, x p }/{ x j }
f (S ⊔ { x j }) − f (S) (1)
p!
|𝑆|! 𝑝 − |𝑆| − 1 !
𝜙 𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑆⊔ 𝑥 −𝑓 𝑆
where; S = features subset, ⊆p = feature
,….., number in model,
𝑝! and x j = feature j.
In the SHAP process, the importance of a feature is investigated by quantifying the
𝑆
prediction 𝑝
errors when disturbing a specified value of a feature. 𝑗
𝑥 The prediction error
sensitivity is considered for assigning a weight to feature importance, while perturbing
its value. The trained ML model performance is also explained by using SHAP. SHAP
uses an additional feature attribution method, i.e., linear input factor addition, to explain
an interpretable model, is taken by the model output. As an illustration, a model having
input factors xi ; where i ranges from 1 to k, and; k represents input factors number and h
(xs ), shows an explanation model having xs as a simplified input, whereas; Equation (2) is
implemented to present an original model f ( x ):
𝑥 𝑖 𝑘 𝑘
p
𝑥 f ( x ) = h( xs ) = ∅0𝑥+ ∑i=1 ∅i xsi (2)
𝑓 𝑥

𝑓 𝑥 =ℎ 𝑥 =∅ + ∅𝑥
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Materials 2022, 15, 3523
∅ 𝑝

𝑥=𝑚 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
where ∅0 = constant without any information (i.e., no input), and p = input feature number.
The mapping function, i.e., x = m x ( xs ), has a correlation with both x and xs inputs.
Lundberg and ∅ Lee
, ∅ ,[35]
𝑎𝑛𝑑explained
∅ Equation (9), in which ∅ the prediction value, i.e., (h ()) is
improved by ∅0 , ∅1 , and ∅3 terms and a decline of ∅4 in h () value is also noted (Figure 4).
There is a single value solution to Equation (9) that includes three preferred properties, i.e.,
missingness, consistency, and local accuracy. In missingness, it ∅ =0
is ensured that no value 𝑥 =
0 for importance is assigned to the missing features, i.e., ∅i = 0 is employed by xsi = 0.
Consistency ensures no reduction in attribution, assigned to the respective features, as a
change in feature with more impact. In local accuracy, it is ensured that the summation of
feature attribution is taken as a function for the outcome, which includes a requirement
𝑓 𝑥 𝑥=𝑚 𝑥
for the model to match the outcome f for xs as a simplified input. x = m x xs represents the
attainment of local accuracy.

Figure 4. Attributes of SHAP.

4. Data Set
Figure 5 shows the data set utilized to forecast UHSC’s compressive strength. The
literature [39] provides a compressive database and there were 372 mix proportions with 10
input parameters selected from the data in the range of 100–160 MPa. These include cement
content, fly ash, and silica fume content, as well as sand and water. Input parameters of
steel fiber aspect ratio and curing time are also included. Predictor variables of the output
parameter (compressive strength) are based on these input parameters. Each variable’s
range and lowest and maximum values are shown in Figure 5. There is also a figure that
presents the mean and standard deviation for each variable. Compressive strength was
predicted using Anaconda software’s Spyder and Python scripting. The histogram of
compressive strength used in this study is shown in Figure 6.

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Materials 2022, 15, 3523

Figure 5. Data description of parameters.

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Materials 2022, 15, 3523

50

50
40

40

30
Count

30
Count

20
20

10
10

0
0 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
100 110 120 strength
Compressive 130(MPa) 140 150 160
Compressive strength (MPa)

Figure 6. UHSC compressive strength distribution.

5. Results and Discussion

5.1. XGBoost
The comparison of experimental and predicted values with the XGBoost algorithm for
compressive strength of UHSC is presented in Figure 7. The XGBoost exhibited reasonable
predicted results, with low variation for the compressive strength of UHSC. An acceptable
R2 value of 0.89 shows the suitability of the XGBoost model. Figure 8 illustrates the error
distribution of the experimental and XGBoost predicted values of compressive strength
for UHSC. The average values of error for compressive strength are 6.42 MPa. Whereas
50% of error values are less than 5 MPa, 37% are from 5 to 10 MPa, and 24% are higher than
10 MPa.

Figure 7. Experimental and XGBoost predicted results.

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Materials 2022, 15, 3523

Figure 8. Experimental and SVR predicted values with errors.

5.2. AdaBoost
Figure 9 shows the experimental and predicted AdaBoost algorithm results for com-
pressive strength of UHSC. The R2 value for AdaBoost is 0.82 and represents less precise
results than that of the XGBoost algorithm. The distribution of experimental and Ad-
aboost predicted values with errors for compressive strength of UHSC is demonstrated
in Figure 10. It is noted that 30% of error data is below 5 MPa, 29% is from 5 to 10 MPa,
and 52% is higher than 10 MPa. The lower error and higher R2 value indicated the better
accuracy of XGBoost model compared to AdaBoost.

Figure 9. Experimental and AdaBoost predicted results.

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Materials 2022, 15, 3523

Figure 10. Experimental and AdaBoost predicted values with errors.

5.3. Bagging
The experimental and bagging predicted results of UHSC for compressive strength
are shown in Figure 11. The R2 for this model is 0.78, which shows less suitable results
compared to the above two models. However, the predicted compressive strength results
of UHSC for XGBoost are better than the other ensembled models. Figure 12 demonstrates
the distribution of experimental and bagging predicted values with errors for compressive
strength of UHSC. Whereas 30% of error values are below 5 MPa, 17% of values range from
5 to 10 MPa, and 62% of values are found above 10 MPa. The error and R2 values for the
compressive strength of UHSC for XGBoost are more accurate than the bagging model.
Wang, et al. [33] reported that the AdaBoost machine learning approaches predicted the best
compressive strength of geopolymer composites. Zhu, et al. [40] used machine learning to
forecast the splitting tensile strength (STS) of concrete containing recycled aggregate (RA)
and revealed that the precision level of the bagging model was better. Ahmad, et al. [41]
studied the boosting and AdaBoost ML approaches to predict the compressive strength of
a high-calcium fly-ash-based geopolymer. Bagging indicated the best results. However,
the R2 and error values obtained for the XGBoost ensemble machine learning models are
acceptable. Thus, this finding implies that XGBoost could predict outcomes with a higher
degree of accuracy than the other models.

5.4. Comparison of All Models

The validity of a model during execution is assessed by employing the K-fold cross-
validation method. Statistical checks are used to evaluate the performance of models [42–45].
Usually, random dispersion is performed by splitting data into ten groups for k-fold cross-
validation, and this process is repeated ten times to obtain acceptable results. Table 1 shows
statistical checks for all models. The R2 values for the XGBoost, AdaBoost, and Bagging
models were 0.90, 0.82, and 0.78, respectively, as shown in Figure 13a–c. It was found that
the R2 of XGBoost was higher than that of all other models, with low error values for the
compressive strength of UHSC.

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Materials 2022, 15, 3523

Figure 11. Experimental and BSA predicted results.

Figure 12. Distribution of experimental and BSA predicted values with errors.

Table 1. Statistical checks of the XGBoost, AdaBoost, and Bagging models.

Techniques MAE (MPa) RMSE (MPa) R2

XGBoost 6.4 7.6 0.90
Adaboost 11.0 13.1 0.82
Bagging 11.9 14.6 0.78

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Materials 2022, 15, 3523

XGBoost
MAE RMSE R2
25 1.00

20 0.80

Values in bars

Values in line
15 0.60

10 0.40

5 0.20

0 0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(a) K-fold Validation

AdaBoost
MAE RMSE R2
25 1.00

20 0.80

Values in line
Values in bars

15 0.60

10 0.40

5 0.20

0 0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(b) K-fold Validation

Bagging
MAE RMSE R2
25 1.00

20 0.80
Values in bars

Values in line

15 0.60

10 0.40

5 0.20

0 0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(c) K-fold Validation

Figure 13. Statistical representation: (a) XGBoost; (b) AdaBoost; (c) Bagging.

XGBoost
1.00
0.90 0.90
0.80 49

0.70
 20 0.80

Values in bars

Values in line
15 0.60

Materials 2022, 15, 3523

10 0.40

5 The compressive strength of UHSC was predicted using ensembles0.20 of machine learning
approaches in this work, which aimed to provide efficient and reliable findings. With an R2
0 value of 0.90, XGBoost’s output provided more exact predictions0.00 for UHSC compressive
strength.
1 Using
2 3an optimized
4 5 model6 from 7 the 820 sub-models
9 10 shown in Figure 14a–c to
predict compressive strength,
K-foldthe XGBoost ensemble machine learning models performed
Validation
better. It was, thus, shown that, compared to the other models, the XGBoost ensembled
models demonstrated an excellent accuracy and low error.

XGBoost
1.00
0.90 0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
R2

0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(a) Sub models

AdaBoost
1.00
0.90 0.82
0.80
0.70
0.60
R2

0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(b) Sub models

Figure 14. Cont. Bagging

1.00
0.90
0.78
0.80
0.70
0.60
R2

0.50 50

0.40
 0.30
0.20
0.10
Materials 2022, 15, 3523 0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Sub models

Bagging
1.00
0.90
0.78
0.80
0.70
0.60
R2

0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(c) Sub models

Figure 14. Sub-model results: (a) XGBoost; (b) AdaBoost; (c) Bagging.

Mahjoubi, et al. [46] constructed an auto-tune learning framework for ultra-high-

performance concrete flowability, mechanical characteristics, and porosity prediction
(UHPC). Other models were also considered by Mahjoubi et al. [47,48] in previous studies
for multiple functions, and can be applied to similar types of studies in the future. This
study evaluated compressive strength in the range of 100–160 MPa, considering 372 mix
proportions with 10 input parameters selected from the database of Mahjoubi et al. [39,46].
A much more relevant model could be obtained by increasing the number of datasheets
and by importing a significantly higher number of mixtures, as well as by considering
higher input parameters. Therefore, it is suggested that the number of data points and
outcomes in future investigations be raised by experimental work, field tests, and numer-
ical analysis, using a range of approaches (e.g., Monte Carlo simulation, among others).
Environmental factors (such as high temperatures and humidity) could be included in the
input parameters, along with a detailed explanation of the raw materials, to improve the
models’ responses.

6. Enhanced Explainability of ML Models

In the current research, an in-depth description of the ML model and dependen-
cies/interactions of all the considered features is provided. Initially, by implementing the
SHAP tree explainer for the entire dataset, an enhanced global representation of feature
influences, by merging local explanations from SHAP, is provided. A tree-like SHAP ap-
proximation technique, named TreeExplainer, was employed [49]. In this technique, the
internal structure of tree-based models was evaluated; that is the sum of calculations set
having a linkage with the leaf node of a tree model that led to low-order complexity [49].
The XGBoost model denotes the performance forecasting with higher precision for compres-
sive strength of ultra-high strength concrete (UHSC), so in the current section, the model’s
interpretation is done for compressive strength of UHSC using SHAP. The correlation of
various features with SHAP values for compressive strength of UHSC (as obtained from
the XGBoost ensemble modelling) is presented in Figure 15.

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Figure 15. Feature importance.

It can be noted here that the curing time has highest SHAP value in the case of
compressive strength prediction for UHSC. Increasing curing time would result in greater
compressive strength, as UHSC has a high quantity of binders, i.e., silica fume, slag,
fly-ash etc., so the hydration process requires more curing time, ultimately resulting in
enhanced compressive strength. The silica fume content feature, i.e., a key parameter of
UHSC and directly influencing the compressive strength, has the second highest SHAP
value. Subsequently, sand is the third most influential feature, as shown in Figure 15. In
UHSC, particle packing density would be difficult to achieve in the case of higher sand
contents. Super-plasticizer is fourth in the row, due to its higher SHAP value. More super-
plasticizer and a lesser water content positively influences the compressive strength of
UHSC. Similarly, the influence of cement is next in terms of SHAP value, followed by
the water, steel fiber, and fly-ash features. All these features have their unique roles in
the compressive strength of UHSC. Fly ash has little effect on compressive strength and
influences the workability of UHSC more.
Figure 16 depicts the violin plot SHAP values for all the corresponding features that
were considered to predict the compressive strength of UHSC. In the said plot, a unique
color represents every feature’s value and the corresponding SHAP value at the x-axis
represents the outcome contribution. For instance, for curing time and silica fume content
as input features, a positive influence can be observed from the right side of the axis,
showing a direct relationship for both the features with the compressive strength of UHSC.
A SHAP value of almost 14, in the form of red points at the rightmost, shows that a higher
curing time enhances the UHSC compressive strength. However, in case of the super-
plasticizer feature, a positive influence is seen, but only up to the optimal content. Beyond
this content, it has a negative influence, in the form of a blue color (i.e., lower values). It is
usually observed that upon enhancing the water-binder ratio, the compressive strength
tends to increase up to a certain limit, and then further enhancement of the water-binder
ratio decreases the compressive strength. In the same manner, a higher quantity of sand
negatively influences the compressive strength of UHSC, as its particle packing is disturbed.
Furthermore, a weaker bond would be observed in the case of a higher sand content with
respect to binder. Steel fiber and cement content also show a positive influence. Last, water
has both positive and negative influences and is directly related to the binder content. A
higher water content would result in a reduced UHSC compressive strength. Fly ash and
slag, although they do not have a considerable impact on compressive strength of UHSC,
still display more or less similar feature influences. These observations are dependent on
the database used in this study, and results with greater accuracy may be acquired in the
case of more data points.

52
Materials 2022, 15, 3523

Figure 16. SHAP plot.

The interaction of the various considered features with the compressive strength of
UHSC is presented in Figure 17. The curing feature interaction is shown in Figure 17a. It
may be observed from the plot that curing time is a major influence of the compressive
strength of UHSC and is in a positive/direct relationship. In this scenario, the maximum
interaction of curing is with silica fume, hence, aiding in the enhancement of UHSC strength.
In Figure 17b, a positive influence of silica on the compressive strength of UHSC is observed.
A greater interaction of silica is found with curing time and it is negatively influential.
The fine aggregate/sand feature interaction is plot in Figure 17c. The sand content has a
negative influence, due to its effect on silica fume. Therefore, the effect of sand on silica
fume results in decreased compressive strength. Then, in a row, super-plasticizer shows
both positive and negative interactions, depending upon the content (Figure 17d). A lesser
content, up to the optimum content, would result in a positive interaction and vice versa.
In the same manner, cement content positively interacts and greatly influences the water
content, as the w/c ratio has a major role in the development of strength, due to multiple
factors, including the hydration process (Figure 17e). In Figure 17f, the interaction of silica
fume with water content is shown. The lesser surface area of silica fume demands a higher
water content. Furthermore, during pozzolanic activity in the hydration reaction, silica
fume needs more water; therefore, a higher interaction of silica fume with water content
is observed.

53
Materials 2022, 15, 3523

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 17. Interaction plot of various parameters: (a) Curing time; (b) Silica fume content; (c) Sand
content; (d) Superplasticizer; (e) Cement content; (f) Water content.

7. Conclusions
Soft computing has recently been employed in the construction sector to forecast
the mechanical characteristics of concrete, which has gained the attention of the industry.
It was the goal of this study to evaluate the accuracy of soft computing approaches for
predicting the compressive strength of UHSC. Ten input variables were used for estimation:
i.e., cement content, fly ash, silica fume and silicate content, sand and water content,

54
Materials 2022, 15, 3523

superplasticizer content, steel fiber, steel fiber aspect ratio, and curing time. As a result of
our research, we have come to the following conclusions:
• As evidenced by the R2 value of 0.90, the XGBoost method was able to accurately esti-
mate the compressive strength of UHSC from its actual data. However, the ensembled
machine learning models, i.e., AdaBoost and Bagging with R2 values of 0.82 and 0.78,
predicted unacceptable findings for the compressive strength of UHSC.
• A total of twenty sub-models, ranging from 10 to 200 estimators, were utilized to opti-
mize the anticipated compressive strength of UHSC. An ensembled model XGBoost
was able to accurately forecast the compressive strength more effectively than the
other models.
• XGBoost models demonstrated lower MAE and RMSE, with a higher R2 value for
compressive strength of UHSC, compared to the other model in the k-fold validation
results. XGBoost was proven to have the best compressive strength prediction accuracy
for UHSC.
• The model’s performance was evaluated using statistical measures such as MAE and
RMSE. However, XGBoost projected superior results, with less error and a higher
coefficient of determination for evaluating the compressive strength of UHSC.
• The XGBoost is the best method for predicting the compressive strength of UHSC
utilizing soft computing approaches.
• Curing time has highest impact on UHSC compressive strength estimation, followed
by silica fume, sand and super-plasticizer content, as depicted by SHAP analysis.
Whereas, the compressive strength of UHSC with fly ash content is the least influential.
• The feature interaction plot showed that curing time, cement content, and silica fume
positively influence UHSC compressive strength.

Author Contributions: Z.S.: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing-

original draft. A.F.D.: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Formal analysis, Funding
acquisition, Writing—Review & Editing, Supervision. P.K.: Software, Visualization, Resources, Fund-
ing acquisition, Writing—Review & Editing. A.D.: Validation, Data Curation, Writing—Review
& Editing, Project administration. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data will be available on request from corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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 materials
Article
Research on Dynamic Strength and Inertia Effect of Concrete
Materials Based on Large-Diameter Split Hopkinson Pressure
Bar Test
Bi Sun 1,2 , Rui Chen 1 , Yang Ping 3 , ZhenDe Zhu 4 , Nan Wu 5 and Zhenyue Shi 6, *

1 Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China; [email protected] (B.S.);

[email protected] (R.C.)
2 Shenzhen Water Planning and Design Institute Co., Ltd., Shenzhen 518001, China
3 PowerChina Eco-Environment Group Co., Ltd., Shenzhen 518102, China; [email protected]
4 Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education of Geomechanics and Embankment Engineering, Hohai University,
Nanjing 210098, China; [email protected]
5 Guangzhou University-Tamkang University Joint Research Centre for Engineering Structure Disaster
Prevention and Control, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China; [email protected]
6 College of Safety and Environmental Engineering (College of Safety and Emergency Management),
Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) test device is an important tool to study the
dynamic characteristics of concrete materials. Inertial effect is one of the main factors that cause
inaccurate results in SHPB tests of concrete materials. To solve this problem, Large-diameter SHPB
tests on concrete and mortar were performed. A dynamic increase factor (DIF) model considering
strain rate effect and inertia effect was established. This model provides a scientific reference for
Citation: Sun, B.; Chen, R.; Ping, Y.;
studying the dynamic mechanical properties of concrete materials. The experimental results indicate
Zhu, Z.; Wu, N.; Shi, Z. Research on
that the strain rate effect of concrete is more sensitive than that of mortar, but the inertia effect of
Dynamic Strength and Inertia Effect
mortar is more sensitive than that of concrete. Under the same strain rate, the energy utilization rate,
of Concrete Materials Based on
Large-Diameter Split Hopkinson
average fragment size, and impact potentiality of mortar are higher than concrete.
Pressure Bar Test. Materials 2022, 15,
2995. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Keywords: large-diameter SHPB; high strain rate; concrete material; strain rate effect; inertia effect;
ma15092995 dynamic strength

Academic Editors: Dario De

Domenico and Luís Filipe Almeida
Bernardo
1. Introduction
Received: 20 March 2022 Concrete materials, the largest and most widely used engineering building materials,
Accepted: 18 April 2022
are affected by static loads and high strain rate dynamic loads such as earthquakes, impacts,
Published: 20 April 2022
and explosions. As a heterogeneous, anisotropic, and strain rate-sensitive multiphase
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral composite, concrete will show more complex dynamic mechanical characteristics under
with regard to jurisdictional claims in dynamic load than under static load, which has been one of the hot topics in recent years.
published maps and institutional affil- Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) experimental technology is the most commonly used
iations. test method for the dynamic performance of concrete [1–7]. For heterogeneous materials,
such as concrete, a specimen of considerable size is required to ensure a certain degree of
homogeneity because concrete has a large aggregate size and has many microscopic defects.
Ensuring a certain homogeneity in the SHPB test requires a fairly large specimen size. The
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
pressure bar diameter of the SHPB device should also be increased correspondingly [8–10].
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
In the large-diameter SHPB test, the dynamic strength of the specimen is affected by the
This article is an open access article
strain rate effect [11–13] and the inertia effect [14].
distributed under the terms and
The dynamic increase factor (DIF), defined as the ratio of dynamic-to-static strength,
conditions of the Creative Commons
is conventionally considered a material property [15,16]. A bilinear DIF model proposed
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
by the Comité Euro-International du Béton (CEB) and the Fédération International de
4.0/).
la Précontrainte (FIP) (CEB-FIP) [17] standard is the most representative achievement.

59
Materials 2022, 15, 2995

Tedesco et al. [18] conducted SHPB tests on concrete specimens with a diameter and length
of 51 mm, and presented a regression equation to describe the relationship between the DIF
and log10 of strain rate. Based on the SHPB test of concrete and mortar, Grote et al. [19] sug-
gested a nonlinear DIF model at a high strain rate with a 250~1700 s−1 range. Ngo et al. [20]
established a new relationship model between DIF and strain rate. The model considers the
effects of various factors on dynamic strength and is suitable for concrete with a strength
range of 32–160 MPa. Katayama et al. [21] adopted a quadratic equation of logarithmic
strain rate to express the DIF model by introducing it into Drucker–Prager’s equation.
Hartmann et al. [22] used a power function to describe the relationship between DIF and
strain rate.
With the progress of technology and the deepening of research, some scholars found
that under high strain rate [23,24], the inertial effect is not eliminated, but dominant [25,26].
Under the axial dynamic load, part of the work of the external load is to provide kinetic
energy to the particles so that the particles obtain axial acceleration. Due to the Poisson
effect, particles will interact with adjacent particles, which will obtain radial acceleration.
The load that provides acceleration to the particles is the inertial effect, which is part of
the macro-bearing capacity [27]. Gorham [28] provided a relatively perfect inertia effect
correction model based on the energy conservation law. Forrestal [14] also proved the
existence of the inertia effect in theory. Guo et al. [29] considered that the radial inertia
effect is significant only when the strain rate exceeds 110 s−1 . Flores-Johnson et al. [30]
believed that the lateral confinement effect of the SHPB specimen is the main reason for
the structural effect of all concrete-like materials. Li et al. [31] considered that the lateral
inertial confinement of a cylindrical specimen was higher than a cubic specimen at the
same strain rate. Zhou et al. [32] expressed that the increase of material strength is due to
the inertia effect rather than strain rate effect. A quadratic equation was used to describe
the relationship between DIF and the log of the strain rate and quantitatively confirmed by
Li et al. [33,34]. Hao et al. [35,36] proposed that the reason for the large discreteness of the
experimental results is that the inertial effect is unaccounted for. The quadratic equation
was used to express the relationship between DIF and log of the strain rate. Xu et al. [37]
presented semi-empirical equations for the concrete material DIF considering the internal
configuration effect, by adopting a hyperbolic tangent function. Al-Salloum [38] used a
power function to express the DIF model. Lu et al. [27] established a nonlinear dynamic
uniaxial strength criterion, called the S criterion, based on understanding the physical
mechanisms. Lee et al. [39,40] described pure rate DIF with strain rate and inertial effect
with strain acceleration. The sum of the two obtains apparent DIF.
Inertia effect is an important factor causing the inaccuracy of SHPB test results of
concrete materials. In order to explore the influence of the inertia effect on the strength
of concrete materials under the dynamic load, SHPB tests of concrete and mortar were
carried out in this paper. A DIF model considering strain rate effect and inertia effect
was established. The dynamic mechanical response characteristics of mortar and concrete
were compared and analyzed, which provides a theoretical basis and scientific support for
seismic design and safety evaluation of concrete engineering.

2. Research on Strain Rate and Inertia Effect

2.1. Strain Rate Effect Research
Some typical empirical formulas for DIF have been developed based on the SHPB test
of mortar and concrete specimens. The formulae were either based on power-law variation
or followed the logarithmic trends [38]. One of the most commonly used empirical formulas
for DIF was given by the CEB [17]. The DIF of the strain rate-dependent behavior of mortar
and concrete can be obtained by the following piecewise function:
. . 1.026αs .
ε ≤ 30 s−1
(
f (ε/εs )
DIF = cd = . . 1/3 . (1)
f cs γs (ε/εs ) ε > 30 s−1

60
Materials 2022, 15, 2995

.
where ε is the strain rate, f cs and f cd are the unconfined compressive strength in quasi-
static and dynamic loading, respectively, and γs = 10(6.156αs −2.0) , αs = 1/(5 + 9 f cs / f c0 ),
.
f c0 = 10 MPa, εs = 30 × 10−6 /s. Equation (1) shows a nonlinear relationship between the
dynamic strength of mortar and concrete and the high strain rate.
Tedesco and Ross [18] conducted a series of SHPB tests where the DIF rapidly increases
with the strain rate. A logarithmic function can describe the relationship between DIF and
strain rate: . .
0.00965 log ε + 1.058 ≥ 1.0 ε ≤ 63.1 s−1
(
DIF = . . (2)
0.758 log ε − 0.289 ≤ 2.5 ε > 63.1 s−1
Through explosion resistance tests of the ultra-high-strength concrete panel, Ngo et al. [20]
also believed that there is a logarithmic relationship between DIF and strain rate at high
strain rates with the formula:

 .ε 1.026α ε. ≤ ε.
 .
f cd 1
DIF = = εs
. . .
(3)
f cs 
A1 ln(ε) − A2 ε > ε1
. .
where εs = 3 × 10−5 s−1 , α = 1/(20 + f cs /2), ε1 = 0.0022 f cs 2 − 0.1989 f + 46.137,
cs
A1 = −0.0044 f cs + 0.9866, A2 = −0.0128 f cs + 2.1396.
Guo et al. [29] viewed that the CEB-FIP 2010 equation [41] is not suitable for high
strength concrete through the SHPB test of concrete with different strength, and proposed
the following formula:
( . . 0.014 . .
(ε/εs ) ε ≤ ε TR
DIF = . . . . (4)
A log10 (ε/εs ) + B ε > ε TR
.
where ε TR is the transition strain rate, and A and B are constants.

2.2. Inertial Effect Research

Because the linear function cannot accurately describe the relationship between the
DIF and the logarithmic strain rate under high a strain rate, some scholars used quadratic
or cubic equations to describe it. Grote et al. [19] tested the cement mortar specimens on
SHPB with strain rates ranging from 250 to 1700 s−1 and gave the following equations:
. .
0.0235 log ε + 1.07 ≥ 1.0 ε ≤ 266.0 s−1
(
DIF = . . 2 . . (5)
0.882(log ε)3 − 4.4(log ε) + 7.22(log ε) − 2.64 ε > 266.0 s−1

Li et al. [34] conducted experimental and numerical studies on mortar samples. Their
research results confirmed quantitatively that the apparent dynamic strength enhancement
of concrete-like materials in a SHPB test is caused by the lateral inertia confinement instead
of the strain rate sensitivity of the tested material. The DIF model was proposed as:
. .
0.03438( log ε + 3) + 1 ε ≤ 100 s−1
(
DIF = . . . (6)
1.729(log ε)2 −7.1372 log ε + 8.5303 ε > 100 s−1

Katayama et al. [21] believed that if the mass is retained, the inertia conservation and
the spatial continuity of inertia can be maintained and presented another DIF model as:
. .
DIF = 0.2583( log ε)2 − 0.05076 log ε + 1.021 (7)

Hao et al. [35,36] regarded that the friction at the sample bar interface is an important
factor affecting the lateral inertia effect of the specimen under high-speed impact. They

61
Materials 2022, 15, 2995

proposed an empirical formula to remove the influence of end friction confinement on

dynamic strength increment of concrete material as:
. .
0.0419 logε+1.2165 1 s−1 < ε ≤ 10 s−1
(
DIF Mortar = . 2 . . (8)
0.8988(log ε) − 2.8255(log ε) + 3.4907 30 s−1 < ε ≤ 1000 s−1
. .
0.0191 logε+1.2222 1 s−1 < ε ≤ 220 s−1
(
DIF Aggregate = . 2 . . (9)
1.6607(log ε) − 6.9122(log ε) + 8.346 220 s−1 < ε ≤ 1000 s−1
where DIF Aggregate is the DIF of concretes with aggregates.
Under a high strain rate, the inertia effect cannot be eliminated [23], and it domi-
nates [26,29]. However, there is no further study on the influence of the inertia effect in
Equations (5)–(9). Quadratic or cubic equations were used to fit the experimental data to ob-
tain a higher fitting degree, leading to a non-conservative prediction [39]. Lee et al. [39,40]
proposed a new concrete DIF that excludes inertia effects by considering the strain accelera-
tion and geometry of the specimens based on SHPB test results, described by the formula:

DIFapparent = DIFrate + ∆ f inertia





  . k1
DIFrate = ε.ε (10)
 s
ρs d2s .. ρs ls2 ..


inertia = k 2 f cs ε + k 3 f cs ε
 ∆f

where DIFapparent , DIFrate , and ∆ f inertia are apparent DIF, pure rate DIF, and strength en-
..
hancement caused by inertia effects, respectively. ε, ρs , ds , and ls denote axial strain acceler-
ation, density, the diameter of the specimen, and the initial specimen length, respectively.
k1 , k2 , and k3 are the material parameters.
Under the high strain rate, the particles in the specimen will obtain axial acceleration,
i.e., axial inertial force. In addition, lateral inertial force is also generated due to the
influence of Poisson’s ratio. The macroscopic resistance of concrete must balance the actual
failure force, axial inertia force, and lateral inertia force [27], as shown in Figure 1 and
Equation (11).
Q = f (σ f ) + I (ma, µd ) (11)
where Q 1is the2 macroscopic 3 resistance, f (σ f ) is a function of the actual failure stress,
I (ma, µd ) is a function of the inertial force, m is the quality of the particle, a is the acceleration
of the particle, and µd is the dynamic Poisson’s ratio of the specimen.

Lateral inertial force

High strain rate loading

Axial inertia force

Transition force

Lateral inertial force Unit: N

Figure 1. Inertia mechanism of specimen.

62
 High strain rate loading

Axial inertia force

Transition force
Materials 2022, 15, 2995

Based on the previous research results, we propose a DIF model for high strain rate,
as reflected in the following formula:
. ..
DIF =K1 log10 (ε/ε s ) + K2 ε + K3 (12)

where K1 , K2 , andLateral inertial force

K3 are constants. The model considersUnit:
the Nstrain rate effect and the
inertia effect. In order to verify the correctness of the model, SHPB experiments of mortar
and concrete were carried out in this paper.

3. Experimental Research
3.1. Prepare for the Experiment
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and potable laboratory tap water were used for the
experiments. Conventional crushed stone with particle sizes between 8 and 12 mm and
natural river sand with particle sizes between 0.25 and 0.5 mm were employed as coarse and
fine aggregates, respectively. The concrete was mixed at the proportion of 0.52:1:1.67:2.47
(water/cement/sand/aggregate) and subsequently set standing for 24 h. The mold of the
specimen was removed, and the specimen was placed in a constant temperature (20 ◦ C)
and humidity (95%) curing box for 28 days. The specimens were drilled and polished to
smooth the end face after curing. The mortar specimens have the same composition and
preparation as the cement paste in the concrete. The diameter and height of the mortar
and concrete specimens used for the SHPB test were 71 × 71 mm, respectively, as shown in
Figure 2.

(a) (b)

Figure 2. Specimens for SHPB test: (a) Mortar, (b) Concrete.

A quasi-static test was conducted before the dynamic load test. An RMT-150B multi-
functional full-automatic rigid rock servo testing machine was used for the static load
test. The specimen radius and height were 50 and 100 mm, respectively. There were
3 test specimens of mortar and concrete, respectively. The average peak stresses of mor-
tar and concrete specimens were 53.06 and 31.61 MPa, respectively, and their standard
deviations were 2.31 and 1.91 MPa, respectively. In order to analyze the dynamic re-
sponse characteristics of the two kinds of materials, the strain rates of mortar and concrete
were extracted in the test. The average strain rates of mortar and concrete specimens
were 1.03 × 10−5 and 1.12 × 10−5 /s, respectively, and their standard deviations were
4.71 × 10−8 and 2.16 × 10−7 , respectively. The stress–strain curves of mortar and concrete
specimens, whose stress peak value is close to the average value, are shown in Figure 3.
From Figure 3, the compressive strength and elastic modulus of mortar are significantly
greater than that of concrete under quasi-static load. This is because the aggregate of the
concrete specimen has little effect under low strain rate, while the interfacial transition
zone significantly reduces the bearing capacity. The compressive strength of mortar and
concrete was 53.07 and 31.23 MPa, respectively. The strain rates of mortar and concrete
were 1.03 × 10−5 and 1.12 × 10−5 /s, respectively.

63
 − − −
Materials 2022, 15, 2995 −

60
Mortar
Concrete
50

40

Stress (MPa)
30

20

10

0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Strain

Figure 3. Stress–strain curve of the quasi-static test.

3.2. SHPB Experimental Instrument

Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) test technology is the most important and reliable
test method to study the mechanical properties of materials under a high strain rate. The
basic working principle of the SHPB test device [1] is that when the striker bar is pushed
by air pressure to hit the incident pressure bar, an incident wave is produced in the bar.
When the incident wave
− reaches the
− end, a portion is reflected to form a reflected wave.
Another portion will penetrate the specimen and enter the transmission bar to become a
.
transmission wave. The calculation formulas for strain ε S (t), strain rate εS (t), and stress
σS (t) of the specimen in the test are as follows:
Z t
C0
ε S (t) = − [ε I (t)−ε R (t)−ε T (t)]dt (13)
l0 0

AE0
σS (t) = [ε I (t)+ε R (t)+ε T (t)] (14)
2AS
. C0 ()  ( ),
εS (t) = − [ε I (t)−ε R (t)−ε T (t)] (15)
0 () l0 0

,
where: C0 is the P-wave velocity of compression bar, l0 is the length of the specimen, A,0 AS
() 0bar
[ (and
)- specimen,
(( )-) ( )]d
0
are the cross-sectional areas of compression ( )respectively,
, ( ) E0 is the elastic
0
modulus of the compression bar, and ε I (t), ε R (t), and ε T (t) are the strain signals of the
incident, reflected waves, and transmission waves, respectively.
To obtain accurate and reliable( )data, a0 tapered
[ ( )+ incident
( )+ ( bar
)] with a diameter of 74 mm
was used in the SHPB system as shown2in Figure 4. The steel bars had a Young’s modulus
0
E0 = 200 GPa and Poisson’s ratio υ = 0.3.

Striker bar Pulse shaper  (

Incident bar ) 0
[ gauge
Strain ( )- ( )- Specimen
( )] Strain gauge Transmission bar
0
37

74

600 3200 1800

Unit: mm

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of SHPB test.

There is severe waveform dispersion in the large diameter SHPB test. To prolong the
rise time of the incident wave and filter its high-frequency oscillation, a pulse shaper was

64
 37

74
600 3200 1800
Unit: mm

Materials 2022, 15, 2995

fixed on the end face of the incident bar in contact with the bullet [42,43]. The rectangular
impact pulse was transformed into a triangular pulse to lengthen its rising edge by the
pulse shaper. The wave dispersion can also be reduced by placing the strain gauge on
the transmission bar as close to the specimen as possible. Vaseline was applied on both
end faces of the sample to reduce the influence of the radial inertia effect by reducing
friction. The brass and rubber shapers were tested with no specimen to examine the effect
of different pulse shapers. Both shapers had a 20 mm diameter.
The SHPB test was carried out with 2 mm thick brass shaper and rubber shaper. The
test results show that the shaping effect of rubber shaper is better. In order to obtain a better
shaping effect, SHPB tests were carried out on rubber shapers with thicknesses of 1, 2, and
3 mm, respectively. The impact air pressure was 0.3 MPa, and the waveform test with no
specimen is shown in Figure 5.

200
1 mm Rubber
2 mm Rubber
3 mm Rubber
150 2 mm Brass
Stress (MPa)

100
(b)

50

400 500 600 700 800 900

Time (μs)
(a) (c)

Figure 5. The waveforms of incident waves with different pulse shapers: (a) Stress time history curve,
(b) Rubber sharper, (c) Brass sharper.

Figure 5 depicts the stress wave curves monitored in the incident bar. The positive and
negative values of the curve indicate the direction of stress. It shows that the waveforms
obtained by the brass shaper and 1 mm thick rubber shaper are relatively similar and both
rectangular. The waveforms obtained by 2 and 3 mm thick rubber shapers are triangular
waveforms, and the rise time is also long. When the incident waveform is a half-sine wave,
the constant strain rate loading of the specimen is realized, and the inertia effect is greatly
reduced [44]. At 0.25 MPa impact pressure, the 1 mm thickness rubber shaper was selected,
and the 2mm thickness rubber shaper was selected in other cases.

3.3. SHPB Experimental

The striker bar can obtain different initial velocities by different impact air pressures.
The selected five groups of impact pressures were 0.25, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6 MPa. When the
impact air pressure is 0.25 MPa, a 1 mm thickness rubber shaper was selected because the
current signal cannot be collected by a 2 mm thickness rubber shaper. A 2 mm thick rubber
shaper was used in other cases. Each group was subjected to three impact tests. The data
with a large error were removed. Then, a typical stress–strain curve was selected from each
group to plot, as shown in Figure 6.
Both graphs have the same scale on the x and y axes for comparison in Figure 6. It
shows that the strain rate increases the peak stress of mortar and concrete samples. It
indicates that mortar and concrete specimens have a noticeable strain rate effect. The
corresponding strain rate time history curve is shown in Figure 6.

65
Materials 2022, 15, 2995

180 180
Strain rate Strain rate
160 162.90 /s 160 162.85 /s
189.26 /s 225.40 /s
140 355.56 /s 140 357.39 /s
466.29 /s 480.78 /s
120 539.12 /s 120 553.72 /s
Steess (MPa)

Stress (MPa)
100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Strain Strain
(a) (b)

Figure 6. Stress–strain curve: (a) Mortar, (b) Concrete.

Figure 7 shows that high strain rates were obtained for the specimens by the SHPB
test with a large-diameter bar. The maximum mortar and concrete strain reached 539.12
and 553.72/s, respectively. When the impact air pressure was 0.25 MPa, a 1 mm thickness
rubber shaper was selected because a 2 mm thickness rubber shaper cannot collect the
current signal. When the impact pressure was 0.25 MPa, the thickness of the rubber shaper
was 1 mm, and when the slope of the rising edge of the strain rate time history curve was
greater than at 0.30 MPa impact pressure, the thickness was 2 mm. Under a high strain rate,
the duration of the constant strain rate is short, and the inertia effect is dominant.

600 600
Strain rate Strain rate
162.90 /s 162.85 /s
500 189.26 /s 500 225.40 /s
355.56 /s 357.39 /s
466.29 /s 480.78 /s
400 539.12 /s 400 553.72 /s
Strain rate (/s)

Strain rate (/s)

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (μs) Time(μs)
(a) (b)

Figure 7. Strain rate time history curve: (a) Mortar, (b) Concrete.

When comparing the impact pressure of 0.25 and 0.30 MPa in Figures 4–6, the rubber
shaper thickness was 1 mm and 2 mm, respectively. Although the impact pressure of
0.25 MPa is less than that of 0.30 MPa, the slope of the rising edge of the waveform
obtained by 1 mm thick shaper is greater than that obtained by 2 mm. In the corresponding
strain rate time history curve, the slope of the rising section with a 1 mm thick shaper is also
greater than that obtained with a 2 mm. The rising slope of the strain rate time history curve
is defined
4.5 as the strain acceleration [40]. The strain acceleration is directly proportional to
Mortar
Change suddenly
Concrete
4.0
Linear fitting (Mortar)
Linear fitting (Concrete) 66
3.5

DIF 3.0837 log10 (  /  ) 20.1540

3.0 2
0.7873
 Strain rate (/s

Strain rate (/s

300 300

200 200
Materials 2022, 15, 2995

100 100

the inertial effect [27]. It shows that different strain accelerations can be obtained by the
0 0
0 50 100 thickness
150 200 of250
the pulse
300 shaper.
350 400 The peak0 stress
50 of
100the150
two 200
cases250
is close
300 in350
Figure
400 5, indicating
that Time
the inertia
(μs) effect increases the dynamic strength of the
Time(μs) sample. When the thickness
of rubber shaper is the same, the peak stress and strain acceleration increase significantly
with the impact pressure. It can also be seen from Figure 6 that under high strain rate, the
duration of the constant strain rate is short, and the inertia effect is dominant.

3.4. Dynamic Uniaxial Strength Criterion

According to the analysis in Section 2.1, it is common to describe the relationship
between DIF and strain rate by logarithmic function under the high strain rate. Therefore,
the logarithmic function was adopted to fit the relationship between DIF and strain rate.
The fitting results are shown in Figure 8.
4.5 Mortar
Change suddenly
Concrete
4.0
Linear fitting (Mortar)
Linear fitting (Concrete)
3.5

DIFConcrete = 3.0837 log10 (ε /εs ) − 20.1540

3.0 R 2 = 0.7873

2.5
DIF

2.0

1.5

1.0
DIFMortar = 2.6501log10 (ε /εs ) − 17.9200
R 2 = 0.7337
0.5

0.0
7.0 7.1 7.2 7.2 7.37.4 7.4 7.67.5 7.6 7.8 7.7 8.0
7.8
Log10 (ε /εs )

Figure 8. Variation of DIF with logarithm of strain rate.

In Figure 8, the relationship between DIF and strain rate of mortar and concrete is
expressed by a logarithmic function as:
. .
DIF Mortar = 2.6501 log10 (ε/εs ) − 17.9200, R2 = 0.7337
(
. . (16)
DIFConcrete = 3.0837 log10 (ε/εs ) − 20.1540, R2 = 0.7873

where DIF Mortar , DIFConcrete are dynamic increase factors of mortar and concrete, respec-
tively. The logarithmic function can express the trend relationship between DIF and strain
rate. The strain rate effect of concrete is more sensitive than that of mortar by comparing
. . . .
the coefficient of log10 (ε/εs ). When log10 (ε/εs ) > 7.7, the DIF of mortar and concrete has a
noticeable sudden change (see the mark in Figure 8). Therefore, the logarithmic strain rate
cannot accurately describe DIF under a high strain rate.
Next, the inertia effect was considered. SHPB test data were fitted by Equation (12).
. ..
The abscissa was set as K1 log10 (ε/ε s ) + K2 ε to express the fitting relationship, and the
fitting results are shown in Figure 9.
In Figure 9, the DIF fitting function of mortar and concrete considering strain rate and
strain acceleration is as follows:
. ..
DIF Mortar = 1.0260 log10 (ε/ε s )+0.6501ε−7.2540, R2 = 0.8606
(
. .. (17)
DIFConcrete = 1.5410 log10 (ε/ε s )+0.4580ε−9.6820, R2 = 0.8477

When compared with Equation (16), the fitting degree is improved. It indicates that
Equation (12) is feasible to fit the DIF of mortar and concrete under a high strain rate. When
.
comparing the log10 (ε/ε s ) coefficient in Equation (17), the strain rate effect of concrete is

67
  DIF 3.0837 log10 (  /  ) 20.1540, 0.7873

DIF DIF

Materials 2022, 15, 2995

log10 (  /  ) log10 (  /  ) 7.7

more sensitive than that of mortar, which is consistent with the above analysis. When
..
compared with the ε coefficient, the inertia effect of mortar is more sensitive than that of
1 log10 ( / )+ 

concrete. Therefore, the strain rate effect of2 the material is more sensitive, but the inertia
effect is not necessarily more sensitive.

4.5 Mortar

Concrete
4.0
Linear fitting (Mortar)

Linear fitting (Concrete)

3.5

3.0

2.5
DIF

2.0

1.5
DIFConcrete =1.5410 log10 (ε / ε s )+0.4580ε − 9.6820
1.0 R 2 =0.8477

0.5 DIFMortar =1.0260 log10 (ε / ε s )+0.6501ε − 7.2540

R 2 =0.8606

0.0
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
K1 log10 (ε / ε s )+K 2ε

Figure 9. Variation of DIF with the logarithm of strain rate and strain acceleration.

4. Research on Energy Utilization and Fragmentation Morphology

4.1. Energy Utilization Research
The energy utilization was studied to compare the effect of strain rate on the energy

 DIF =1.0260 log (  / )+0.6501 -7.2540, 2
=0.8606
utilization of mortar and concrete in large-diameter SHPB tests. The energy calculation
10

formula of stress  DIF is: =1.5410 log10 (  / )+0.4580 -9.6820, 2 =0.8477
waves
Rt
WI (t) = E0 C0 AS 0 ε2I (t)dt
(
Rt (18)
WT (t) = E0 C0 AS 0 ε2T (t)dt
log10 (  / )
where WI is incident energy and WT is the transmission energy.
The calculation formula of energy utilization η is:

WT
η= · 100% (19)
WI

Figure 10 represents the energy utilization of mortar and concrete. The energy uti-
lization of mortar and concrete increases with the strain rate, but the increase of mortar is
faster. Under the same strain rate, the energy utilization of mortar is higher than that of
concrete. Under the impact compression of large diameter SHPB, the energy utilization of
mortar and concrete specimens is relatively low, and the highest is only 4.99%.

68
Materials 2022, 15, 2995

6.0
Mortar

Concrete

Liner fitting (Mortar) η Mortar =0.0034ε + 2.4708

5.0
Liner fitting (Concrete)
R 2 = 0.6403

4.0

Energy utilization (%)

3.0

2.0 ηConcrete =0.0019ε + 0.3106

R 2 = 0.6241

1.0

0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Strain rate (/s)

Figure 10. Relation between energy utilization and strain rate.

4.2. Fragmentation Morphology Research

The fracture morphology is an important aspect of evaluating the impact potentiality
of concrete materials [45,46]. The pore sizes of classifying screens selected in this test were
2.0, 5.0, 10.0, 20, and 40 mm. The broken specimens were sieved into six groups with
particle size ranges of 0.0–2.0, 2.0–5.0, 5.0–10.0, 10.0–20.0, 20.0–40.0, and 40–71 mm (71 mm
is the diameter of the sample before fragmentation), respectively. The weighing instrument
was a high-precision electronic scale with a measuring range of 1 kg and an accuracy of
0.1 g.
After impact, the broken specimens were collected, classified, and screened individ-
ually. First, the classifying screens were stacked from high to low according to the pore
size. Then, the broken specimens were placed on the sieve with the largest mesh size on
the uppermost layer, so that the specimens with different fragmentation degrees could be
separated according to size. After screening, the fragmentation on each sieve was placed
on the electronic scale for weighing, and the measurement results were recorded one by
one. The screened fragmentations of mortar and concrete are shown in Figure 11.

(a) (b)

Figure 11. Fragmentation morphologies of mortar and concrete: (a) Mortar (466.29/s), (b) Concrete
(480.78/s).

Figure 11 shows the final fragmentation morphologies of mortar and concrete under
the similar strain rate. It can be seen that the fragmentation morphologies of mortar and
concrete specimens under impact load are different. The mortar sample was cracked along

the axial direction. Although the mortar specimen was penetrated by cracks, the strip
fragment still had high strength in the loading direction. The strips after impact splitting
can still bear the impact load on the bar as a whole. However, the fragmentation degree of

69
Materials 2022, 15, 2995

concrete specimen was very large, and the cracks mostly occurred in the interface transition
zone (ITZ) between mortar and aggregate. From the fact that the strength of concrete was
lower than that of mortar, the aggregate plays a small role in dynamic loading, so the ITZ
reduces the strength of concrete.
To quantify the fragmentation degree of the specimen, the average fragment size of
the broken specimen was adopted. The calculation formula is as follows:

∑ n i Xi
X= (20)
∑ ni

where X is the average fragment size of the broken specimen in mm, Xi is the average size
of specimen fragmentation retained on the classifying screen of class i, in mm, and ni is the
proportion of fragment mass with an average size Xi in %.
The median values of the average size of the fragmentation on each classifying screen
were taken according to the sieve diameter, which are 1, 3.5, 7.5, 15, 30, and 55.5 mm. The
relationship between the average fragment size of mortar and concrete and strain rate is
shown in Figure 12.
In Figure 12, X Mortar and X Concrete represent the average fragment size of mortar and
concrete, respectively. With the increase of strain rate, the average fragment size of mortar
and concrete decreases, but that of the concrete decreases faster. Under the same strain rate,
the average fragment size of mortar is larger than that of concrete. The average fragment
size of mortar is 42.03–52.36 mm, and that of concrete is 20.89–40.21 mm. Therefore, mortar
is better than concrete in the storage performance of elastic strain energy, indicating that
the impact failure ability of mortar is stronger than that of concrete.
60
X Mortar = −0.0177ε +53.9780
R 2 =0.6259

50
Average size of fragments (mm)

40

30

20 X Concrete = −0.0352ε +41.9140

R 2 =0.6862
Mortar

10 Concrete
Liner fitting (Mortar)
Liner fitting (Concrete)
0
100 200 300 400 500 600
Strain rate (/s)

Figure 12. Relation between average block size and strain rate of mortar and concrete.

5. Discussion
Under high strain load, axial acceleration will be obtained by the grains in the specimen.
The lateral acceleration will be obtained due to the Poisson effect. In the study of inertial
effect, the lateral inertial force is often considered, while the axial inertial force is often
ignored. Although the axial acceleration is consistent with the bearing capacity direction
of the specimen, it is caused by the uneven stress of the sample. It is closely related to the
slope of the rising edge of the loading waveform, and independent from the constant strain
rate of the specimen. The axial acceleration is not a part of the real strength of the specimen.
Therefore, the axial inertial force should also be taken into account in the study of inertial
effect. The lateral strain or dynamic Poisson’s ratio should be taken as the monitored object
during the SHPB test.

70
Materials 2022, 15, 2995

The inertial effect was studied by theoretical analysis or numerical simulation, but
the data extraction of strain acceleration was often ignored. In the SHPB test, it was
found that the rising edge of the incident wave can be changed by rubber shapers with
different thicknesses, and the inertia effect can be changed accordingly. Therefore, the
control variable method can be used in the indoor test, that is, the strain rate and strain
acceleration can be controlled respectively to study the inertial effect. The test can be
repeated in the laboratory. One of the highlights of this paper is in establishing a DIF
model considering inertial effect by considering strain rate and strain acceleration. In
the future research, digital image correlation (DIC), CT scanning, and other technologies
could be used to retrieve the strain, crack, and damage of the specimen under inertial
effect [47,48]. It is helpful to deeply understand the inertial effect, establish an accurate
dynamic model, and provide a theoretical basis for rock dynamics theory, disaster warnings,
and safety assessments.

6. Conclusions
In this paper, the large-diameter SHPB tests on concrete and mortar were performed,
the inertia effect was studied. The conclusions are as follows:
(1) The macroscopic resistance of concrete material is composed of the actual failure force,
axial inertia force, and lateral inertia force. The dynamic growth factor (DIF) model
was established. The DIF model comprehensively considers the influence of strain
rate on the actual dynamic strength of concrete materials and the influence of strain
acceleration on inertial effect.
(2) With the increase of bullet impact velocity, the influence of inertia effect becomes
greater and greater. The strain rate effect of concrete is more sensitive than that of
mortar, but the inertia effect of mortar is more sensitive than that of concrete.
(3) With the increase of strain rate, the energy utilization of mortar and concrete increases,
while the average fragment size decreases. Under the same strain rate, the energy
utilization rate, average fragment size, and impact potentiality of mortar are higher
than that of concrete.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.S., R.C., Z.Z. and N.W.; methodology, B.S. and Z.S.;
software, B.S. and Z.S.; validation, B.S. and R.C.; formal Analysis, B.S., R.C. and N.W.; investigation,
N.W. and Z.S.; resources, B.S., Y.P. and Z.Z.; data curation, B.S. and N.W.; writing—original draft
preparation, B.S.; writing—review and editing, B.S., R.C., Z.Z., Y.P. and N.W.; visualization, Z.S.;
supervision, R.C., Z.Z., Y.P. and N.W.; project administration, R.C.; funding acquisition, R.C., Z.Z.,
Y.P. and N.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
52108448 and 51878249), and the Science and Technology Planning Project of Shenzhen Municipality
(Grant No. JCYJ20190806144603586).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript,
and in the decision to publish the results.

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 materials
Article
Experimental Investigation of Shear Keys for Adjacent Precast
Concrete Box Beam Bridges
Xiaojing Ni 1,2 , Ahehehinnou Ougbe Anselme 1,3 , Guannan Wang 1,3 , Yuan Xing 2 and Rongqiao Xu 1,3, *

1 Department of Civil Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; [email protected] (X.N.);
[email protected] (A.O.A.); [email protected] (G.W.)
2 Huahui Engineering Design Group Co., Ltd., Shaoxing 312000, China; [email protected]
3 Center for Balance Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310007, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-571-88206843

Abstract: Longitudinal cracking in shear keys is one of the most frequently recurring problems in
the adjacent precast concrete box beam bridges. The relative displacement across the shear key
(RDSK) under loads has been used as a direct indicator for shear key cracking. Therefore, accurately
simulating the interface between the shear key and beam or providing the correct relationship
between shear transfer and RDSK is key to evaluating the damage of the shear key. In this study, the
shear transfer properties of four types of composite specimens were studied by static displacement-
controlled bi-shear (SDS), cyclic force-controlled bi-shear (CFS), and cyclic displacement-controlled
bi-shear (CDS) tests. Two finite element models (FEMs) were established to calibrate and validate the
interfacial material parameters. The results showed that adding reinforcement bars over the joints
that connect the block and the overlay could improve the bearing capacity of the shear key. Formulae
were proposed for the relation between shear force transfer and RDSK in engineering applications.
The values of the interfacial material parameters used in the traction–separation model to simulate
the interface between the shear key and beam were recommended.
Citation: Ni, X.; Anselme, A.O.;
Wang, G.; Xing, Y.; Xu, R. Keywords: bridge; adjacent box beam; shear key; shear experiments; overlay
Experimental Investigation of Shear
Keys for Adjacent Precast Concrete
Box Beam Bridges. Materials 2022, 15,
1459. https://doi.org/10.3390/ 1. Introduction
ma15041459
Adjacent precast concrete box beam bridges are widely used in short- to medium-span
Academic Editor: Dario De bridges. However, one of the most significant issues for this type of bridge is the longitudi-
Domenico nal cracking of the shear keys. Generally, it is believed that cracked shear keys compromise
Received: 29 January 2022
the load transfer between beams [1,2]. In extreme cases, the load on a single beam exceeds
Accepted: 11 February 2022
its designed allowable load, leading to accidents [3]. However, field observation also found
Published: 16 February 2022
that the load transfer between beams could still be maintained for partially cracked shear
keys [4–6]. Therefore, it is necessary to reasonably evaluate the damage and load transfer
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
capacity of shear keys to predict the remaining service life of bridges and select appropriate
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
maintenance and reinforcement strategies.
published maps and institutional affil-
Some researchers conducted destructive tests on structures to evaluate the load transfer
iations.
performance of cracked shear keys. Wang et al. [7] carried out a static load test on a structure
composed of six beams connected by concrete shear keys. They found that at a load level of
70 kN, two shear keys cracked with relative displacement across the shear key (RDSK) of
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
approximately 0.02 and 0.04 mm, respectively. As the load increased, the crack in the shear
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. keys propagated and eventually failed at a load level of 140 kN, twice the cracking load.
This article is an open access article Yuan et al. [8,9] conducted four tests on two-beam structures connected by transverse post-
distributed under the terms and tensioning (PT) and partially or fully cracked shear keys, which were cast with nonshrink
conditions of the Creative Commons grout. Over millions of cycles, the load levels increased from 80 to 400 kN, and the PT force
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// dropped from 445 to 0 kN. The results showed that when the transverse PT force decreases
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ from 445 to 45 kN, the load can still be transferred effectively, and the RDSK remains stable.
4.0/). Miller et al. [10] carried out three cyclic loading tests on four-beam structures connected by

75
Materials 2022, 15, 1459

transverse tie rods and shear keys, cast with nonshrink grout. In the first two tests, there
were initial cracks at shear keys in the middle caused by temperature, and in the third test,
there were initial cracks near the beam end. During the cyclic loading, the cracks in the first
two tests propagated, while the cracks in the third test did not. They found that the load
was effectively transferred, and the load distribution changed by no more than 1% during
all three tests. However, according to the test result of Leng et al. [11], it may be due to the
position of the load and crack. Leng et al. tested an eight-beam structure connected only by
concrete shear keys. They set different crack lengths on the first and the fourth shear keys
to assess the influence of crack length and transverse position on load distribution. They
found that the crack at the first shear key had a significant impact on the load distribution,
but that at the fourth did not. These destructive tests indicate that the cracking of shear
keys does not mean load transfer failure, and the ultimate bearing capacity may be much
larger than the cracking load. However, destructive tests are unsuitable for bridges in
service to evaluate residual capacity; the finite element method is more appropriate.
Since RDSK has been used as a direct indicator for shear key cracking [4,7–9,12–14], it is
crucial to accurately simulate the interface of the beam and shear key in finite element mod-
els (FEMs) using solid elements. Three commonly used methods are the full bond [15–17],
friction [13,18–21], and traction–separation model [13,21–23]. Full bond is suitable for
the interface of concrete and grout materials with strong bonding ability, such as epoxy,
MgNH4PO4, and UHPC, but not for commonly used nonshrink grout and concrete. Shear
and flexural tests showed that the former is more prone to cracks in the concrete, while the
latter is more prone to cracks in the interface [8,9,15,17,23–29]. Friction applies when the
shear key has already cracked at the interface. The traction–separation model can be used
for all of the above materials, uncracked and cracked. To sum up, the traction–separation
model is more suitable for the interface of concrete and grout materials such as nonshrink
grout and concrete. However, the material parameters used in this model were usually
reversely determined by direct tensile or direct shear tests [17,20,29]. The problem is that
the interface of the two materials in these tests was flat; factors such as joint configuration
and cast direction, which affect the properties of concrete-like materials [30,31], were not
considered. Murphy et al. [17] simulated the shear test of joint specimens by material
parameters obtained from these tests, resulting in much larger cracking loads in the simu-
lation than those in the experiment. Material parameters determined from tests on joint
specimens have not been reported yet.
The grillage method is another common method to simulate adjacent box-beam bridges
to analyze the load distribution between beams [32–35]. Two transverse connection types
are usually used, namely shear transfer systems and shear–flexure transfer systems. For the
shear transfer system, beams are simulated as longitudinal grillage members with trans-
verse outriggers, and shear keys are represented by the pinned joints between the outriggers
of adjacent beams. Cracks in shear keys are indicated by lowered vertical stiffness, resulting
in larger RDSK [36,37]. For the shear–flexure transfer systems, the longitudinal properties
of beams are simulated by longitudinal grillage members; the transverse properties of
beams and shear keys are simulated by equivalent transverse grillage members. Cracks in
shear keys are indicated by the lowered stiffness of the transverse grillage members [38].
The shear transfer system is recommended for bridges with partial depth shear keys [32].
Although there have been many studies on the shear performance of shear keys, the focus
was on cracking loads and maximum shear loads [15,17,20,23–25,28,29]. There was little
quantitative information about the effects of shear key cracking on vertical stiffness or the
relation between shear transfer and RDSK.

2. Objectives
The main objectives of this study were to investigate the relationship between shear
transfer and RDSK for transverse connection before and after shear key cracking and
determine interfacial material parameters between beams and shear keys cast with concrete.
To this end, the following studies were performed in this work:

76
Materials 2022, 15, 1459

•
• Static displacement-controlled bi-shear (SDS), cyclic force-controlled bi-shear (CFS),
and cyclic displacement-controlled bi-shear (CDS) tests were conducted on four types
•
of composite specimens to investigate the shear transfer performance;
• Based on the test results, curves and expressions for the relation between shear and
•
RDSK of different types of transverse connections were proposed;
• Two FEMs were developed to calibrate and validate the interfacial material parameters.

3. Experimental Program
3.1. Configuration
Four connection details used to evaluate the shear transfer performance are shown
in Figure 1. Type I and Type II specimens consisted of one concrete middle block and two
concrete edge reaction blocks with grout joints between them. These two specimen types
were 600 mm long, 270 mm in height, and 400 mm wide. Type III and Type IV specimens
added a 70-mm-height concrete overlay and four 8-mm-diameter U-shaped steel bars (N1)
based on Type I and Type II. Reinforcing steel bars in concrete blocks to prevent cracking
are not drawn in Figure 1 for simplicity. Three-dimensional samples of N1 bars are shown
in Figure 1e. N1 bars are spaced at 300–400 mm –in the longitudinal direction in bridges; for
safety reasons, 400 mm was used here as the width of specimens. Type II–IV connections–
had been widely used in Zhejiang Province in China before 2004 [39], and the bridges using
these connection types now more or less experience longitudinal cracking problems. Type I
was adopted here as a control for Type II and Type IV.

Figure 1. Configuration of specimens (note: all dimensions in mm): (a) Type I; (b) Type II; (c) Type III;
(d) Type IV; (e) detail drawing of N1 steel bar.

3.2. Specimen Preparation

The specimens were cast in three steps. Middle and edge concrete blocks were cast
in the first step, joints in the second step, and overlays in the third step. During each cast,
the concrete was vibrated by concrete vibrators to prevent imperfect filling. All steps were

77
Materials 2022, 15, 1459

30 days apart and moist-cured for 28 days. Companion cubes were cast synchronously at
each step to determine the actual compressive strength of the cast material. The cohesion
–
and friction properties of the interface between blocks and joints are mainly affected by
the surface treatment of the blocks. In this study, the surfaces of blocks were roughened
to an amplitude of 6 mm by a concrete scrabbler [40]. The whole procedure is presented
in Figure 2. For better data acquisition by the digital image correlation (DIC) instrument,
the front surfaces of specimens were polished, painted white, and black speckles added
before tests.

Figure 2. Specimen construction procedure.

Blocks and joints were constructed with commercial, ready-mixed concrete with a
targeted 28-day compressive strength of 40 MPa (C40) and overlay of 30 MPa (C30) [41–43].
The constituents of the concrete are shown in Table 1. The average strength of the com-
panion cubes was 46.1 and 45.2 MPa for C40 in the first and second cast and 34.6 MPa for
C30 in the third cast [42]. N1 bars and stirrups in blocks had a nominal yield strength of
300 MPa (HPB 300) [44]. Other steel bars in blocks had a nominal yield strength of 400 MPa
(HRB 400) [45].

Table 1. Mix design for C30.

Constituent C30 (kg/m3 ) C40 (kg/m3 )

Aggregate 973 1000
Sand 845 791
Cement type 42.5/52.5 1 284 300
Water 92 89
Fly ash 35 20
Mineral powder 63 94
Polycarboxylates high-performance water-reducing admixture 8 8
1 Cement type 42.5 was used for C30, and cement type 52.5 was used for C40.

3.3. Setup
The bi-shear test was performed using the setup depicted in Figure 3. A specimen
was set on steel plates under edge blocks; the load was applied by a high-performance
testing machine produced by INSTRON Company through a thin cushion and a steel
plate placed on the top of the specimen. The machine could output displacement and
load synchronously. The DIC instrument and dial gauges recorded displacement under
load at the front and back surfaces, respectively (see Figure 4). DIC recorded the whole
displacement field of the front surface during testing, and the data of specified points were
extracted and analyzed for different purposes. Taking the front surface of the Type III
specimen as an example (see Figure 5), Points 14 to 16 were used to calculate RDSK (∆);
Point 1 to compare with the displacement output by the loading machine; Points 2 to 37 to

78
Materials 2022, 15, 1459 , Points 14 to 16 were used to calculate RDSK (Δ); Point 1 to
, Points 14 to 16 were used to calculate RDSK (Δ); Point 1 to

analyze displacement variation in the vertical direction; Points 38 to 41 to analyze boundary

displacements,
dial gauges only and Points Points
recorded 42 to 4514to to
calculate the cracking
16. Δ was calculated opening.
using On
Eq the back surface,
dial gauges only recorded Points 14 to 16. ∆ was calculated using Equation (1):
dial gauges only recorded Points 14  ( Δ was
to=16. ) − using Eq
+ calculated
∆ ==( (w14+ + w)16 )/2
− − w15 |front or back (1)
–
– 14–16).
where wi is the vertical displacement of Point i (i =

Figure 3. Test setup for bi-shear method.

Figure 4. Layouts of instruments: (a) DIC instruments; (b) dial gauges.

Figure 5. Data extracted positions.

79
Materials 2022, 15, 1459

3.4. Test Pocedure

Three different shear test types were conducted in sequence to evaluate the shear
performance of four connection details before and after cracking, namely SDS, CFS, and
CDS test.
In the SDS test, the displacement was applied at a rate of 0.02 mm/s until the specimen
failed. The displacement field, cracks, associated cracking loads, and final failure mode
were recorded during the test.
In the CFS test, the load varied linearly between 15 kN and the specified control force
at a frequency of 1 Hz. In the first CFS test, the control force was set at approximately
60% of the cracking load obtained by the SDS test. This value was proposed on the
assumption that the properties of the interface material are similar to concrete, for which
60% of the maximum tensile stress could be regarded as the elastic limit [46]. The control
forces of the second and third CFS tests were determined based on the result of the last
test. The controlled force increased if the specimen was uncracked in the previous test.
Otherwise, it decreased. A total of 1400 cycles were applied in one test for two main reasons:
(1) supposing that the structure was overloaded once a week over a 20-to-30-year period;
and (2) too much data generated by DIC during the test, causing storage problems. An
SDS test on the same specimen would follow if no cracks appeared after the CFS test. The
displacement field and the failure mode were recorded during the test.
In the CDS test, the displacement varied linearly between 0.2 mm and the specified
control displacement at a frequency of 1 Hz. The CDS test was proposed based on the
phenomenon that RDSK could remain steady after shear key cracking during cyclic load-
ing [8,9]. In addition, to compare dynamic load capacity with static load capacity under
the same displacement, one static loading was conducted every 20 cycles. The control
displacement was increased by 0.1 mm after each static loading. Figure 6 shows the loading
procedure. The displacement field and the failure mode were recorded during the test.

3.5. Results and Discussion

The following notation of specimen names was used throughout this study: the first
three letters stand for the test type; the number following the first three letters represents
the type of specimen, and the last digit indicates the replicate number of the specimen. For
example, Specimen SDS-II-3 indicates the third Type II specimen subjected to the SDS test.
The following method was used to determine the average value: (1) the arithmetic
mean value of the measured values was used as an average value, and (2) data greater than
or less than 15% of the arithmetic mean were excluded from the mean calculation [41,42].
The value of shear force V was set to half of the load F output by the machine.

20 cyclics
applied displacement

1 Hz
0.1mm
0.1mm

0.2 mm

time
Figure 6. Loading procedure for CDS test.

80
Materials 2022, 15, 1459

3.5.1. Results of SDS Test

The typical V-∆ curves for four types of specimens are plotted in Figure 7. As shown,
the V-∆ curves for Type I and Type II specimens are similar; the curves are approximately
linear until a sudden failure occurs at the interface of block and joint. Figure 8 shows such
a failure mode. The typical V-∆ curves for Type III and Type IV specimens are also similar,
and the curves can be divided into two stages. In the first stage, the curves are similar to
that of Type I and Type II; the interface of block and joint cracked during this stage, and
the upper end of the crack extended to the bottom of the overlay (see Figure 9). In the
second stage, V increases slowly and almost linearly with ∆ until another sudden failure.
During this stage, the upper end of the crack slowly reached up to the top of the overlay
(see Figure 9). SDS-Ⅲ-3
SDS-Ⅳ-1
SDS-Ⅱ-1
160
160 Vu SDS-Ⅲ-3
140
140
SDS-I-1 SDS-Ⅳ-1
SDS-Ⅱ-1 120
120 Vc (Vd)
100

V (kN)
100
V (kN)

Vc 80
80
Vd (Vu)
60 60

40 40

20 20
0
∆ (μm)
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0 ∆ (μm)
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
(a) ∆ (μm) (b) ∆ (μm)
∆
∆ plots of SDS test for typical specimens: (a) Specimen SDS-I-1 and SDS-II-1; (b) Specimen
Figure 7. V-∆
SDS-III-3 and SDS-IV-1.

Figure 8. Failure modes of specimens: (a) Type I specimen; (b) Type II specimen.

The cracking shear force (Vc ), the maximum shear force in the first ascending stage
(Vp ), the minimum shear force in the second ascending stage (Vd ), the maximum shear
force in the whole process (Vu ), the corresponding slips across the joint (∆p and ∆u ), the
stiffness before and after cracking (kc and kp ), and crack opening (Co ) for each specimen
are listed in Table 2. The value of kc is the slope of the ascending curve in the first stage,
calculated by Equation (2):
k c = 0.6Vc /∆0.6 (2)
where ∆0.6 is the value of ∆ corresponding to 0.6Vc on the V-∆ curve. The value of kp is the
slope of the ascending curve in the second stage.

81
Materials 2022, 15, 1459

Figure 9. Failure modes of specimens: (a) Type III specimen; (b) Type IV specimen.

Table 2. Results of SDS test.

kc kp
Specimen Vc (kN) Vp (kN)
(kN/μm)
Vd (kN) Vu (kN)
(kN/μm)(kN/µm)
(kN/µm) ∆ (μm)
∆p (µm)
∆ ∆(μm)
u (µm)
(μm)
Co (µm)

SDS-I-1 38.5 38.5 38.5 1.61 50 50

SDS-I-2 49.0 49.0 49.0 0.87 72 72
SDS-I-3 43.8 43.8 43.8 0.98 78 78
CFS-I-1 1 45.4 45.4 45.4 1.15 55 55
Average 44.2 44.2 44.2
SDS-II-1 39.3 43.0 43.0 1.52 76 76
SDS-II-2 53.2 55.5 55.5 0.43 226 226
SDS-II-3 56.4 56.4 56.4 1.31 57 57
CFS-II-2 1 72.2 72.2 72.2 1.60 45 45
Average 54.8 56.0 56.0
SDS-III-1 2 62.4 62.4 28.7 - - 27 - -
SDS-III-2 62.7 62.7 18.8 160.1 1.81 0.04 40 4020 4378
SDS-III-3 71.7 71.7 46.9 139.1 1.95 0.05 68 2132 3524
CFS-III-1 1 73.0 73.0 53.2 145.1 2.01 0.04 55 2864 4205
Average 67.5 67.5 148.1
SDS-IV-1 64.0 64.0 22.4 126.1 1.93 0.04 63 3337 4743
SDS-IV-2 58.0 60.5 32.0 151.6 1.04 0.04 202 3287 4502
SDS-IV-3 55.3 55.3 27.3 164.1 2.80 0.03 55 5289 6389
CFS-IV-1 1 80.0 80.0 30.9 172.5 2.40 0.04 36 4092 7560
CFS-IV-2 1 78.7 78.7 29.2 155.3 2.21 0.04 45 4080 5020
Average 66.2 70.0 160.9
1 The specimen was subjected to SDS test after CFS test. 2 The test was terminated when the load dropped for the
first time.

3.5.2. Results of CFS Test

The results of the CFS test are summarized in Table 3. The results agreed well with the
previous assumption about the elastic limit (0.6 Vc ). Figure 10 shows specimens’ typical
V-t and w-t curves during testing, where w is the displacement output by the machine and

82
Materials 2022, 15, 1459

t is the time. V-∆ curves are not presented here because the specimen response lagged
significantly behind the added load during cyclic loading.

Table 3. Results of CFS test.

Specimen V (kN) V/Vc (%) Cracked? Failed? Number of Cycles (Count)

CFS-I-1 30 68 No No 1400
CFS-I-2 35 79 Yes Yes 10
CFS-I-3 35 79 Yes Yes 121
CFS-II-1 35 64 No No 1400
CFS-II-2 40 73 Yes Yes 1314
CFS-II-3 40 73 No No 1400 ns’ typi-
CFS-III-1 40 59 No No 1400
CFS-III-2 45 67 Yes No 28
∆ CFS-III-3
CFS-IV-1
45
40
67
60
Yes
No
No
No
20
1400
CFS-IV-2 45 68 No No 1400
CFS-IV-3 50 76 Yes No 25

160 160
120 120
V (kN)

V (kN)

80 80
40 40
0 0
5 5
4 4
w (mm)
w (mm)

3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
t (s) t (s)

(a) (b)
Figure 10. V-t and w-t plots of the CFS test for typical specimens: (a) Specimen CFS-II-2 and
(b) Specimen CFS-IV-3.

For Type I and Type II specimens, once the specimen cracked, w increased quickly,
and the specimen failed (see Figure 10a). In contrast, w found a new equilibrium position
after several adjustment cycles for cracked Type III and Type IV specimens (see Figure 10b).
imen ) (%) d? Failed? Count
3.5.3. Results of CDS Test
The results of the CDS test are summarized in Table 4. The average cracking and
maximum shear force under dynamic loading (Vcd and Vud ) of Type I to Type IV did not
change much compared to those of the SDS test. The typical V-t and w-t curves are shown
in Figure 11. Once the specimen of Type I and Type II cracked, increasing w did not result
in increasing V synchronously, and the specimen failed quickly (see Figure 11a). In contrast,
V increased with w for the Type III and Type IV specimens after cracking and could remain
steady when w was relatively low (see Figure 11b).

83
Materials 2022, 15, 1459

Table 4. Results of CDS test.

Specimen Vdc (kN) Vdu (kN) Failed?

CFS-I-1 38.4 Yes
CFS-I-2 48.5 Yes
CFS-I-3 44.9 Yes
Average 43.9
CFS-II-1 55.3 Yes
CFS-II-2 44.2 Yes
CFS-II-3 55.8 Yes
Average 51.8
CFS-III-1 61.7 130.6 Yes
CFS-III-2 66.4 147.9 Yes
CFS-III-3 1 - -
Average 64.1 139.3
CFS-IV-1 2 62.4 >93.5 No
CFS-IV-2 2 73.4 >125.0 No
CFS-IV-3 72.0 127.1 Yes
Average 69.3 -
1The specimen was damaged due to improper operation. 2 The preset displacement was small and the specimen
did not fail.

5 5
4 4
w (mm)

w (mm)

3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
160 160
120 120
V (kN)

V (kN)

80 80
40 40
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
t (s) t (s)

(a) (b)
Figure 11. w-t and V-t plots of the CDS test for typical specimens: (a) Specimen CDS-II-1; (b) Speci-
men CDS-IV-2

3.5.4. Comparison of Different Connection Types

Using N1 bars and an overlay increased both the Vc and Vu of specimens. The Vc
and Vu of the Type III connection were 1.5 and 3.4 times larger than those of the Type I
connection, respectively. Moreover, the Vc and Vu of the Type IV connection were 1.2
and 2.9 times larger than those of the Type II connection, respectively. Type I and Type II
connections failed quickly after cracking, while Type III and Type IV connections could still
transfer shear force effectively. In addition, the shear transferring was steady when the
force or displacement was not very high after cracking for Type III and Type IV connections.

3.5.5. Relationship between V and ∆

Little research has been done on the relationship of V and ∆ for shear key connections
used in adjacent box-beam bridges. Generally, when the shear key is intact, ∆ is assumed to
be zero, and when the shear key is damaged, V is set to the product of ∆ and the stiffness
of the shear key or just assumed as zero in the calculation [32,36,47].

84
Materials 2022, 15, 1459

Ye et al. [28] investigated the shear performance of shear keys by monolithically

increasing force-controlled bi-shear tests. They presented two typical τ-∆ curves, where τ
was the shear stress obtained from dividing V by the interface area (see Figure 12). Both
the blocks and joints were cast with concrete. Curve 1 and Curve 2 presented shear keys
without and with reinforcing steel bars connecting blocks and joints, respectively. For both
curves, stress τ increased with ∆ slowly before ∆ around 130 µm; then, an almost linear
relationship between τ and ∆ was obtained until cracking. After the cracking, a minor
increase in τ resulted in a large increase in ∆. The specimen without reinforcing steel bars
failed at this time. Then, the specimen with reinforcing bars came into another almost
linear relationship between τ and ∆ until it failed. Because the load was monolithically
increasingly applied in their study, the load dropping after cracking for specimens with
reinforcing bars was not captured. Uneven surfaces of specimens may explain why τ
increased slowly with ∆ at the very beginning.

1.6
steel bar
1.2

Type A
τ (MPa)

Type B
0.8

0.4
Curve 1 (Type A)
Curve 2 (Type B)
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
∆ (μm)
τ (MPa)

Figure 12. τ-∆ plots (data from Ye et al. [28]).

τ∆
Rizkalla et al. [48] investigated the performance of flat and keyed joints used in shear
wall panels with a compressive preload pressure of 2 MPa and 4 MPa normal to the shear-
resistant surface under a direct shear test. Both outside blocks and the joint were cast with
concrete. At first, the load was subjected to force control. After the maximum load was
attained, the test continued with stroke control. The load–slip curves obtained from the test
with different key configurations
∆ (μm) were similar. They presented a typical load–slip curve for
multiple shear key connections, as shown in Figure 13. The curve is linear before cracking
and has
τ ∆a load drop after the maximum load. For compressive stress used normal to the
connection, the load remains steady even at large slips.

load
preload

–
load

– –

slip
∆
Figure 13. Load–slip curve (data from Rizkalla et al. [48]).
–

, and when ∆ is in the descending part, the NRB connection

∆
85
– – 
   ( )

Materials 2022, 15, 1459

Instead of keyed joints, some researchers studied the relationship between the shear
force and slip at two concrete interfaces cast at different times by bi-shear or direct shear
tests [49–51]. The shapes of the shear–slip curves for specimens without and with steel bars
at the interface are similar to those depicted in Figure 7a,b, respectively.
Based on the results of all these tests, the V-∆ curves can be simplified into two types,
one without reinforcing bars as Type I and Type II connection (NRB connection), and the
other with reinforcing bars as Type III and Type IV connection (RB connection), as shown
in Figure 14. As the results of the CFS and CDS tests showed that the elastic limit is around
0.6 Vc , and when ∆ is in the descending part, the NRB connection could not provide steady
shear transfer; the relationship between V and ∆ can be simplified as:
  
 kc ∆ 0 ≤ ∆ ≤ ∆dc
V=   (3)
 0 ∆ > ∆dc


(
where 0.6 ∆c is recommended forthevalue of ∆dc . Similarly,
 the )
 shear
 transfer in the second


between V and ∆ for the RB connection (
 as:
can be simplified  )
descending part for the RB connection can also be set to zero. In addition, the relationship

=

k
(
∆ + (  −  ) 0 ≤∆ ≤ ∆d   )
  c c

( )

 Vd ∆
  
 ∆dc <

< ∆d

V=   (4)
d
 V d + ∆
k p ( ∆ − ∆ d ) ∆ d ≤ ∆ ≤ ∆ u



  
 0 ∆ > ∆du



where ∆du is the correction value of ∆u based on the difference in static and dynamic motion.

V
NRB connection
RB connection

Vdu

Vdc

Vd

O ∆dc ∆d ∆du ∆

Figure 14. Typical V-∆ plots for NRB and RB connection.

4. FE Analysis ∆
In the present study, FE analyses were performed using the software Abaqus 2018.
Two FEMs were established, one based on the SDS test of the Type I specimen to calibrate
the interface parameters and the other based on the Type III specimen to validate the
interface parameters.

4.1. FEMs
The concrete blocks, joints, overlays, and steel plates were modeled with 8-node brick
elements. Steel bars were modeled with 2-node trusses. The concrete damaged plasticity
(CDP) model was used to model concrete behavior. The classical metal plasticity model

86
Materials 2022, 15, 1459

with isotropic hardening was used to model steel behavior. Hard contact and friction were
used to model the interface between the specimen and steel plate. The traction–separation
constitutive model was used to model the interface of the block and joint. Full bond was
used at the overlay–block and overlay–joint interfaces. Steel bars were embedded in the
whole model. The two FEMs are shown in Figure 15.

Figure 15. FEMs: (a) the SDS test for Type I specimen; (b) the SDS test for Type III specimen.

–
4.2. Traction–Separation Constitutive Model
–
The traction–separation constitutive model offers a method to model thin bonded
interfaces whose geometric thickness may be considered to be zero for all practical pur-
poses [52]. The constitutive thickness of interfaces is 1 unit by default and can be specified
by users. Note that other input parameters in the model are based on the defined thickness
value. The default number 1 was adopted in this study, and the length unit is mm.
–
The whole traction–separation –
model contains linear elastic traction–separation, dam-
–
age initiation criteria, and a damage evolution model. The linear elastic traction–separation
model contains stiffness parameters En , Es , and Et , representing normal and tangential
stiffness components. The quadratic nominal stress criterion was used in this study as a
damage initiation criterion and can be represented as

htn i 2  ts 2  tt  2
     
 + + 0 ++  0  = 1 (5)
t0n   ts   t 
    t
where tn , ts , and tt represent the normal and tangential stress components; t0n , t0s , and t0t
represent peak values of the nominal stress when the deformation is either purely normal
to the interface or purely in the first or the second shear direction. The symbol <> used
in Equation (5) represents the Macaulay bracket with the usual interpretation. Damage
is initiated only when the left part of Equation (5) equals 1. Once damage initiation has
occurred, damage evaluation is determined on the fracture energy. In this study, the

87
Materials 2022, 15, 1459

stiffness, peak stress, and fracture energy components in different directions were assumed
to be the same [13], referred to as E, t0 , and G below.
In the FEM, the initial values of stiffness components were set to 380 MPa, deduced
from the direct shear test on specimens composed of concretes cast at different times
∆
conducted by Harries et al. [50]. They used concretes with 28-day compressive strengths
of 41.5 MPa and 29.1 MPa for old and new parts, respectively, and the interfaces were
roughened to at least 6.4 mm amplitude before casting the new part. The initial values of
peak stress components were determined by Vc divided by the connection area projected to
∆ plane. The initial values of fracture energy components were set to 0.1 N/mm
the vertical
based on that of concrete [53]. Then, these material parameters were calibrated during
simulation so that the V-∆ curves of the model could match the experimental results.

4.3. FE Results
∆ A comparison of the V-∆ curves resulting from the calibrated FEM and the experimen-
tal result (EXP) for Specimen SDS-I-1 is shown in Figure 16a. E and t0 were calibrated to
450 MPa and 0.5 MPa, respectively. Values of fracture energy components ranging from
0.01 to 1.00 N/mm had been tried during the simulation, but little changed in the shape of
V-∆ curves. The curves matched well in the ascending part but not in the descending part.
However, the descending part is of minor importance; thus, the result is acceptable. The
scalar stiffness degradation (SDEG), indicating the damage degree of model elements, is
shown in Figure 16b, where SDEG = 0 indicates intact status and SDEG = 1 failure status.
The damage status is similar to that shown in Figure 8a. For all Type I specimens, values of
stiffness components with a range of 120 to 450 MPa and peak stress components with a
range of 0.5 to 0.6 MPa are recommended.

50 EXP (SDS-I-1)
FEM (E = 450 MPa, t0 = 0.5 MPa)
40
V (kN)

30

20

10

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
(a) ∆ (μm)

Figure 16. Results for Specimen SDS-I-1: (a) V-∆ curves; (b) damage status.
∆
A comparison of the V-∆ curves for the second FEM result using material parameters
obtained from the first FEM and the experimental result of SDS-III-1 is shown in Figure 17a.
∆
Values of stiffness components and peak stress components were 450 MPa and 0.5 MPa,
respectively, the same as those for Specimen SDS-I-1. Both ascending parts before and after
cracking showed good agreement, and the damage status shown in Figure 17b is similar to
that in Figure 9a.

88
Materials 2022, 15, 1459

160
140
120
100
V (kN)

80
60
40
20 EXP (SDS-III-3)
FEM (E = 450 MPa, t0 = 0.5 MPa)
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
(a) ∆ (μm)

Figure 17. Results for Specimen SDS-III-3: (a) V-∆ curves; (b) damage status.

5. Conclusions
Static and dynamic bi-shear tests were conducted on four types of transverse connec-
tions used in adjacent box-beam bridges to evaluate their shear transfer performance before
and after cracking. FEMs were developed to calibrate and validate the interfacial material
parameters. Based on the results obtained from this study, the following conclusions can
be drawn:
1. Adding overlays and reinforcing bars increased Vc and Vu by 53% and 235%, re-
spectively, for the Type I specimen, and by 21% and 187%, respectively, for the
Type II specimen.
2. All four types of connection could remain intact under the dynamic loading under
approximately 0.6Vc . When the Type I and Type II connections cracked, the load
transfer failed quickly under cyclic loading. Although the Type III and Type IV
connections cracked, the load transfer could still be maintained under a relatively low
force or displacement cyclic loading.
3. The V-∆ curves for Type I and Type II could be simplified as a bilinear curve; the
V-∆ curves for Type III and Type IV could be simplified as a combination of two
bilinear curves corresponding to before and after cracking performance, respectively.
The corresponding formulas, Equations (3) and (4), were proposed for engineering
applications.
4. FEM results agreed well with EXP results. Values ranging from 120 MPa to 450 MPa
for stiffness components and values ranging from 0.5 MPa to 0.6 MPa for peak stress
components were recommended for interface materials with a unit thickness (1 mm)
when using the traction–separation model.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.N., Y.X. and R.X.; methodology, X.N., Y.X. and R.X.;
investigation, X.N.; formal analysis, X.N. and R.X.; writing—original draft preparation, X.N., A.O.A.
and G.W.; writing—review and editing, X.N., G.W. and R.X.; supervision, Y.X. and R.X. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant
number 51478422.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Materials 2022, 15, 1459

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53. Bažant, Z.P.; Becq-Giraudon, E. Statistical prediction of fracture parameters of concrete and implications for choice of testing
standard. Cem. Concr. Res. 2002, 32, 529–556. [CrossRef]

91
 materials
Article
Analysis of Tensile Strength and Failure Mechanism Based on
Parallel Homogenization Model for Recycled Concrete
Yijiang Peng, Semaoui Zakaria , Yucheng Sun * , Ying Chen * and Lijuan Zhang
Key Laboratory of Urban Security and Disaster Engineering, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of
Technology, Beijing 100124, China; [email protected] (Y.P.); [email protected] (S.Z.);
[email protected] (L.Z.)
* Correspondence: [email protected] (Y.S.); [email protected] (Y.C.);

Abstract: In this paper, a parallel homogenization model for recycled concrete was proposed. A
new type of finite element method, the base force element method, based on the complementary
energy principle and the parallel homogenization model, is used to conduct meso-level damage
research on recycled concrete. The stress–strain softening curve and failure mechanism of the
recycled concrete under uniaxial tensile load are analyzed using the nonlinear damage analysis
program of the base force element method based on the parallel homogenization model. The tensile
strength and destructive mechanisms of recycled concrete materials are studied using this parallel
homogenization model. The calculation results are compared with the results of the experiments and
meso-level random aggregate model analysis methods. The research results show that this parallel
homogenization analysis method can be used to analyze the nonlinear damage analysis of recycled
concrete materials. The tensile strength, stress–strain softening curve, and crack propagation process
of recycled concrete materials can be obtained using the present method.

Keywords: mesoscopic damage; recycled concrete; parallel homogenization model; base force
Citation: Peng, Y.; Zakaria, S.; Sun, Y.;
Chen, Y.; Zhang, L. Analysis of
element method
Tensile Strength and Failure
Mechanism Based on Parallel
Homogenization Model for Recycled
Concrete. Materials 2022, 15, 145.
1. Introduction
https://doi.org/10.3390/ Recycled aggregates are aggregates made from waste concrete through a series of
ma15010145 processing methods. Recycled aggregate concrete is concrete made by replacing part, or all,
of the natural aggregate with recycled aggregate. It has been widely valued as a green and
Academic Editor: Dario De
Domenico
environmentally friendly building material [1].
Many scholars have carried out a lot of experimental research on recycled concrete,
Received: 28 October 2021 and some research results have been obtained [1–5]. However, the test cycle is long, the
Accepted: 19 December 2021 cost is high, and it is difficult to measure the internal stress, strain, and failure mechanisms
Published: 25 December 2021 of the material. Therefore, it is very useful to carry out numerical simulation research on
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral recycled concrete. In reference [6], a plastic-damage constitutive models are employed
with regard to jurisdictional claims in in numerical studies on recycled concrete under uniaxial compression and uniaxial ten-
published maps and institutional affil- sion loadings to predict the overall mechanical behavior, particularly the stress–strain
iations. relationship. In reference [7], a statistical analysis on its composition has been performed
considering the randomness in properties of old adhered mortar around recycled aggregate.
Peng et al. [8–11] proposed the base force element method and used this new type of finite
element method to carry out a numerical simulation analysis on the recycled concrete, and
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. conducted uniaxial tensile and compression tests under static and dynamic loads to study
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. its mechanics and performance. In 2016, Rajendra [12] established a virtual crack model and
This article is an open access article
a double-K fracture model, and determined the fracture parameters of recycled concrete
distributed under the terms and
with different coarse aggregate contents. In reference [13], a stochastic elastic FEM analyses
conditions of the Creative Commons
model was established based on the Nano-indentation technique for recycled concrete at
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
three different scales to obtain the ef-fective elastic moduli and Poisson’s ratios, also the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
correlations of recycled concrete were studied. Anuruddha [14] investigated the influence
4.0/).

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Materials 2022, 15, 145

of the old mortar content on the elastic module and the strength of recycled concrete, and
found that the pressure strength of recycled concrete decreased with the increase in mortar
content. Job et al. [15] used numerical simulation and regression analysis methods to
study various mechanical properties of recycled concrete, and obtained the influence of
different replacement rates of recycled aggregate on the strength of recycled concrete. In
2019, Tan [16] carried out a two-dimensional numerical simulation of recycled concrete
based on the discrete element method, and mainly studied the influence of the weak link
between the old and new interfaces on the damage and failure process of recycled concrete.
Guo [17] has developed a creep coupling model for the heterogeneity of recycled concrete,
to investigate the influence of recycled aggregate on the creeping of recycled concrete.
Kazemian et al. [18] conducted experimental research on the compressive strength, flexural
strength, and fracture energy of recycled concrete, and compared the mechanical properties
of treated and untreated recycled concrete. There are also some scholars who have carried
out research works in this field or other types of concrete [19–26].
In the paper, a homogenization analysis method will be used to establish a parallel
homogenization model for recycled concrete materials. A new type of finite element
method, the base force element method based on the complementary energy principle,
is used to conduct meso-level damage research on recycled concrete. The stress–strain
softening curve and failure mechanisms of recycled concrete under uniaxial tensile load are
analyzed using the nonlinear damage analysis program of the base force element method.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Random Aggregate Model
The main difference between natural concrete and recycled concrete is that the outer
layer of recycled concrete aggregate is attached with a layer of old mortar. The random
aggregate model represents the recycled concrete in the form of each phase medium, so as
to facilitate the subsequent mesh division and calculation at the meso level. The circular
aggregate model was adopted to simplify the recycled aggregate into two concentric circles,
as shown in Figure 1. The macro-mechanical properties of the whole structure are obtained
through the analysis and calculation of the random aggregate model. It is the link between
the macro-structure and the macro-mechanical properties of recycled concrete.

Figure 1. Each phase of random aggregate.

In Figure 1, the recycled concrete is treated as a 5-phase medium, including the

aggregate, the old mortar, the new mortar, the old interface and the new interface. The
aggregate center position is automatically generated by a computer program according to
the Monte Carlo method. The aggregate size and particle number are calculated according
to the grading of recycled concrete. The placement of aggregate should ensure that each
aggregate cannot overlap.

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Materials 2022, 15, 145

The calculation and analysis are carried out on the basis of the random aggregate
model of recycled concrete. First, the two-dimensional random aggregate is generated.
After that, the mesh is divided and mapped to the model, the position of the element node
is judged, and the attributes of each element are assigned. Aggregates are divided into
coarse aggregates and fine aggregates. Fine aggregates refer to aggregate particles with a
particle size of less than 5 mm. The influence of the fine aggregate is ignored, and the fine
aggregate and mortar are regarded as a whole in the research of this article. The data of the
particle size range of the coarse aggregate are obtained based on the experimental data.

2.2. Parallel Homogenization Model

2.2.1. Parallel Homogenization Model
A parallel method was used to homogenize the heterogeneous elements of recycled
concrete, based on the basic idea of equivalent model of meso-damage element, and
the equivalent model of meso-damage was established. The validation and numerical
calculation of homogenized equivalent model are based on random aggregate model. A
simple material strength equivalent method was adopted using the Kelvin–Voigt parallel
model, ignoring transverse deformation, as shown in Figure 2. σ is the stress and E is the
modulus of elasticity.

Figure 2. Voigt parallel model.

The equilibrium equation of element stress is as follows:

σA = σ1 A1 + σ2 A2 (1)
= 1 1 2 2
where A is the area of an equivalent element, A1 and A2 are the areas of two different media
elements, respectively.
The strain compatibility equation is as follows:

ε = ε1 = ε2 (2)

= =
The mean stress–mean strain relationship is as follows:
1 2

σ = Eε (3)

It can be obtained from the following formulas:

=
EεA = E1 ε 1 A1 + E2 ε 2 A2 (4)

EA = E1 A1 + E2 A2 (5)
= 1 1 1 + 2 2 2

= 1 1 + 2 2
95
 = 1 1 + 2 2

1 = 1
1 = 1
1 2 1

Materials 2022, 15, 145

= 1 1 + 2 2

For the composite recycled concrete model, it can used the volume fraction to calculate
EV = E1 V1 + E2 V2 .
Let c1 = VV1 , c1 = VV1 (c1 + c2 = 1), then we can obtain the following formula:

E = E1 c1 + E=2 c2 + (6)
1 1 2 2

where c1 and c2 are the percentage of the two different media elements to the total volume
of the equivalent elements, respectively.
The equivalent Poisson’s ratio is as follows:

υ = υ1 c 1 + υ2 c 2 (7)

2.2.2. Finite Element Meshing and Homogenization

The finite element method is the process of dividing a continuous object into simple
and regular elements. It is an effective method for calculating and analyzing objects with
heterogeneous materials. Scholars have proposed many meshing methods, as the finite
element method is widely used in the scientific community. The most common elements are
as follows: one-dimensional rod element, two-dimensional triangle element, quadrilateral
element and three-dimensional tetrahedron element, pentahedron element and hexahedron
element. The finer and denser the mesh, the more accurate the calculation result for the
traditional finite element method. However, at the same time, the more computational
elements, the lower the computational efficiency.
In this paper, the meshing method of the two-dimensional quadrilateral element is
selected based on the base force element method of complementary energy principle. The
mesh is divided according to the size of the specimen and the element size. The midpoint of
each side of the quadrilateral element is used as the calculation point, as shown in Figure 3.
Then the mesh is mapped to the random aggregate model.

Figure 3. Mesh subsection diagram.

In Figure 4, the fine mesh of the random aggregate meso-model is divided first, and
then the coarse mesh is formed by homogenization. The division method and judgment
rule of coarse mesh are the same as those of fine mesh, and the judgment rule is determined
according to the location of element nodes. The attribute of the element is judged as
aggregate (or old mortar, or new mortar), when more than or equal to three of the four
nodes of an element are projected on aggregate (or old mortar, or new mortar) medium.
The element is defined as old interface element, when some element nodes fall in aggregate
medium and some fall in old mortar. Similarly, the element is defined as the new interface
when some nodes of an element fall on the old mortar medium and some nodes fall on the
new mortar medium. After determining the attributes of fine elements, the number of small
elements of each attribute was counted, the area was calculated according to the element

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Materials 2022, 15, 145

size, and the proportion of each component in the coarse mesh element was calculated. The
coarse mesh is equivalent to uniform single-attribute element by homogenization method.

Figure 4. Mesoscopic model of regenerated concrete meshes.

The mesh division and attribute assignment of the elements were programmed to
calculate, and the mesh node numbers and coordinates of all the specimens were obtained
using Fortran language program. The attribute distribution of an element could be ob-
tained from the element attribute file by the calculating program. The composition of the
heterogeneous element containing heterogeneous medium could be obtained. The data are
provided for the subsequent homogenization calculation.
The divided elements are mapped to the random aggregate model and then each large
element is subdivided to obtain small elements. The proportions of the attributes of the
small elements, the number of components, and equivalent parameter calculations are
determined. The equivalent parameters are assigned to large elements.
The distribution of equivalent elastic modulus in the model is obtained. The equivalent
elastic modulus distribution of the parallel equivalent method of the test specimen is
obtained, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Equivalent elastic modulus distribution.

In the red area of Figure 5, all elements are aggregate. Therefore, the computer’s
automatic judgment belongs to the same medium. Computers do not use equivalent
processing, that is, the elastic modulus is the elastic modulus of aggregate.
In the blue area in Figure 5, all elements are new mortar. Therefore, after the automatic
judgment of the computer, the area belongs to the same medium. Computers do not
perform the equivalent, that is, the elastic modulus is the elastic modulus of new mortar.
If all small elements inside the large element (equivalent elements) are old mortar, the
area belongs to the same medium. There is no equivalent processing, that is, the elastic
modulus is the elastic modulus of old mortar. This is shown in purple in Figure 5.

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Materials 2022, 15, 145

Equivalent treatment is required if small elements within large elements have ag-
gregate elements and interface elements, or if large elements contain aggregate elements,
mortar elements and interface elements. The old interface transition zone and new interface
transition zone belong to equivalent elements, as shown in Figure 5. The elastic modulus
varies in this region. There are different colors.

2.2.3. Damage Model

The stress–strain relationship of material is a very important and complex problem in
the case of material damage. The constitutive nature of material is an old and still open
question, starting with the papers of Hudson et al., Bažant and Chang [27–29]. Even more
recently, Ferretti [30] has shown that the meso-scale curves (mean stress/mean strain and
damage curves) are not constitutive, while it is possible to identify constitutive laws at the
micro scale.
In this paper, the multi-line stress–strain relationship is adopted for calculation because
the stress tends to be highly nonlinear when approaching the peak value under uniaxial
tensile load, due to the non-uniformity of the recycled concrete. The material is damaged
due to stretching. By introducing the scalar damage variable D, the relationship between
the effective strain of the damaged material and Cauchy stress is as follows:

σ = E0 (1 − D )ε (8)

The elastic modulus after damage can be expressed by the initial elastic modulus, if
the effect of damage on Poisson’s ratio is neglected, as follows:

E = E0 (1 − D ) (9)

where E represents the elastic modulus after damage, and E0 represents the initial elastic
modulus. Therefore, the damage elastic modulus of the five-phase medium in recycled
concrete can be expressed as (aggregate (ag), old mortar (om), new mortar (m), old interface
(oitz), new interface (itz)).
 E = E0 (1 − D )
 ag ag ag

 E = E0 (1 − D om )
om om



Em = E0 m (1 − D m ) (10)
 E oitz = E0 (1 − D )
oitz oitz


Eitz = E0 itz (1 − Ditz )



0

 ε max ≤ ε t0
−ε t0 ε t0
1 − εεmax + ηε max

t0
( 1 − µ ) ε ε max ≤ ηt ε t0


t ε t0 − ε t0 ε max t0 <
Dt = µ ε max −ηt ε t0 µε t0 (11)

 1 − ξ t −ηt ε max + ε max ηt ε t0 < ε max ≤ ξ t ε t0

1 ε max > ξ t ε t0


1 − ωδ

 ε max ≤ λε c0
1
 1 − 1−λ ε −λε co − δ εε co


 − δ ε max
λε < ε max ≤ ε c0
 max max c0
Dc = 1 − 11− −ω ε max −ε co − ε co
ηc ε max ε max ε c0 < ε max ≤ ηc ε c0 (12)
ωε c0
1 − ε max




 ηc ε c0 < ε max ≤ ξ c ε c0
1 ε max > ξ c ε c0


where ω is the residual compressive strength coefficient; ε 0 is the peak strain; η is the
residual strain coefficient; λ is the elastic strain coefficient; δ is the elastic compressive
strength coefficient; ξ is the limiting strain coefficient; µ is the residual tensile strength
coefficient. Subscripts t represent the tension of the element.
The volume fraction of each phase medium can be simplified into area fraction for the
two-dimensional random aggregate model. Assuming that the size of the large mesh is a
and the size of the small mesh is b( a > b), and there are n small mesh element attributes in
the large mesh determined as aggregate, then the area fraction of aggregate is c1 = nb2 /a2 .

98
Materials 2022, 15, 145

Similarly, c0 , c1 , c2 , c3 and c4 are used to represent the area fraction of new mortar, aggregate,
old interface, old mortar and new surface, respectively.
Based on the strain compatibility equation, we obtain the following:

σ = Em ε = c0 E0 ε 0 + c1 E1 ε 1 + c2 E2 ε 2 + c3 E3 ε 3 + c4 E4 ε 4
(13)
Em = c0 E0 + c1 E1 + c2 E2 + c3 E3 + c4 E4

The elastic modulus of the parallel equivalent element is as follows:

Eeq = c0 E0 m (1 − D m ) + c1 E0 ag (1 − D ag ) + c2 E0 oitz (1 − D oitz ) + c3 E0 om (1 − D om ) + c4 E0 itz (1 − Ditz ) (14)

The thickness of the new and old interface is small for recycled concrete. The mesh
element is larger when the homogenized equivalent model is used. A single element
may contain multiphase media when the element size is larger than the thickness of
the old mortar. Therefore, this article will use recycled concrete as an equivalent to the
following three phases: mortar (m), aggregate (ag) and equivalent element (em). The meso-
equivalent model of stress–strain relationship for three-phase medium is established, where
ag ag ag
εem
0 ≤ ε 0 ≤ ε 0 ≤ ε r ≤ ε r ≤ ε r ≤ ε u ≤ ε u ≤ ε u . The formula of elastic damage model
m em m em m

of parallel equivalent element of recycled concrete is as follows:

ag
c0 E0m + c1 E0 + c2 E0em ε ≤ εem

 0
ag
c0 E0m + c1 E0 + c2 Erem 0 <ε ≤ ε 0
εem m




 ag ag
c0 Er + c1 E0 + c2 Erem
m ε 0 <ε ≤ ε 0
m



ag ag

c0 Erm + c1 Er + c2 Erem ε 0 <ε ≤ εem



 r
ag
c0 Erm + c1 Er + c2 Euem r <ε ≤ ε r
εem m


Eeq = ag ag (15)
 c0 Eum + c1 Er + c2 Euem ε r <ε ≤ ε r
m
ag ag

c0 Eu + c1 Eu + c2 Euem
m ε r <ε ≤ εem



 u
ag
c0 Erm + c1 Er u <ε ≤ ε u
εem m




 ag ag
c1 Er ε u <ε ≤ ε u
m



ag

0 ε u <ε


Formula (15) is the calculation formula of equivalent elastic modulus at each stage.
This formula can be obtained by combining the stages in the constitutive model.
Below, we will deduce the calculation formula of equivalent tensile strength of
recycled concrete according to energy equivalence. See Formula (16)–(18) for details.
From this formula, the equivalent tensile strength of recycled concrete can be calculated.
The equivalent element is a homogeneous element. The stored total strain energy W is
W = Wag + Wem + Wom (the sum of the equivalent element, new mortar, and aggregate),
when the equivalent element reaches theR 1equivalent tensile strength f t eq .
eq
Because the strain energy is W = 2 f t εdV, where ε is the element strain, the follow-
ing is obtained:

1 ag 1 om 1 em
Z Z Z
W = Wag + Wom + Wem = f t εdVag + f t εdVom + f t εdVem (16)
2 2 2
ft
Substituting ε = E into the above formula, we obtain the following:

eq 2 ag 2
( f t ) Eeq V = ( f t ) E ag Vag + ( f tom )2 Eom Vom + ( f tem )2 Eem Vem (17)

eq 2 ag 2
( f t ) = Eeq · (( f tom )2 Eom c0 + ( f t ) E ag c1 + ( f tem )2 Eem c2 ) (18)
The mean stress/mean strain and damage curves of equivalent element can be ob-
tained after equivalence of different media, as shown in Figure 6.

99
 ( )2 (( )2 0 ( )2 1 ( )2 2 )

Materials 2022, 15, 145

Figure 6. Mean stress/mean strain and damage curves under homogeneous equivalent tensile
treatment.

In Figure 6, the stress–strain curve of homogenized equivalent material is a multi-

broken line form. The y-coordinate is the equivalent strength and the x-coordinate is the
equivalent strain. After the peak point, there is a period of strength decline, material is
damaged and destroyed..
The slope of the curve can be calculated according to Formula (14) and (15).
Zhu et al. [31] assumes that the properties of each component material conform to
the Weibull distribution, and considers the non-linear characteristics of material inhomo-
geneity, thus proposing a random mechanical model. The density function of the Weibull
distribution is as follows:

m u m −1
    m 
u
f (u) = exp − (19)
u0 u0 u0
1
     
  exp
where m determines the shape of the Weibull distribution   function,
density   and it represents
the uniformity of the medium; u represents 0  0 
a random 
  0 
variable 
satisfying the Weibull
distribution. This paper considers the random distribution of materials in each phase of
recycled concrete, and its material parameters obey the Weibull distribution. The value of
each parameter is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Material parameter value.

Parameter New Mortar Recycled Aggregate Old Bond Zone Old Mortar New Bond Zone
δ 0.25 0.65 0.23 0.25 0.23
ω 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
λ 0.13 0.25 0.15 0.13 0.15
µ 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.35
ηc /ηt 4 5 3 4 3
ξ c /ξ t 10 10 10 10 10

3. Calculation Results
3.1. Uniaxial Tensile Loading Model
The loading model of a cubic recycled concrete specimen is established by using the
calculation program of the base force element method of the complementary energy princi-
ple in MATLAB programming. The specimen is selected as 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm

100
 /

Materials 2022, 15, 145

to carry out the uniaxial tensile numerical simulation test. First, the cube model is simplified
into a two-dimensional model with a cross-section size of 100 mm × 100 mm, and the
loading model is shown in Figure 7. Vertical loading is adopted during loading. A static
displacement-controlled loading condition is adopted step-by-step, with a displacement of
0.01 mm for each stage.

Figure 7. Load model.

3.2. Numerical Simulation Results

Different random numbers are selected to be put in the aggregate, in order to ob-
tain specimens with different aggregate distribution positions in the random aggregate
model. Three two-dimensional numerical models, with three groups of different aggregate
distributions and the same aggregate particle number, are selected, as shown in Figure 8.

Specimen 1 Specimen 2 Specimen 3

Figure 8. Two-dimensional diagram of homogenized model.

The basic force element method based on the principle of complementary energy is
used to calculate and analyze the medium damage by the calculation program. The parallel
equivalent homogenization model of the generated three random specimens is numerically
simulated in a uniaxial tensile test. The calculation results of the three specimens, random
aggregate results, and test data [32] are listed in Table 2. Meanwhile, the full stress–strain
curve is drawn with strain as the abscissa and stress as the ordinate. The calculation result
of the parallel equivalent is shown in Figure 9.

Table 2. Numerical simulation results data.

Peak Strain (10−6 ) Peak Stress (MPa)

Test data [32] 102 2.06
Parallel specimen 1 100 2.10
Parallel specimen 2 100 2.11
Parallel specimen 3 100 2.09
2.5
specimen 1
specimen 2
2.0 specimen 3
Meso Random Aggregate
Test Data[30]
tress(MPa)

1.5 101

1.0
Materials 2022, 15, 145

2.5
specimen 1
specimen 2
2.0 specimen 3
Meso Random Aggregate
Test Data[32]

Stress(MPa)
1.5

1.0

0.5

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

-6
Strain(10 )

Figure 9. Uniaxial tensile stress–strain curve of parallel model.

The recycled concrete specimen is in the elastic stage at the initial stage, as shown
in Figure 9. The stress begins to grow slowly, and reaches about 80% of the specimen’s
ultimate strength. When the strain of the local element is greater than the residual strain,
−
it begins to enter the state of damage. As the strain increases, the stress decreases until it
reaches zero.
The QuickWin module in Fortran is adopted to display the different stages of each
element with different colors, in order to obtain the damage diagram of the numerical
simulation calculation of recycled concrete clearly and simply. The equivalent element will
be set as the same yellow–green color, the mortar as orange, the aggregate as blue, and
the failure element is represented by the black block. The failure mode of the numerical
simulation specimen is observed, as shown in Figure 10.

ε : 80 × 10−6 ε : 120 × 10−6 ε : 150 × 10−6

specimen 1

specimen 2

specimen 3

Figure 10. Damage diagram of uniaxial tension numerical simulation.

The law of tensile failure of recycled concrete can be observed from the damage state
diagram of specimens in the process of uniaxial tensile loading. The local failure occurs

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Materials 2022, 15, 145

first, when the element begins to be loaded under a certain strain. With the increase in
loading strain, cracks gradually spread through the whole specimen, accompanied by the
final failure of the specimen. It can be found that the location at which the cracks develop
is generally the location where the aggregate is more concentrated in the failure diagram.
The main reason for this is that the surrounding strength of the reclaimed aggregate is
lower, and it is easier to reach the destruction stage first. The equivalent element contains a
multiphase medium, and contains the old interface and the new interface with low tensile
strength. Therefore, the element with the cracks that appear first is the equivalent element
part. The crack development direction of the tensile failure of the homogenized specimen is
perpendicular to the loading direction, and the failure state is basically a horizontal crack,
which is consistent with the failure state of the random aggregate model, and is combined
with the actual law.

4. Discussion
Using the homogenization model of recycled concrete proposed in this paper, the
equivalent element is used to replace the tiny random aggregate model element, and the
number of available elements is greatly reduced.
In this way, the computing speed is increased and the computer memory is reduced.
Table 3 shows the comparison data.

Table 3. Model data comparison.

Model Element Size (mm) Element Number Calculating Time of One Step (s)
Element of random
0.5 40,000 3062
aggregate model
Element of homogenized
2 2500 10.8
equivalent model

The homogenization model enlarges the size of the grid element of the calculation
model, and the equivalent parameters of the homogenization element are obtained by
using the parallel equivalent formula.
For the two-dimensional random aggregate recycled concrete model with a size of
100 mm × 100 mm, when the element size of the random aggregate model is 0.5 mm and
the element mesh size of the homogenized model is 2 mm, the element mesh size increases
by 4 times, the number of elements becomes 1/16 of the original, and the calculation time
is reduced by about 300 times.
Obviously, the homogenized equivalent model can greatly save calculation time and
improve calculation efficiency, which provides a new way for future numerical simulation
analysis and calculation.

5. Conclusions
(1) The parallel equivalent stress–strain relationship of the homogenization model
is derived. The multi-line damage model of recycled concrete materials is established by
using the homogenization analysis method.
(2) The non-linear basic force element analysis software and the homogenization
preprocessing software for the homogenization analysis of recycled concrete have been
developed, based on the basic force element method of the complementary energy principle.
(3) A parallel-equivalent homogenization model was used to perform a numerical
calculation and analysis on the uniaxial tensile test of recycled concrete. The stress–strain
softening curve, and the damage and failure process were obtained.
(4) The feasibility and rationality of the model establishment are verified by comparing
the results of this method with the experimental data.
(5) The calculation efficiency of the homogenization model has greatly improved. The
calculation efficiency of this method is much higher than that of the mesoscopic damage

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Materials 2022, 15, 145

analysis method based on the random aggregate model, and it can guarantee a certain
calculation accuracy.
(6) The research work in this paper shows that the base force element method based
on the complementary energy principle and the parallel homogenization model can be
used to analyze the meso-structure and mechanical properties of recycled concrete. It
has the characteristics of high computational efficiency and can be used as an effective
meso-analysis method for recycled concrete.
(7) In the future, we will study the base force element method based on the comple-
mentary energy principle for dynamic damage analysis and three-dimensional analysis of
recycled concrete.

Author Contributions: Data curation, Y.C.; Formal analysis, Y.C.; Funding acquisition, Y.P.; Software,
Y.C., S.Z. and Y.S.; Supervision, Y.P. and L.Z.; Writing—original draft, Y.C.; Writing—review & editing,
Y.P., S.Z. and Y.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work is supported by National Science Foundation of China (10972015, 11172015), the
Beijing Natural Science Foundation (8162008), and the Pre-exploration Project of Key Laboratory of
Urban Security and Disaster Engineering, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Technology
(USDE201404).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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attached mortar. Cem. Concr. Res. 2019, 118, 14–24. [CrossRef]
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recycled concrete aggregates. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 209, 690–700. [CrossRef]
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carbonated modeled recycled concrete aggregates. Cem. Concr. Res. 2020, 136, 106175. [CrossRef]
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Conserv Recycl. 2018, 133, 30–49. [CrossRef]
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cementitious materials. Cem. Concr. Res. 2019, 122, 1–16. [CrossRef]
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defined width around aggregates. Eng. Fract. Mech. 2020, 231, 107029. [CrossRef]
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and superabsorbent polymer concrete. Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. 2022, 7, 39. [CrossRef]
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 materials
Article
A Proposal to Improve the Effectiveness of the Deflection
Control Method Provided by Eurocodes for Concrete, Timber,
and Composite Slabs
Tommaso D’Antino * and Marco Andrea Pisani

Department of Architecture, Built Environment and Construction Engineering, Politecnico di Milano,

20133 Milan, Italy; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Limited deflection of structural members represents an important requirement to guarantee

proper functionality and appearance of building and infrastructures. According to Eurocodes, this
requirement is ensured by limiting the maximum deflection of horizontal structural members to
a fraction of their span. However, each Eurocode provides different maximum deflection limits,
which are independent of the type of superstructures considered. Thus, the respect of these limits
may not always guarantee the integrity of certain superstructures. In this paper, the reliability of
the Eurocode deflection control methods, in guaranteeing the integrity of the superstructures, is
assessed and discussed. First, different types of horizontal member, namely rib and clay (hollow)
pot, composite steel–concrete, and timber beam slabs are designed to respect the deflection limit
enforced by the Eurocodes. Then, the maximum curvature developed by these members is compared
with the ultimate (limit) curvatures of various superstructures (e.g., ceramic and stone tile floorings).
Citation: D’Antino, T.; Pisani, M.A.
A Proposal to Improve the
The results obtained show that the approach adopted by Eurocode 2 may provide non-conservative
Effectiveness of the Deflection results, but also that the rules proposed by Eurocodes 4 and 5, albeit more reliable, do not always
Control Method Provided by guarantee the integrity of the superstructure. Based on these results, an alternative method, based
Eurocodes for Concrete, Timber, and on the curvature control, is proposed and its advantages and limitations critically discussed. This
Composite Slabs. Materials 2021, 14, method appears simpler and more reliable than the method currently adopted by the Eurocodes.
7627. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma14247627 Keywords: deflection control; curvature; serviceability; reinforced concrete; timber; composite slab

Academic Editors: Lizhi Sun,

Dario De Domenico and Filippo Berto

1. Introduction
Received: 7 September 2021
Accepted: 3 December 2021
Deflection control is crucial to guarantee proper functionality and good appearance
Published: 11 December 2021
under service loads of buildings and infrastructures [1–3]. However, the computation
of the short- and long-term maximum deflection of a horizontal structural member can
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
be a cumbersome task, and simplified analysis and verifications are often employed [4].
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
Although excessive deflection does not impair the structural safety, it seriously affects the
published maps and institutional affil- serviceability of the structure. Cracking of the floor, due to the excessive deformability
iations. of the supporting slab, is a well-known issue, although often underestimated. Usually,
cracking is attributed to the building settling, which may be responsible for the opening
and widening of cracks over time, whereas the possibility that cracking is due to excessive
slab deformability is rarely taken into account. Cracking caused by structure settling and
slab deformability can be easily distinguished. In the former case, cracks occur and keep
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
opening until the settling is complete. Afterwards, their width remains constant. In the
This article is an open access article
latter case, the crack width varies with varying the service load (thus, the slab deflection).
distributed under the terms and Therefore, while cracking produced by the structure settling can be repaired once the
conditions of the Creative Commons phenomenon is exhausted, cracking due to the excessive deformability, if repaired, will
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// reoccur, since it is the result of a congenital deficiency of the structural element.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Controlling the maximum deflection is particularly hard in the case of RC structures,
4.0/). where the occurrence of concrete cracking and presence of concrete creep affects both the

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Materials 2021, 14, 7627

short- and long-time deflection of horizontal members. Since the limit values defined by
Eurocode 2 [4] do not depend on the type of superstructures or finishes (including their
application method [5]), they can provide non-reliable results, especially when stiff and
brittle elements, such as ceramic or stone tiles (a quite common solution in Mediterranean
countries), are used as floor finishing.
Although a proper computation of the member vertical deflection is quite difficult,
the approaches currently provided by European standards are rather simplified. In general,
deflection control is performed by enforcing a limit to the vertical displacement of horizon-
tal members. This limit should depend on the intended use of the structure (residential,
office, etc.), finishes, and superstructures (e.g., partitions). Eurocode 2 [4], Eurocode 4 [6],
and Eurocode 5 [7], which are the European design and verification codes for reinforced
concrete (RC), composite steel–concrete, and timber structures, respectively, limit the ver-
tical displacement of horizontal members to a fraction of the associated span. However,
each Eurocode provides a specific definition of the limiting deflection, and significant
inhomogeneity can be found among these limiting values. This differentiation does not
seem justified, considering that variable service loads, superstructures, and finishes could
be the same, regardless of the type of structure.
This paper aims at critically reviewing the approaches provided by Eurocode 2 [4],
Eurocode 4 [6], and Eurocode 5 [7], which are derived from ISO 4356 [8] (as stated by Eu-
rocode 2), for the control of horizontal members deflection. The limits of these approaches
and discrepancies among them are pointed out, and a new approach, that appears simpler
than those provided by the Eurocodes, is proposed. To do so, some horizontal member
types typical of the Mediterranean Basin and Alpine region, and of some countries in
Latin America, are first designed according to the Eurocode indications. These horizontal
members are:
• rib (clay pot or hollow block) slab;
• composite steel–concrete slab;
• traditional slab made of timber beams and planks.
Subsequently, the deformability of the following types of superstructures is studied,
computing the limit curvature value associated with the absence of damage (cracking) in
the following elements:
• partition walls;
• floorings (of various type).
These curvature values are then compared with those obtained by applying the
maximum service load, i.e., the characteristic load combination [9], to the horizontal
members designed according to the Eurocodes. The analysis focuses on horizontal members
and superstructures frequently adopted in areas where Eurocodes apply. However, the
same analysis could be extended to other structural systems, including innovative solutions,
such as fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforced concrete members, for which the design
process is controlled by the member deformability [10].
Comparison between curvature values, obtained by enforcing the limits imposed by
the Eurocodes and corresponding superstructure limit curvatures, showed non-conservative
results in some cases, which proves that Eurocode provisions do not always guarantee the
integrity of the most rigid finishing elements. A new curvature control method to verify
the horizontal member deflection under service loads is finally proposed and discussed.
This method represents a performance approach, with some important advantages with
respect to the approach currently adopted by Eurocodes, as discussed below.

2. Bending Limit Imposed by Superstructures and Finishes

A reliable deflection control method should provide deflection limit values capable of
guaranteeing the absence of damage (cracking) in the superstructures. Since these limits
vary depending on the type of superstructure, a separate analysis of the deflection limits
associated to partition walls and various types of flooring was performed in this study.

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Materials 2021, 14, 7627

Representative geometrical and mechanical properties of the superstructures considered

were collected from available scientific literature and product technical sheets.
The behavior of ceiling finishes, among which the most brittle is the plaster finishing
applied to ribbed concrete slabs [11], was not investigated because damage of ceiling
plasters is prevented by limiting the slab crack opening through crack control.

2.1. Partition Walls

Several different alternatives, such as plasterboard walls or walls made of cellular
concrete blocks, can be adopted to realize partition walls. Among all these possible
solutions, hollow clay brick walls covered with plaster appear to be the most brittle
solution (see, for instance, [12–14]). Although cracking of partition walls represents an
important issue, when caused by excessive deformability of the supporting slab is usually
preceded by cracking of the tiles, which is often associated with a slab curvature lower than
that associated with cracking of the partitions. Indeed, partition walls have a significant
strength when loaded in their mean plane and are able to compensate for limited differential
settlements through the arch effect [15]. Furthermore, partition walls are often placed in
the same positions in the different stories of a building, which limits the deflection of the
slab in these positions, thus preventing the partition cracking.
It should be noted that facade walls do not usually have important deflection problems
because they are supported by the perimeter beams or are themselves structural elements,
as in the case of masonry buildings.

2.2. Floorings
Floorings can be made with many different materials. Among them, the most dif-
fused are:
i carpet flooring (moquette);
ii synthetic materials (usually rubber, PVC, or linoleum);
iii resin;
iv timber;
v stone (e.g., marble, granite, or sandstone);
vi ceramic.
(i) Three main types of carpet can be identified, depending on the type of fabric
(namely natural, polyamide, and polyester fiber fabric [16]). However, since the mechanical
behavior of carpets is strictly related to the support to which the fabric is applied, and since
this support is generally a synthetic material (usually a rubber), the same considerations
regarding synthetic materials can be applied to carpets.
(ii) Rubber, PVC, or linoleum floorings have high deformability (see for instance [17])
and, therefore, are able to adapt to deformations and cracks of the slab.
(iii) Epoxy resins are generally employed for floorings [18]. These resins have good
strength and high deformability, although their flexural strength decreases with increasing
thickness. The values supplied by various manufacturers suggest that the thickness varies
between 1.5 and 3 mm, the flexural strength between 25 and 60 MPa, the elastic modulus
between 2800 and 4200 MPa, and the elongation at break between 7.5 and 8% [19,20]. These
values allow the flooring to withstand significant flexural deformations of the slab.
(iv) Timber floors may be nailed or glued to the subfloor. In addition, floating timber
flooring (i.e., flooring laid on an underlay that provides good noise insulation) can be found.
The first two solutions are the most sensitive to bending of the slab because the timber
floor is directly and firmly connected to it. Various types of timber board, which differ for
geometry, color, and species, can be used in timber floorings. Among the various species
available, one of the most employed is oak, which offers excellent mechanical properties
and relatively low cost. Indeed, its elastic modulus is approximately 12,500 MPa, while the
bending strength can reach 108 MPa (in the absence of defects), although these values may
vary with ambient temperature and relative humidity [21]. The thickness of the boards
generally varies between 10 and 22 mm, with the width between 70 and 250 mm and length

109
Materials 2021, 14, 7627

between 250 and 2500 mm. Due to its elastic modulus, this type of flooring is able to adapt
to deformations far greater than those generally considered acceptable for the slabs of a
multi-story building [22].
(v) The bending strength of stone tiles depends on the thickness to width ratio, as well
as on the type of stone [23]. The quality of these natural products, which is the result of
physical (e.g., porosity) and mechanical properties of the stone, can vary significantly even
for blocks extracted from the same quarry [24]. Furthermore, stone materials have a brittle
behavior [25], which makes stone floorings particularly sensitive to bending of the slab.
Floorings made by granite and marble tiles are among the most diffused solutions. In these
cases, the tile thickness may vary between 10 and 30 mm, regardless of the size, which
may vary from 50 × 50 mm2 to 600 × 1200 mm2 . The minimum bending strength found
in the literature for natural stones is 18 MPa for marble and 20 MPa for granite [26,27].
These values increase up to 64 MPa, both for marble and granite, when artificial stones are
employed [28]. Artificial stones are made industrially starting from the same precursor
materials of the corresponding natural stones and have a similar aspect and geometry
(thickness and size) [23,29].
(vi) Ceramic tiles are subjected to the provisions of EN 14411 [30], which enforces
specific characteristics and refers to EN ISO 10545-4 [31] for the determination of the tile
flexural strength by means of a three-point bending test. Tiles can have very different sizes,
with thickness up to 20 mm and size up to 1200 × 2400 mm2 . The behavior of ceramic
tiles is always elastic-brittle and depends on their width [32,33]. The determination of their
strength is complicated by the fact that many producers simply state that their ceramic tiles
exceed the minimum value imposed by EN ISO 10545-4 [31]. However, bending strength
values varying between a maximum of 55 MPa and minimum of 35 MPa, which can reduce
to 15 MPa in the case of small-size tiles (thickness less than 15 mm and size not exceeding
200 × 250 mm2 ) can be found on the market [28,34–37].

3. Limit Curvature Values

The limit curvature of a material subjected to bending is the curvature value associ-
ated with the attainment of the material tensile strength, i.e., with the occurrence of the
first crack. Available standards and design guidelines provide criteria for guaranteeing
absence of damage in brittle floorings [38]. In this paper, the limit curvatures of ceramic,
marble, and granite tiles were considered, as these flooring types are brittle and largely
used in residential and commercial buildings. For each of these materials, five different
square sizes (i.e., 300 × 300 mm2 , 400 × 400 mm2 , 600 × 600 mm2 , 900 × 900 mm2 , and
1200 × 1200 mm2 ), which reflect the sizes commonly used on the market, were considered.
It should be noted that partition walls were not considered, since they rarely crack before
floorings due to the presence of the arch effect (see Section 2.1). Therefore, flooring limit
curvatures may be considered as lower bound values with respect to limit curvatures asso-
ciated with partition walls cracking. However, when flooring cracking does not represent
an issue (e.g., in the case of flexible floorings), the same analysis proposed for floorings in
this section could be easily extended to various types of partition walls, where the limit
curvature shall be determined by analyzing the partition wall behavior (see e.g., [39]). In
this case, the limit curvature is the maximum curvature of the partition wall surface in
contact with the slab.
According to [31], the strength of ceramic tiles can be expressed by the breaking
strength (S) obtained by a three-point bending test:

FL
S= (1)
b
where F is the breaking force, L is the span between the supports, and b is the width of the
specimen. Therefore, the associated bending moment at breaking (Mu ) is:

FL
Mu = (2)
4

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Materials 2021, 14, 7627

and the limit curvature of the tile (χlim ) (a plate bent in one direction only) is:

12 1 − ν2 Mu 3 1 − ν2 S



χlim = = (3)
bEs3 Es3
where E is the material elastic modulus, ν the Poisson’s ratio, and s the thickness of
the specimen.
Considering ceramic tiles currently available on the market and setting E = 60 GPa
and ν = 0.28 [40,41], Equation (3) was used to compute the limit curvatures for the tile sizes
studied, which are reported in Table 1. In Table 1, the breaking strengths (S) considered are
representative values currently available on the market for each specific tile size [28,34–37].

Table 1. Limit curvatures of ceramic tiles.

Size [mm] s [mm] S [N] χlim [10−5 mm−1 ]

300 × 300 9.5 750 4.03
400 × 400 9.5 900 4.84
600 × 600 10 900 4.15
900 × 900 10 1000 4.61
1200 × 1200 20 1200 6.91

The strength of marble and granite tiles is usually expressed by the bending strength
f [31]:
3FL
f = (4)
2bs2
Therefore, the limit curvature can be obtained as:

12 1 − ν2 Mu 2 1 − ν2 f



χlim = = (5)
bEs3 Es
The limit curvatures computed for marble tiles (E = 123 GPa and ν = 0.25 [29]) are
shown in Table 2, whereas Table 3 shows the limit curvatures computed for granite tiles
(E = 90 GPa and ν = 0.25 [29]); f in Tables 2 and 3 are representative values of the bending
strength for the specific tile size considered and available on the market.

Table 2. Limit curvatures of marble tiles.

Size [mm] s [mm] f [MPa] χlim [10−5 mm−1 ]

300 × 300 20 12 0.85
400 × 400 20 12 0.85
600 × 600 20 35 2.49
900 × 900 30 35 1.66
1200 × 1200 30 50 2.37

Table 3. Limit curvatures of granite tiles.

Size [mm] s [mm] f [MPa] χlim [10−5 mm−1 ]

300 × 300 20 12 1.18
400 × 400 20 12 1.18
600 × 600 20 25 2.47
900 × 900 30 25 1.64
1200 × 1200 30 35 2.30

The elastic moduli of these materials are extremely variable, in relation to the porosity
of the material. Furthermore, stone tiles can be natural or artificial, i.e., obtained with a
sintering process that maximizes their mechanical characteristics [28]. There are marble

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Materials 2021, 14, 7627

tiles with an elastic modulus between 57 GPa and 123 GPa, while the elastic modulus of
ceramic tiles may vary between 40 GPa and 60 GPa. Since the elastic modulus is almost
never declared by the manufacturers, in this paper the highest values of E found in the
literature were conservatively considered.

4. Comparison between the Eurocode Limits and the Performance Requirements of

the Flooring
In this section, the three member types considered, namely rib and clay pot, composite
steel–concrete, and timber beam slabs, are designed to respect the deflection limits provided
by the Eurocodes. The maximum curvature of these members is then compared with the
limit curvature obtained for the floorings considered, in order to verify the reliability of
this approach.
The deflection of a structural member depends on its geometry, mechanical properties,
number of spans, type of constraints, and applied loads. Considering uniformly distributed
applied loads, the case of a simply supported beam provides the highest maximum deflec-
tion. Therefore, this configuration is adopted here, although any different configuration
could be analyzed depending on the specific case studied. According to [6], the uniformly
distributed load was determined as the sum of the self-weight of the building slab, includ-
ing flooring, of a load of 2 kN/m2 , which is the distributed (equivalent) load of partition
walls made of hollow clay bricks, and of a variable load of 2 kN/m2 or 5 kN/m2 , which are
the variable loads for residential and commercial buildings, respectively. Four values of the
span were considered, namely 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, and 7 m. These span values are representative
of common values adopted for the slab types studied in this paper. While span values
shorter than 4 m would lead to small maximum deflections, which are not likely to impair
the integrity of the floor, spans larger than 7 m would lead to excessive slab depth, which
would rarely be adopted in practice.
Different concrete classes were considered in the calculations, which provided consis-
tent results regardless of the concrete strength. Indeed, it should be noted that the concrete
strength does not play a fundamental role in the definition of the member deflection,
where the elastic modulus (not the strength) is the crucial parameter. With increasing the
concrete compressive strength, the elastic modulus only slightly increases (e.g., increasing
the concrete class from C25/30 to C40/50 leads to an increase of the elastic modulus of
only 17% [4]). Furthermore, provided a certain span and applied load, the concrete class
affects the height of the designed cross-section, while the maximum deflection (enforced by
the Eurocodes) remains the same. In general, an increase in the concrete strength leads to a
decrease of the member cross-section height, which, in turn, may determine an increase of
the slab deflection. However, high concrete strength is associated with low shrinkage and
high concrete tensile strength, which entail for small cracked portions and a consequent
decrease of the slab deflection. These contrasting effects (decrease of the cross-section
height and high concrete properties) do not generally lead to significant differences in the
deflection of slabs with concrete of different strength classes. Therefore, only the results
obtained considering a concrete class C25/30 are provided in this paper.

4.1. Rib and Clay Pot Slab

A representative rib and clay pot slab cross-section with ceramic and stone floorings
was considered in this study (Figure 1). The cross-section geometry, which was determined
starting from the standardized geometry of the hollow blocks, was kept constant except for
the height (H). Provided the applied load associated with the specific flooring and type
of building (residential or commercial, see previous section), the minimum value of the
height (H) was calculated in order to satisfy the deflection limit enforced by Eurocode 2
(independently of the height of the hollow blocks effectively available on the market). This
H value was then considered to verify whether the maximum curvature along the member
exceeds the limit values provided in Tables 1–3.

112
Materials 2021, 14, 7627

Figure 1. Cross-section of the rib slab with (A) ceramic and (B) stone floorings.

The rib and clay pot slabs were designed assuming no contribution of the cemen-
titious underlayment and hollow blocks (Figure 1) to the slab structural response. The
underlayment is usually made with a mixture of water, sand, and cement and has a low
compressive strength, which can be neglected.
The hollow blocks are employed to decrease the weight of the slab and, unless specific
cases where they have low percentage of voids and certain geometrical characteristics [42],
do not contribute to the structural response of the slab.
Eurocode 2 allows two alternative verifications for the limit state of deflection, one
based on a limit of the span/depth ratio and the other on a limit of the deflection. The deflec-
tion limits cannot be directly compared with the limit curvatures of the floorings. Moreover,
two distinct limits for the deflection of horizontal members are provided, namely:
i “the appearance and general utility of the structure could be impaired when the
calculated sag of a beam, slab or cantilever subjected to quasi-permanent loads exceeds
span/250” [4];
ii “deflections that could damage adjacent parts of the structure should be limited.
For the deflection after construction, span/500 is normally an appropriate limit for
quasi-permanent loads” [4].
The presence of two different limits is confusing and deflection values lower than
these limits do not always guarantee the absence of damage to the superstructures. In fact,
these limits should be verified only with respect to the quasi-permanent load combination,
without considering other load combinations associated with service loads (e.g., the char-
acteristic combination) that might affect the construction appearance. However, limiting
the deflection verification to the quasi-permanent load combination does not guarantee
the integrity of the superstructures under the characteristic load combination, which will
certainly occur during the service life of the structure.

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Materials 2021, 14, 7627

The minimum cross-section height (Hmin ) that satisfies limits (i) or (ii) of Eurocode 2
was determined iteratively by matching the calculated sag with the sag limit value (wmax )
(i.e., span/250 or span/500):
w(Hmin ) = wmax (6)
After assigning the guess value of H, the phases of the iterative process were:
1. Determination of the self-weight of the member (slab).
2. Determination of the cross-section cracking moment, where the tensile strength of
concrete was computed according to Eurocode 2 [4].
3. Identification of the structural element cracked segment (located at midspan) and of
the two symmetrical uncracked segments (located at the supports).
4. Computation of the second moment of area (J) of the reinforced concrete cross-section
of each segment: χ
Z
χmaxJ = y2 dA
= χmax,𝑝𝑙 max,𝜈 ∑
+ cχ+ m − χA 2
si ysi
max,𝑝
(7)
Ac i
χ χ
where Ac is the concrete
χ un-cracked area (i.e., the 𝐸𝑐𝑚entire cross-sectional
/[1 + φ(∞, 𝑡0 )] area
φ(∞, when
𝑡0 ) J is
associated with a bending moment lower than the cracking moment or concrete compressed
area when J is associated with a bending moment 𝑀max,𝜈 higher than or equal to the cracking
moment), y is the vertical distance χmeasured
max,ν =
𝐸𝑐𝑚from
𝐽 the cross-section neutral axis, Asi is
the i-th longitudinal steel cross-sectional area, ysi the vertical distance between the i-th
longitudinal steel cross-section centroid 𝑀max,𝑝
χmax,𝑝 = and the neutral axis, and m is the ratio between
the steel elastic modulus Es = 200 GPa [43] 𝐸𝑐𝑚and
𝐽 concrete effective elastic modulus Ece . To
account for the long-term behavior of the RC
𝑀max,𝑝𝑙 cross-section under the quasi-permanent load
combination, Ece was computed χ = [1 + φ(∞, 𝑡 )]
as Ece𝐸 =𝐽 Ecm /[1 + ϕ(0∞, t0 )], where Ecm is the concrete
max,𝑝𝑙
𝑐𝑚
elastic modulus at 28 days, and ϕ(∞, t0 ) is the creep coefficient [4].
5. Determination of the sag w(H) under the quasi-permanent load.
6. Comparison of the sag w(H) with the limit wmax and determination of a new guess
value of H, until the calculated sag matches the limit value.
The minimum cross-section height (Hmin ), obtained for the four spans considered in
the case of rib and clay pot slab with ceramic and marble or granite tiles and the different
variable loads selected, are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Hmin computed for 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, and 7 m span of the rib and clay pot slab.

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Once Hmin was determined, the cross-section curvature at midspan due to the maxi-
mum service load, i.e., the maximum curvature χmax , was computed and then compared
with χlim . Since the flooring is applied when the structure is already bent due to the pres-
ence of the permanent load, χmax was computed as the sum of curvature due to long-term
permanent load χmax,pl and the curvature due to variable load χmax,v , minus the curvature
due to the permanent load acting when the flooring was applied χmax,p (i.e., in the absence
of concrete creep):
χmax = χmax,pl + χmax,ν − χmax,p (8)
χmax,v and χmax,p were computed considering the secant modulus of elasticity of con-
crete Ecm , whereas χmax,pl was computed considering Ecm /[1 + ϕ(∞, t0 )], where ϕ(∞, t0 )
is the concrete creep coefficient:

Mmax,ν
χmax,ν = (9)
Ecm J

Mmax,p
χmax,p = (10)
Ecm J
Mmax,pl
χmax,pl = [1 + ϕ(∞, t0 )] (11)
Ecm J
where Mmax,v , Mmax,p , and Mmax,pl are the maximum bending moments associated with
the variable load, permanent load acting when the flooring was applied, and long-term
permanent load, respectively, and J is the second moment of area of the cross-section
considered. It should be noted that, although the use of this approach to account for
the long-term behavior of concrete is only an approximation, it provides conservative
results [4,44,45] and a refined and complex analysis (see for instance [46]) would not
markedly affect the calculated curvature.
The effect of slab shrinkage was neglected in this paper because it was assumed that,
when the flooring was placed, the slab already underwent most of the drying shrinkage
and no significant further shrinkage would occur. However, even in those cases where
the slab is still undergoing shrinkage when the flooring is applied, shrinkage will not
play a significant role in the slab curvature. Shrinkage may induce curvature to RC
members due to the eccentricity of the steel longitudinal reinforcement with respect to
the cross-section centroid [47]. However, RC members usually have both tension and
compression longitudinal steel reinforcement, which limits the effect of shrinkage on
the cross-section curvature. Furthermore, the effect of shrinkage on the cross-section
curvature is significantly lower than that of creep. As an example, considering the 5 m
span slab made by concrete with fck = 35 MPa and where the top (or bottom) face is fully
constrained, when the deflection limit is set to L/500, the corresponding minimum slab
height is 275 mm and the curvature induced by shrinkage after 10,000 days (member
loaded after 3 days from casting, notional size conservatively assumed equal to 275 mm,
RH = 75%) is χsh = 1.345·10−6 , according to the approach provided by Model Code 2010 [48].
The comparison between this curvature and that obtained for the same cross-section with
Equation (8), considering a span L = 5 m and a variable load q = 2 kN/m2 , χmax = 1.580·10−5 ,
shows that neglecting shrinkage would lead to an underestimation of the cross-section
curvature of only 8.5%. This underestimation decreases to 3.5% if the deflection limit
is set to L/250 and a variable load q = 5 kN/m2 is considered. These examples—which
overestimated the shrinkage contribution to the cross-section curvature, since one side
of the cross-section was assumed fully constrained—support the decision of neglecting
shrinkage in the computation of the cross-section maximum curvature.
The results of the comparison between the curvature χmax and the flooring limit
curvature χlim are summarized in Figure 3, where red markers indicate cases where the
flooring cracks, although the specific Eurocode 2 limit was respected. When the span/250
limit was adopted, flooring cracking occurred in the majority (76.7%) of the cases. However,
even when the span/500 limit was adopted, 34.1% of cases led to flooring cracking. The

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comparison between the maximum curvature (χmax ) and limit curvature (χlim ) showed
that damage of the floorings occurred more frequently for small spans than for large spans.
This result is due to the use of the deflection limits provided by the Eurocode to design the
slab thickness. In the case of a simply supported beam with a parabolic bending moment
along its axis, the relationship between the deflection limit provided by the Eurocode was
wmax = L/k, where k is a dimensionless parameter related to the specific structure type, and
the maximum curvature χmax can be expressed as:

L 5 48
wmax = = χmax L2 ⇒ χmax = (12)
k 48 5kL

Figure 3. Comparison between the maximum and limit curvatures of floorings for rib and clay pot slabs.

Equation (12) –clearly shows that, provided the parameter k, the maximum curvature
that complies with the Eurocodes decreases for increasing – spans. Since the limit curvature
is constant (provided a certain type of tyle), a low value of L implies higher probability of
damage of flooring.
The limit curvature of tiles in Figure 3 depends on their bending stiffness, which was
obtained from experimental tests performed according to specific standards and reported
in the datasheet. It should be noted that– varying the dimension of the tile does not entail for
a linear variation of its thickness, whereas the elastic modulus remains constant. Therefore,
the limit curvature does not vary linearly with the variation of the tile dimension, which
explains why flooring cracking seems independent from the tile dimensions in Figure 3.

4.2. Composite Steel–Concrete Slab

The design and requirements for composite steel–concrete slabs are provided by
Eurocode 4 [6]. According to it, the maximum deflection of these types of structural
member should comply with the limits enforced by Eurocode 3 [49], which, in turn, refers
to the national annex. Therefore, the deflection limit span/250 under the characteristic load
combination [9] adopted by the Italian code [50] will be considered in this section.
A representative composite steel–concrete slab cross-section with ceramic and stone
floorings was considered in this study (Figure 4).

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 –

Materials 2021, 14, 7627

–

Figure 4. Cross-section of the composite steel–concrete slab with (A) ceramic and (B) stone floorings.

The cross-section geometry, which was determined starting from standardized I-

shaped steel beam geometry, was kept constant, except for the second moment of area
of the steel beam. Provided the applied load associated with the specific flooring and
type of building (residential or commercial), the minimum value of the steel beam second
moment of area Jmin was (iteratively), computed to match the deflection limit span/250.
The presence of creep of concrete and effective width (beff ) were taken into account in the
calculations, following the procedure proposed in [6]. Jmin obtained for the four spans
considered with ceramic and marble or granite tiles and the different variable loads selected
are shown in Figure 5.
The results of the comparison between the curvature (χmax ) and the flooring limit
curvature (χlim ) are reported in Figure 6, where red markers indicate cases where the
flooring cracks. Figure 6 shows that, although the deflection limit span/250 was fulfilled,
large ceramic tiles cracked, despite the fact that the adopted steel beams were commer-
cially available products and, therefore, their second moment of area was higher than the
minimum required (Jmin ).

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 χ
χ

Materials 2021, 14, 7627

–
Figure 5. Jmin computed for 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, and 7 m span of the composite steel–concrete slab.

Figure 6. Comparison between the maximum and limit curvatures of floorings for composite steel––
concrete slabs.

4.3. Traditional Slab Made of Timber Beams and Planks

The approach of Eurocode 5 [7] to the deflection analysis of timber structures is
complex, since limits on the instant sag (winst ), final net sag (wnet,fin ), and final sag (wfin ) are
enforced. For each sag considered, a range of limit values within which the specific sag limit
should be determined based on the determined acceptable level of member deformation, is

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provided. For the sake of simplicity, only the wnet,fin limit, which ranges between span/250
and span/350 for simply supported beams [7], is considered in this section. However, the
same approach described for wnet,fin can be applied in the case of winst and wfin .
A representative cross-section of a traditional slab made by timber beams and planks
with ceramic and stone floorings was considered in this study (Figure 7). Similar to the
case of rib slabs (Section 4.1), the cross-section was kept constant, except for the height H
of the timber beams (joists), which was iteratively computed to match the minimum and
maximum limit deflections of the range provided by Eurocode 5 [7], i.e., span/250 and
span/350, respectively.

Figure 7. Cross-section of the timber beam and plank slab with (A) ceramic and (B) stone floorings.

Timber beams develop time-dependent (creep) deformation when subjected to long-

term applied loads. Equation (13) was used in this study to compute the final net sag,
accounting for the beam creep and shear deformations [7]:

𝑤(𝐻
w( H ) =) g∆
minmin (1 + k+def𝑘)def+) q∆
= 𝑔∆(1 + 𝑞∆(1 + ψk2.1
(1 + ψ 𝑘 =) w
2.1 def )def
=net,fin
𝑤net,fin (13)
4 2
5 5 L4𝐿 L𝐿2
∆ =∆= × × 4 4 ++αα 22
(14)
16 16 Em𝐸Hmmin 4𝐺
𝐻min 4GmmH𝐻min
min

where g is the permanent load, q the variable load, kdef = 0.6 a deformation factor that
accounts for creep deformations, ψ2.1 = 0.7
ψ2.1 = 0.7 the factor for quasi-permanent value of a
α α = 1.2 is the form factor [51], and Em = 11.6 GPa and Gm = 720 MPa are
variable action [9],
the timber elastic and shear modulus, respectively [52].
The minimum cross-section height (Hmin ) obtained for the four spans considered with
ceramic and marble or granite tiles and the different variable loads selected, are shown
χ
χ 119
Materials 2021, 14, 7627

in Figure 8. The results of the comparison between the curvature (χmax ) and flooring
limit curvature (χlim ) are reported in Figure 9, where red markers indicate cases where the
flooring cracks. Figure 9 shows that ceramic tiles with large size (i.e., 1200 × 1200 mm2 )
cracked in almost all cases (93.8%) considered, whereas 5% of marble tiles and no granite
tiles cracked.

Figure 8. Hmin computed for 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, and 7 m span of the timber slab.

Figure 9. Comparison between the maximum and limit curvatures of floorings for traditional timber beam and plank slabs.

4.4. Effect of the Underlayment

The analyses described in Sections 4.1–4.3
– were carried out assuming a rigid cemen-
titious underlayment (Figures 1, 4 and 7).– To verify the reliability of this assumption, a
non-linear finite element (FE) model of a strip 1 m wide and 4 m long of the rib and clay
pot slab, designed in Section 4.1, was used to obtain the flooring curvature considering
a deformable underlayment. The same analysis was carried out for the composite steel– –
–

120 –
–
oisson’s ratio of the underlayment and floorings mod-
Materials 2021, 14, 7627

concrete and timber beam slabs of Sections 4.2 and 4.3, but the results were not described
here for brevity. All models were developed in the FE software Abaqus [53].
Three types of underlayment [54–57] and three types of flooring, with mechanical
properties assumed according to the values provided by [58], were considered in the FE
model. The elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the underlayment and floorings modeled
are reported in Table 4.

Table 4. Mechanical properties of underlayment and floorings modeled.

Poisson’s Ratio
Material Elastic Modulus [GPa] Poisson’s Ratio
Concrete 32 0.20
Underlayment 1
11 0.20
(cementitious)
Underlayment 2
18 0.20
(cementitious)
Underlayment 3
25 0.20
(cementitious)
Flooring: ceramic tiles 60 0.28
Flooring: marble tiles 132 0.25
Flooring: granite tiles 90 0.25

The C25/30 concrete was modeled using the concrete damaged plasticity–model (CDP)
available in Abaqus, whereas the cementitious underlayment, which was assumed to
behave as a granular-like soil, was modeled using a linear Drucker–Prager model [53]. The
parameters needed for the CDP model were defined ψ following the procedure suggested
in [59], which provided a dilation angle ψ = 36◦ [53], whereas the concrete secant elastic
modulus Ecm = 31 GPa provided by the Eurocode 2 for a C25/30 concrete was considered. φ
The underlayment was modeled considering a linear behavior (friction angle ϕ = 30◦ )
up to the minimum tensile strength required by EN 13813 [58], i.e., 5 MPa, which was
followed by a softening behavior to account for possible material failure [60]. The softening
branch was defined following the softening curve generally adopted for cohesive materials
proposed by [61], which conservatively did not account for compaction of the granular-like
underlayment. A 950 N force, which simulates the force induced by the foot of a bookcase,
was applied as a uniformly distributed load on a 40 mm diameter circular surface. Different
mesh sizes, of either 8-node solid elements or 4-node tetrahedral elements, were used to
investigate their effect on the model convergence and time required to obtain the solution.
This study resulted in a FE model discretized using 8-node solid elements with approximate
dimensions of 20 × 20 × 20 mm3 (see Figure 10).

Figure 10. Discretization of the FE model.

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The cross-section deformations, obtained by the FE model, were used to obtain the
curvatures of the flooring and of the supporting slab. The results showed that the maximum
difference between the curvature of the flooring and of the supporting slab was always
lower than 2%, in all the cases considered (Figure 11). This confirms that assuming a rigid
underlayment did not significantly affect the result of the analytical procedure adopted
in this paper. The same conclusion was obtained for composite steel–concrete and timber
beam slabs.

Figure 11. Comparison between the FE model curvatures of the rib and clay pot slab and those of the flooring.

5. Discussion
The analysis carried out on the different slab and flooring types showed that the
deflection limits provided by the Eurocodes do not always guarantee the integrity of the
superstructures. The approach adopted by the Eurocodes could be improved by reducing
the maximum displacement allowed. Nevertheless, the study carried out highlights some
limitations of the deflection control method, at least in the case of reinforced concrete
or rib and clay pot slabs, where the calculation of the deflection is so complex that it
is either oversimplified or not performed at all. Indeed, under service conditions, the
simultaneous presence of cracked and non-cracked areas, which are also affected by
time-dependent (viscous) phenomena and oligo-cyclic variable loads, makes correctly
computing the member deflection extremely difficult [62]. The temporal evolution of the
behavior of a reinforced concrete cracked section is already a quite complex problem (see
for instance [43]). If then the effect of tension stiffening has to be accounted for, together
with its temporal evolution due to creep, and the integration of all these phenomena over
the whole length of the beam has to be carried out, the problem becomes unreasonable for
a professional engineer, who must necessarily maintain a correct cost-benefit ratio in the
design work. Design standards should, as far as possible, provide rules that respect this
ratio. To overcome the issues associated with the deflection control method, a curvature
control method, as a verification method of the horizontal member deflection under service
loads, is proposed and discussed in the next sections.

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5.1. Curvature Control Method

In this section, the possibility of using the criterion adopted to verify the reliability of
the Eurocode deflection limits, i.e., the comparison between the maximum member curva-
ture (χmax ) and limit curvature of the specific finishing elements (χlim ) (or conservatively
of the stiffest finishing elements), is discussed.
This method, referred to as curvature control method, is more reliable than the de-
flection control method currently provided by the Eurocodes, since it allows a direct
comparison with the limit curvature of the finishing elements. Furthermore, computing
the maximum member curvature is simpler than computing the corresponding maximum
deflection. Indeed, the member deflection depends on several factors, including the load
type and distribution, member static scheme, and flexural stiffness of the various elements
that compose it, which determines the need of a double integration of the curvature along
the entire member extent to compute its maximum deflection. This calculation becomes
particularly complex when dealing with cracked concrete, since, in this case, the flexural
stiffness varies along the member.
The curvature control method, unlike the deflection control method, requires a local
analysis at the cross-section with the highest bending moment, independent of the member
static scheme. The curvature is independent of the member span, which is required only to
define the maximum service bending moment. Therefore, provided the maximum service
bending moment and cross-section bending stiffness, the cross-section curvature can be
simply computed without any integration along the member axis. For those cases where
a deflection control is still required (e.g., to guarantee adequate drainage), the member
maximum deflection could be computed by double integration of the limit curvature,
which could be conservatively assumed constant along the longitudinal axis of the member
considered. This computation would not require the knowledge of the curvature along the
member and provide conservative results.
As an example of the advantages of adopting a curvature control rather than a deflec-
tion control method, the case of the Generali Tower, a 44-story building by Zaha Hadid
Architects, built in Milan (Italy), between 2014 and 2017, is examined. The building
structure consists of columns and a central core supporting structural slabs, all made
of reinforced concrete. When performing the deflection control in point A of Figure 12,
according to Eurocode 2 [4], many different spans (indicated with arrows in Figure 12) can
be considered, each providing a specific deflection limit. Although considering the shortest
span would lead to the smallest maximum deflection possible, this value could be either
applied to the entire slab or only to the span selected, while other values could be computed
for the other spans. By performing the deflection control based on the curvature limit, this
issue does not exist, since a unique value of the maximum curvature under service loads is
associated to point A. A simple finite element model of the building (needed due to the
complexity of the structure) would be sufficient to determine the cross-sections with the
highest applied stress and corresponding bending moments in two orthogonal directions,
which can be used to compute the cross-section maximum curvature.

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Materials 2021, 14, 7627

Figure 12. Plan of the fifth floor of the Generali Tower (by Zaha Hadid Architects) in Milan.

5.2. Deflection Control Based on the Limit Curvature

Assuming that the flexural stiffness along the member longitudinal axis is constant
and equal to the flexural stiffness of the cross-section associated with the maximum bend-
ing moment, the limit curvature could be used to conservatively estimate the member
maximum deflection, such that no damage occurs to the superstructures. Considering the
case of a generic simply supported ribbed slab where the shear deformability is neglected
under service loads, the maximum curvature can be computed as the sum of the curvature
due to permanent loads (indicated with the subscript g) and curvature due to variable
loads (indicated with the subscript q):

Mmax,g Mmax,q
χlim ≤ + (15)
( EJ ) g ( EJ )q

where (EJ)g and (EJ)q are the cross-section flexural stiffness under the permanent and
variable loads, respectively, which may differ due to the cross-section applied stress and
short- or long-term material properties considered. Equation (15) provides a simple solution
to compute the cross-section curvature. Flexural stiffnesses under permanent and variable
loads were defined separately to properly account for concrete creep, which is associated
with the permanent load. Following the approach of Eurocode 2 [4], the flexural stiffnesses
under permanent loads can be defined as:

( EJ ) g = Ecm J/[1 + ϕ(t, t0 )] (16)

where ϕ(∞, t0 ) ≈ 2 and J is the cross section second moment of area computed with Equa-
tion (7). Although more refined approaches can be adopted (see e.g., [46]), they would require
complex numerical solutions that do not appear suitable for current practice applications.
Note that creep plays a major role in the definition of the limit curvature and should not be
neglected. As an example, in the case of rib and clay pot slabs with span varying from 4 m to
7 m (see Figure 2), neglecting creep (i.e., setting ϕ(∞, t0 ) = 0) would result in an average slab
maximum curvature (χmax ) 61% and 40% lower than that obtained when considering creep
when the variable load is q = 2 kN/m2 and q = 5 kN/m2 , respectively.
Assuming uniformly distributed applied loads, Equation (15) can be rewritten as:
" #
gL2 qL2 L2 g q g q 8χ
χlim ≤ + = + ]⇒[ + ≤ lim (17)
8( EJ ) g 8( EJ )q 8 ( EJ ) g ( EJ )q ( EJ ) g ( EJ )q L2

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Similarly, the maximum vertical displacement (wmax ) of the same generic simply
supported ribbed slab can be obtained as the sum of the displacement induced by the
permanent loads and displacement induced by the variable loads:
" # " #
5 gL4 qL4 5L4 g q
wmax = + = + (18)
384 ( EJ ) g ( EJ )q 384 ( EJ ) g ( EJ )q

wmax can be expressed as a function of the limit curvature by substituting Equation (17)
into Equation (18):
5χ L2
wmax ≤ lim (19)
48
According to the Eurocodes, the maximum deflection should respect the inequality in
Equation (20) (see Section 4.1):
L
wmax ≤ (20)
k
where k is a dimensionless parameter related to the specific structure type. Therefore,
rearranging Equation (20) and substituting wmax provided by Equation (19) into it, k can be
expressed as a function of the limit curvature:

48
k≤ (21)
5χlim L

Equation (21) shows that k is independent of the flexural stiffness of the element and
applied loads, which makes it suitable for applications to any type of structure. Further-
more, the ratio 48/5 in Equation (21) accounts for the specific applied load distribution
(this ratio is equal to 12 in the case of a simply supported beam with a concentrated load at
midspan), whereas the approach adopted by the Eurocodes [i.e., Equation (20)] is indepen-
dent from it. If a check based on the curvature control method is adopted, the structural
scheme of the slab would not affect the results.
These considerations indicate that the approach adopted by the Eurocodes, based on
the vertical displacement limit, may lead to uncertainties in the evaluation of the maximum
displacement allowed and provide non-conservative results for certain slab configurations,
whereas the approach based on the curvature control method appears more rapid and
reliable. Moreover, adopting the curvature control method would allow us to define a
general limit curvature for all types of flooring that would work as a minimum product
performance target for the manufacturers and, at the same time, guarantee the absence of
cracking in the floorings. Finally, the curvature control method could be also conveniently
applied in specific problems associated with the use of innovative technologies that are
emerging in the world of construction, such as the case of bridge slabs reinforced with
glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars. In this case, the slab design is controlled by the
deformability (rather than by the strength), which should be limited to ensure the integrity
of the asphalt pavement under the characteristic load combination [10]. Therefore, a simple
comparison between the maximum curvature allowed for the asphalt and corresponding
slab curvature would be sufficient to verify the slab deformability.

6. Conclusions
This paper analyzed the approach provided by the Eurocodes to limit the deflection of
horizontal structural members and, in turn, guarantee the integrity of the superstructures.
Different types of horizontal member, namely rib and clay pot (or hollow block), composite
steel–concrete, and timber beam slabs were designed to respect the deflection limit enforced
by the Eurocodes. The maximum curvature of these members was compared with the limit
curvatures of various types of flooring to verify the occurrence of damage. The results
obtained allowed for drawing the following conclusions:

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Materials 2021, 14, 7627

• The deflection limit method adopted by the Eurocodes is complex and does not always
guarantee the absence of damage to the floorings. Although the rules enforced by the
Eurocodes for a reinforced concrete or a rib and clay pot slab were respected (except
for tension stiffening that was neglected), up to 76.7% of the ceramic, marble, and
granite floorings cracked. Furthermore, when dealing with a reinforced concrete or a
rib and clay pot slab, the Eurocode 2 approach requires taking into account cracking,
concrete creep, and tension stiffening, which make it extremely complex and hardly
applicable for a professional engineer.
• The curvature control method is much simpler than the deflection control method
adopted by the Eurocodes, since a direct verification on the curvature limits is per-
formed. The curvature control method only requires a cross-section analysis, whereas
the deflection control method requires the integration of curvature along the entire
member axis.
• The curvature control method considers the constraint of the slab by computing
the maximum curvature from the maximum service bending moment, calculated
considering geometry, constraints, and intended use of the slab. Similarly, the limit
imposed to the displacement in the deflection limit method seems independent from
the constraints acting on the slab (it depends just on the span), which are accounted
for in the computation of the maximum deflection.
• The curvature control method would allow for defining a general limit curvature value
for floorings that could be adopted as minimum performance level in standards and
would be able to guarantee the absence of flooring cracking. Furthermore, it appears
promising for applications to specific problems arising with the use of innovative
technologies, as in the case of bridge slabs reinforced with GFRP bars in which the
design is controlled by the slab deformability rather than by its strength.
In conclusion, this research tries, through an alternative proposal, to open the dis-
cussion on the theme of deflection control in horizontal members, which is traditionally
considered well-established, although it presents unsolved issues.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.D. and M.A.P.; data curation, M.A.P.; investigation, T.D.
and M.A.P.; writing—original draft, M.A.P.; writing—draft review, T.D. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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 materials
Article
The Development of a New Phosphogypsum-Based
Construction Material: A Study of the Physicochemical,
Mechanical and Thermal Characteristics
Hela Garbaya 1,2 , Abderraouf Jraba 1,2 , Mohamed Amine Khadimallah 3, * and Elimame Elaloui 1

1 Laboratory of Materials Applications in Environment, Water and Energy, Faculty of Sciences,

University of Gafsa, Gafsa 6029, Tunisia; [email protected] (H.G.); [email protected] (A.J.);
[email protected] (E.E.)
2 Faculty of Sciences of Gabes, University of Gabes, Gabes 6029, Tunisia
3 Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University,
Al-Kharj 16273, Saudi Arabia
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Phosphogypsum (PG) is a waste (or by-product) of the production of phosphoric acid, a
basic constituent in the manufacturing of modern fertilizers. The annual production of phospho-
gypsum in Tunisia is currently estimated to be 10 million tons. Its storage in slag in close proximity
to production plants generates pollution problems; however, valorization may be a solution. The
present paper proposes a simple process for the valorization of this by-product into a construction
material. Several physicochemical characterizations are used to prove the characteristics of samples.
Citation: Garbaya, H.; Jraba, A.;
Khadimallah, M.A.; Elaloui, E.
The chemical composition shows that PG is a gypsum compound with several impurities. The
The Development of a New morphological analyses show that the powder materials are mesoporous with a lower specific area.
Phosphogypsum-Based Construction The structural characterizations show that these solids play the role of a water pump as the degree of
Material: A Study of the hydration changes from 2 to 0 and vice versa, depending on the temperature. Mechanical and thermal
Physicochemical, Mechanical and analyses show that the prepared formulation is brittle and insulating, which presents opportunities
Thermal Characteristics. Materials for it to be used as a decoration material.
2021, 14, 7369. https://doi.org/
10.3390/ma14237369 Keywords: phosphogypsum; valorization; construction material; mechanical and thermal properties

Academic Editors: Dario De

Domenico and Luís Filipe Almeida
Bernardo
1. Introduction
Received: 8 October 2021
Phosphogypsum (PG) represents the majority of the solid waste produced by the
Accepted: 29 November 2021 phosphate industry. Phosphoric acid and calcium sulfate dehydrate phosphogypsum are
Published: 1 December 2021 produced by the decomposition of extracted raw phosphate rocks with concentrated sulfu-
ric acid at a temperature range of 75–80 ◦ C. The chemical reaction of PG production is [1]:
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
(Ca3 (PO4 )2 )3 CaF2 + 10H2 SO4 + 20H2 O → 6H3 PO4 + 10CaSO4 .2H2 O + 2HF
published maps and institutional affil-
iations. Phosphoric acid is mainly used in the production of phosphorus fertilizers such as
DAP (diammonium phosphate) and MAP (monoammonium phosphate). For every ton of
P2 O5 produced as phosphoric acid, five tons of dry mass phosphogypsum are produced.
This equates to an annual quantity of waste of 10 million tons. Phosphogypsum is usually
deposited in large stockpiles without any treatment [2–4].
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
For decades, the only way of recycling PG was by using it as an additive in agriculture.
This article is an open access article
Mesic et al. demonstrated the positive effects of PG for soil, water and plants [5]. Waste PG
distributed under the terms and is used mainly in agriculture with several methods of recycling for the fertilization and
conditions of the Creative Commons amelioration of soil rentability. It is used as a fertilizer in agriculture because of its high
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// volumes of calcium, phosphorus and sulfur [6].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Many studies have suggested that phosphogypsum can be used as a substitute for natural
4.0/). gypsum to control the hydration reaction rate in Portland cement production [7]. PG has also

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Materials 2021, 14, 7369

been used in the manufacturing of bricks: the incorporation of 30% of PG into annealed clay
bricks provides a product that successfully satisfies the standard requirements [8].
In 2021, Ajam [9] proved that the use of Tunisian PG in non-load-bearing brick fab-
rication requires a low amount of energy and consumes a large amount of waste, which
largely reduces environmental pollution, in addition to the high socioeconomic benefits. In
addition, this study shows that the radioactive emission of the components of this brick
is below the limit values recommended by the standards, and therefore its use is safe.
Moreover, Hamdi et al. 2020 [10] prove that Tunisian PG have potential uptake in the
material construction industry as paving blocks.
Despite the recycling routes presented above, the large quantities of phosphogypsum
generated pose a problem of space especially in urban areas. Over 85% of PG is stored in
close proximity to phosphoric acid production units in stockpiles that can reach tens of
meters in height. The remaining 15% is either reused or thrown into the sea [11,12]. This
management of PG waste presents an extreme threat to human and marine life. The study
by Rouis et al. [13] shows that phosphogypsum is a by-product that harms the environment
if not stored properly; the storage and recycling of phosphogypsum present the main
challenges of the phosphate industry in many countries [8].
In light of the above, the objective of the present paper is presented in four parts.
The first part is the study of the radioactivity of generated phosphogypsum, aiming to
ensure that PG is safe to be used as construction material. The second part examines
the physicochemical characteristics of raw, washed and treated PG as well as prepared
samples (PGM) using FTIR, XRD, SEM, EDX, adsorption/desorption of N2 at 77 K and XRF
analyses. The last section discusses the mechanical and thermal behaviors of the prepared
formulation.

2. PG Radioactivity
Usually, PG contains radioactive elements. The radioactivity of PG (in particular (α))
is due to the radium content resulting from the decomposition of uranium (present in the
phosphate ore). To ensure that the use of PG as a construction material does not pose any
danger to users, we have chosen the study of the radioactivity of two types of PG (PG from
Croatia and PG from Tunisia).
The activities and concentrations of the different radionuclides in Croatia PG (Lonjsko
Polje Nature Park) [14] are presented in Table 1. The major sources of radioactivity in PG are
238 U and 232 Th [15]. Uranium is the main environmental radiotoxic element associated with

phosphoric acid production; it is transferred from a non-mobile fraction in the phosphate

rock to a bioavailable fraction in phosphogypsum [16].

Table 1. Radioactive nuclides in PG.

Nuclide 238 U 226 Ra 228 Ra 228 Th 330 Th 232 Th

Value (Bq/g) 0.05–0.21 0.004–1.48 0.07–0.5 0.001–0.63 0.1–2.9 0.004–0.5

The radiation dose resulting from phosphogypsum piles or received by workers is

negligible compared with the average annual effective dose from natural sources [17].
The resulting radiation dose caused by phosphogypsum used as a construction or plaster
material can be considered to be negligible [18,19].
Sfar et al. [20] measured the activity of natural radioelements in three Tunisian PGs
with different storage times using gamma spectrometry. They noted a decreasing trend of
the concentrations of 238 U and 232 Th from the most recent to the oldest phosphogypsum,
respectively (Table 2). This reduction was most likely due to leaching by natural processes,
mainly rainwater. The concentration of 226 Ra in phosphogypsum remained constant during
storage. The measurements of thorium confirmed that 232 Th preferentially passed into
phosphoric acid during the manufacturing process [20].

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Materials 2021, 14, 7369

Table 2. Average activities of the principal natural radioelements of PG.

Fresh 10 Years 50 Years

238 U (Bq/kg) 65.9 ± 1.7 41.2 ± 2.2 35.2 ± 1.9
232 Th(Bq/kg) 19.7 ± 1.7 16.0 ± 1.4 8.2 ± 1.2
226 Ra(Bq/kg) 209.4 ± 6.0 209.8 ± 6.9 219.6 ± 6.3

On the basis of the previously cited studies, it can be concluded that phosphogypsum
does not exhibit any nuclear activity that is harmful to humans or to the environment.
As a result, its recovery as a construction or insulation material presents a solution for
environmental decontamination and not a new danger.

3. Experimental Procedure
3.1. Sample Preparation
Wet natural phosphogypsum (PGF) was directly obtained from the slag heap of the
Tunisian Chemical Group M’dhilla Plant (Gafsa, Tunisia). The washed phosphogypsum
(PGW) was obtained by washing the PGF; this was placed in a large sieve and washed
several times until the wash water obtained a neutral pH (between 6.7 and 7). The PGW
was left to dry in the open air for 7 days. The dried PGW was ground by a mechanical
grinder equipped with an 0.5 mm sieve to obtain a fine and uniform powder. The PGT
was obtained by the thermal treatment of the PGW powder at 200 ◦ C for 12 h [14]. The
PGM 1/1 and PGM 1/2 samples were prepared by mixing PGT with water at a PGT/water
ratio of 1:1 and 1:2, respectively. The mixture was then poured into molds as needed. The
geometric dimensions of the prepared materials were 4 × 4 × 1 cm for the thermal test and
4 × 4 × 16 cm for the mechanical test (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Geometric forms of the PGM 1/1 and PGM 1/2 samples.

3.2. Characterization
The characterization of the phosphogypsum samples was measured by different
techniques. The morphological analysis was determined by environmental scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) (Quanta 200-FEI) with an accelerating voltage of 15 kV coupled
to an EDAX probe. The textural analysis was obtained using a micromeritics instrument
(model ASAP 2020 V4.03). The porosity and specific surface area were measured at 77 ◦ K
after degassing for 4 h at 105 ◦ C under a vacuum (10 µm/Hg). The FTIR spectra were
recorded in KBr pellets using a Shimadzu S400 instrument. The spectra of the solids were
obtained using KBr pellets. Prior to the measurements, PG and KBr were mixed at a quality

–
131
mined using a PANanalytical X’Pert
equipped with a copper anticathode that produced 15,418 Å Cu Kα radiation. An X
Materials 2021, 14, 7369

ratio of 1:100. The vibrational transition frequencies were reported in transmittance versus
the wave numbers (cm−1 ). The structural properties of the samples were determined
using a PANanalytical X’Pert Pro wide-angle X-ray powder diffractometer equipped with
a copper anticathode that produced 15,418 Å Cu Kα radiation. An X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
Philips sequential wavelength dispersion unit (model PW-1404) was used to determine
the elemental composition. The mechanical properties were obtained using a universal
ZWICK/ROELL machine. The test bench was equipped with self-tightening jaws and
a force cell with a capacity of 5 kN. It was controlled by TEST EXPERT software, which
logged the test parameters, acquired, and processed the data. The thermal conductivity and
diffusivity coefficient measurements were obtained using a Hot-Disc TP 2500 apparatus. A
probe (reference 5465) with a radius of 3189 mm was used. A heating power of 80 mW was
applied for 20 s. Further details concerning this method are available in [21–25].

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. X-ray Fluorescence
As seen in Table 3, the phosphogypsum in these various states was formed mainly
by gypsum (CaSO4 ) with the presence of other elements with a low percentage such as Si,
Ti, Na, Mg and Fe. The presence of these elements could be attributed to the ore of the
phosphate used in the industrial process. This composition was similar to that cited by
Mechi et al. [26]. The treatment of PGF did not significantly affect the chemical composition
but it increased the CaO/SO3 ratio from 0.83 to 0.95.

Table 3. Chemical composition of the different phosphogypsum samples.

PGF PGW PGT

Fe2 O3 (%) 0.298 0.319 0.366
MgO (%) 1.460 1.489 1.276
Na2 O (%) 0.586 0.203 0.303
SO3 (%) 49.170 50.203 46.489
SiO2 (%) 7.638 6.015 6.905
CaO (%) 40.826 41.750 44.302
TiO2 (%) 0.0198 0.0193 0.209
CaO/SO3 0.830 0.831 0.953

4.2. Powder X-ray Diffraction

The registered X-ray diffractograms of the different phosphogypsum samples studied
showed only the presence of the characteristic peaks of CaSO4 . These results confirmed the
gypsum aspect of PG observed by XRF. The characteristic peaks of the different hydration
degrees of the gypsum (CaSO4 , CaSO4 .1/2H2 O and CaSO4 .2H2 O) appeared. Figure 2
indicates that only the characteristic peaks of anhydrous CaSO4 appeared in the spectrum
of PGT; the lack of coordinate water in this sample could be explained by the thermal
treatment at 200 ◦ C. The diffractograms of the other two samples (PGF and PGW) showed
the presence of two degrees of hydration (2H2 O and 1/2H2 O). The presence of these
degrees of hydration was because they were mixed with water both from the industrial
process for PGF and from the washing water for PGW. During the process of preparing
PG for use as a building and/or decoration material, phosphogypsum changed from a
hydration level of 1/2 and 2 (PGF and PGW, respectively) to an anhydrous state of 0 (PGT).
In its finished state, the prepared material sample (PGM) regained the hydration levels of
1/2 and 2 (Figure 2); this was due to being mixed with water and the low temperature of
the treatment (T = 40 ◦ C).

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Materials 2021, 14, 7369

Figure 2. X-ray diffractograms of the PGF, PGW, PGT and PGM samples.

It should be noted that the PG with these different degrees of hydration presented a
hydration–dehydration
– phenomenon. The PG in its natural or washed form (PGF, PGW)
was gypsum hydrated at 1/2 and/or 2 H2 O. After a thermal treatment at 200 ◦ C, it became
anhydrous (CaSO4 ) and it obtained the degrees of 1/2 and/or 2 H2 O by being mixed with
water (PGM). This reversible hydration–dehydration
– phenomenon that the PG presented
in its different states allowed us to qualify it as water pump, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Hydration–dehydration of PG.

–
4.3. FTIR Analysis
The FTIR spectra of the PG in the different states (Figure 4) confirmed two results (one
qualitative and the other quantitative) shown by the X-ray diffractograms, namely, that
the PG was mainly composed of gypsum. This was represented by the peaks of SO4 2−
lying at 594 cm−1 , 1099 cm−1 and 2132 cm−1 [26–28], as shown in Figures 5 and 6. The −

–
second result consisted of the quantitative variation
−1 −1 − in the peaks of the water at 1620 cm 1 ,
−

which was attributed to the vibrations of the OH groups of the water. At 3590 cm −1 −1 , this

corresponded with the elongation of the internal OH groups [29,30]. The spectrum of PGT
−1

presented the least important peaks compared with those of the states mixed with water.
The resulting isotherms of the surface analysis of the treated and modeled phospho-
gypsum (Figure 5) were type IV, which corresponded with mesoporous solids [31]. This
isotherm type corresponded with multimolecular adsorption or a gradual increase in the
adsorbed layer thickness. The presence of a type B hysteresis curve was characteristic of
slot-shaped porosities [31].

133
 −

−1 −1 − –
−1

−1
Materials 2021, 14, 7369

100

90

80

Transmittance (%)
70

60

50

40

30

20

10
PGW PGT PGM PGF
0
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
-1
Wave number (cm )

Figure 4. FTIR spectra of the PGF, PGW, PGT and PGM samples.4.4. BET Analysis.

Figure 5. Nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms and the pore distribution of the PGT and
PGM samples.

The studied samples could be classified as a mesoporous solid with a low specific
surface area of 6.7 m2 /g for PGT and 17.5 m2 /g for PGM (Table 4). The pore distribution
of these two samples, as presented in Table 4, confirmed the mesoporous properties of the
materials with an average pore size of 10.9 nm for PGM and 18.1 nm for PGT. The decrease
in the pore size from 18.1 nm for PGT to 10.9 nm for PGM was responsible for the increase
in the specific surface area from 6.7 m2 /g for PGT to 17.2 m2 /g for PGM.

Table 4. Textural properties of the PGM and PGT samples.

BET Surface Area m2 /g Pore Size nm Pore Volume cm3 /g Nanoparticle Size nm
PGM 17.5 10.9 0.0186 342.6
PGT 6.7 18.1 0.0134 893.8

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Materials 2021, 14, 7369

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
Figure 6. SEM micrographs of: PGF (a), PGW (b), PGT (c) and PGM (d).

4.4. SEM Analysis

The SEM micrographs (Figure 6a–d) presented shapes of crystallites in sticks and
hexagonal structures for PGT and PGW. For PGF, the SEM micrographs exhibited a fibrous
aspect. These results may be due to the fact that after washing we removed the soluble
impurities and we approached the crystallization form of CaSO4 . After the modeling of
the material (the PGM samples), the SEM micrographs demonstrated that the particles had
a regular shape and form. This could have been the result of the recrystallization of CaSO4
via the hemi and bihydrate process [32].

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Materials 2021, 14, 7369

Two samples were analyzed by the EDS technique: PGT and PGW (Figures 7 and 8).
The results of the two samples were quite close and confirmed that the majority of the
composition was CaSO4 with a few impurities such as carbon (C), sodium (Na), fluorine
(F), phosphorus (P), silicon (Si) and aluminum (Al).

(a)

(b)

Figure 7. EDS results of PGW: Element map (a) and the quantitative ratio of the elements (b).

(a)

Figure 8. Cont.

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Materials 2021, 14, 7369

(b)
Figure 8. EDS results of PGT: Element map (a) and the quantitative ratio of the elements (b).

These maps confirmed the quantitative results of the XRF, which clearly demonstrated
that the phosphogypsum samples were formed mainly from gypsum (CaSO4 ). The other
elements present such as F, Na, Si and Al that were found with very low quantities could
be classified as impurities in the two samples (Table 5).

Table 5. Quantitative ratio of the elements in PGW and PGT.

PGT PGW
Element Weight Ratio % Atomic Ratio % Weight Ratio % Atomic Ratio %
C 9.63 16.82 20.39 32.11
O 40.13 52.62 37.90 44.80
F 2.47 2.72 2.42 2.41 0
Na 0.34 0.31 0.55 0.45
Al 0.35 0.27 0.37 0.26
Si 1.30 0.97 0.92 0.62
P 0.99 0.67 0.78 0.48
S 16.64 10.88 13.29 7.84
Ca 28.17 14.74 23.38 11.03

The carbon contained in the phosphogypsum originated from the organic fraction of
the mineral phosphate, which is generally in the form of humic acid [33]. This quantity
decreased after the treatment of the sample at 200 ◦ C for 24 h. This decrease could be
attributed to the incomplete oxidation of the organic matter.

4.5. Thermal Conductivity

The thermal conductivity of the materials was the function of the material density. For
the prepared samples, the thermal conductivity was 0.160 W/mK and 0.282 W/mK for the
PGM 1/2 (d = 486.4 kg/m3 ) and PGM 1/1 (848.4 kg/m3 ) formulation, respectively (Table 6).
These values were similar to those of gypsum mentioned by Ayse et al. [34]. These results
confirmed that our prepared samples could be classified as thermal insulation materials.
Gypsum is a hygroscopic salt that has hydration–dehydration equilibrium from low
temperatures (between 40 and 70 ◦ C) [35,36]. Its dehydration reaction is endothermic,
as shown in Equation (1); therefore, its hydration is exothermic. This equilibrium can
participate in the conditioning of the ambient air by a process of water exchange between

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Materials 2021, 14, 7369

CaSO4 .2H2 O and CaSO4 .0.5 H2 O, which is accompanied by a heat exchange; this is the
gypsum water pump phenomenon that was verified by – DRX and FTIR.

1 2
CaSO4 .2H2 O + heat → CaSO4 . H2 O + H2 Ovapor (1)
← 2 3

∆H◦ (25 ◦ C) = 83.26 kJ.mol−1

Table 6. Thermal conductivity 1 1/1. 2

𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 .and
2𝐻2density
𝑂 + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡of PGM 1/2 and
→ 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂 4 . 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟
← 2 3
Samples Thermal Conductivity (W/mK) Density (kg/m3 )
PGM 1/2 ∆𝐻°(25°𝐶) = 83.26 𝑘𝐽. 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1
0.160 486.4
PGM 1/1 0.282 848.4

4.6. Mechanical Properties

Figure 9 shows that the mechanical properties depended on the density. The higher
quantity of water used for the preparation considerably decreased the density of the
material and caused the fall in the mechanical properties, thus making the material brittle.
These results (Table 7) demonstrated that this material derived from phosphogypsum
could be used as a building material for non-loadbearing structures or as a plaster or
separation plate.

Figure 9. Compressive force, compressive strength, flexion force and flexion strength curves of the
prepared materials (PGM 1/1 and 1/2).

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Materials 2021, 14, 7369

Table 7. Mechanical characteristics of the prepared materials.

Compression Flexion
Density Re max
Fmax N Re (MPa) E (MPa) Fmax N
(MPa)
PGM 1/1 848.4 6083 3.08 253.88 862.5 0.54
PGM 1/2 486.4 1696 1.06 3.14 261.81 0.16

5. Conclusions
Based on our results, phosphogypsum can be considered to be a source of gypsum-
based material because, in its natural state, it is mainly composed of CaSO4 at two degrees
of hydration with a few mineral and organic impurities from the phosphate rock. The
physicochemical characterization of phosphogypsum demonstrated that the different
degrees of hydration that this material possesses allows it to exchange water with the
external environment by creating a water pump that helps to condition the ambient air.
It should be noted that the mechanical properties of the prepared material PGM 1/1 and
PGM 1/2 closely depended on the density. Due to the lower Young’s modulus of these
materials, they could be used as construction materials for non-loadbearing structures or
as decoration materials. The thermal properties demonstrated that the prepared materials
were suitable for insulation in building construction with thermal conductivities lower
than 0.3W/mK. It was also concluded that the materials prepared were not suitable for
supporting structures.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.G. and A.J.; methodology, H.G., A.J. and E.E.; software,
H.G.; validation, H.G., A.J., E.E. and M.A.K.; formal analysis, H.G.; investigation, H.G.; resources,
H.G. and E.E.; data curation, H.G. and A.J.; writing—original draft preparation, H.G.; writing—
review and editing, H.G., A.J. and M.A.K.; supervision, E.E.; project administration, E.E.; funding
acquisition, M.A.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at Prince Sattam Bin
Abdulaziz University, research project No 16794/01/2020 and the APC was funded by the Deanship
of Scientific Research at Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: This project was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research at Prince
Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University under the research project No 16794/01/2020.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Article
Nonlinear ABAQUS Simulations for Notched Concrete Beams
Ahmed Bahgat Tawfik 1, * , Sameh Youssef Mahfouz 1 and Salah El-Din Fahmy Taher 2

1 Construction and Building Engineering Department, College of Engineering and Technology, Arab Academy
for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport (AASTMT), B 2401 Smart Village, Giza 12577, Egypt;
[email protected]
2 Professor of Concrete Structures, Structural Engineering Department, Tanta University, Tanta 31527, Egypt;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The numerical simulation of concrete fracture is difficult because of the brittle, inelastic-
nonlinear nature of concrete. In this study, notched plain and reinforced concrete beams were
investigated numerically to study their flexural response using different crack simulation techniques
in ABAQUS. The flexural response was expressed by hardening and softening regime, flexural
capacity, failure ductility, damage initiation and propagation, fracture energy, crack path, and
crack mouth opening displacement. The employed techniques were the contour integral technique
(CIT), the extended finite element method (XFEM), and the virtual crack closure technique (VCCT).
A parametric study regarding the initial notch-to-depth ratio (ao /D), the shear span-to-depth ratio
(S.S/D), and external post-tensioning (EPT) were investigated. It was found that both XFEM and
VCCT produced better results, but XFEM had better flexural simulation. Contrarily, the CIT models
failed to express the softening behavior and to capture the crack path. Furthermore, the flexural
capacity was increased after reducing the (ao /D) and after decreasing the S.S/D. Additionally,
using EPT increased the flexural capacity, showed the ductile flexural response, and reduced the
Citation: Tawfik, A.B.; Mahfouz, S.Y.; flexural softening. Moreover, using reinforcement led to more ductile behavior, controlled damage
Taher, S.E.-D.F. Nonlinear ABAQUS
propagation, and a dramatic increase in the flexural capacity. Furthermore, CIT showed reliable
Simulations for Notched Concrete
results for reinforced concrete beams, unlike plain concrete beams.
Beams. Materials 2021, 14, 7349.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237349
Keywords: ABAQUS; finite element analysis (FEA); concrete damage plasticity (CDP); extended
finite element method (XFEM); external post-tensioning (EPT)
Academic Editors: Dario De
Domenico and Luís Filipe Almeida
Bernardo

Received: 29 October 2021 1. Introduction

Accepted: 28 November 2021 Employing numerical finite element (FE) simulations for different concrete elements
Published: 30 November 2021 reduces the need for further physical testing and helps researchers undertake complex
parametric studies precisely. The complex nonlinear behavior of concrete in both tension
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral and compression makes it challenging to simulate. The complexity stems from the brittle
with regard to jurisdictional claims in response of concrete, leading to failure due to cracking or crushing when subjected to
published maps and institutional affil- tension or compression, respectively. Also, it is difficult to simulate crack initiation and
iations. propagation due to the tensile damage.
Various constitutive numerical models were presented to simulate the concrete behav-
ior in tension and compression [1–5]. Y. Nikaido [6] improved a constitutive numerical
model to simulate concrete behavior by considering compression stiffness recovery. Further-
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. more, different studies were conducted to simulate the nonlinear behavior of different plain
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. and reinforced concrete elements [7–11]. Zhang et al. [12] compared different numerical
This article is an open access article crack simulation techniques to simulate a notched concrete beam using the unified FE
distributed under the terms and software package ABAQUS [13] without experimental result validation. These techniques
conditions of the Creative Commons included the virtual crack closure technique (VCCT) and the extended finite element method
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
(XFEM). It was deduced that both VCCT and XFEM can capture the softening regime for
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
concrete fracture well. An experimental work achieved by Yin et al. [14] was conducted on
4.0/).

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Materials 2021, 14, 7349

notched plain concrete beams having different spans. The experimental scope was set to
determine the effect of changing the span on different concrete fracture parameters.
Many studies integrated the use of different composite materials with notched concrete
beams through various experiments [15–18]. This integration aimed to enhance the flexural
performance and to investigate the fracture and bond behavior of concrete beams. Zhong
et al. [15] experimentally investigated the effect of installing a channel steel plate ahead
of a concrete beam notch on the strengthening performance. It was found that placing a
channel steel plate at the notch tip of the concrete beam can significantly increase the load
carrying capability against mode 1 fractures. Additionally, an increase in fracture energy
and ductile softening were captured after placement. Furthermore, the fracture failure of
the tested beams was significantly influenced by the debonding and slippage behavior
between the steel plate channel and the concrete beam. It was noted that steel plate size has
no significant effect on flexural capacity. Sun et al. [16] studied the effect of using different
volumetric dosages of basalt fibers on the fracture resistance of precast notched concrete
beams. It was deduced that the peak load, the initiation toughness, and the fracture energy
significantly increased after increasing the basalt fiber dosage. Moreover, the fracture
energy and the unstable toughness had no size effect, unlike the initiation toughness which
increased with increased specimen height.
De Domenico et al. [17] investigated the interfacial characteristics of the carbon fiber-
reinforced polymers (CFRP) system and the fiber-reinforced cementitious matrix with poly-
benzoxole and cement-based mortar (PBO-FRCM) system. Both systems were adhesively
bonded at the bottom of the notched concrete beams to study the effect of environmental
conditions on the bond and the ultimate capacity for each system. It was found that the
PBO-FRCM system was not affected by environmental conditions. Conversely, the CFRP
system was affected by the curing conditions, as more than a 30% reduction in the average
peak load was noticed compared to non-conditioned beams.
Chen et al. [18] conducted three-point bending tests on notched steel fiber-reinforced
concrete (SFRC) beams containing single or novel multiple hooked-end steel fibers to
study the effects of fiber aspect ratio, fiber length, and fiber shape on flexural tensile
strength. It was concluded that the limit of proportionality, which is related to the initial
concrete cracking, is mainly dependent on the concrete strength, and not on the fiber
properties. On the other hand, it was found that increasing the fiber dosage, length, aspect
ratio, and number of hooked-ends enhanced the residual flexural tensile strength in the
post-cracking stage.
The previously mentioned studies focused on the incorporation of different composite
materials with notched concrete beams to enhance flexural tensile capacity and to im-
prove cracking damage resistance. However, studies scrutinizing the effects of geometrical
characteristics on the flexural performance of notched concrete beams are lacking. Along
this research line, this paper provides numerical investigations regarding the effects of
different geometrical aspects, such as loading scheme and notch height, on flexural per-
formance. Additionally, this paper provides further numerical investigations on methods
of enhancing the flexural tensile capacity and damage control performance of notched
concrete beams. Unlike the studies mentioned in the literature that addressed this problem
using different composite materials, the current study implemented steel reinforcement
and un-bonded post-tensioning. Moreover, the simulations conducted in the current work
were achieved by employing different numerical techniques in a comparative study to
determine the most appropriate technique for concrete fracture simulation.
The current study utilizes the experimental work conducted by Yin et al. [14]. The
current work aims to study the flexural behavior and fracture initiation and propagation of
notched plain and reinforced concrete beams. Additionally, different parametric studies
were conducted to understand the influence of changing different parameters on the
flexural response. The studied parameters were the initial notch-to-depth ratio (ao /D), the
shear span-to-depth ratio (S.S/D), and external post-tensioning (EPT). The flexural behavior,
damage initiation and propagation of six notched plain concrete beams having various span-

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Materials 2021, 14, 7349

to-depth ratios (S/D) were numerically investigated. All investigated beams were subjected
to a three-point bending setup. Their response was captured as a relationship between
loading level (P) and crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD). Three techniques for
crack modeling in ABAQUS, such as the contour integral technique (CIT), XFEM and
VCCT were considered, to determine the most suitable crack modeling technique. These
techniques employed different material damage criteria: concrete damage plasticity (CDP),
maximum principal stress (MAXPS) and critical energy release rate (Gc ). The numerical
results were compared with those of the experimental investigation to find out the most
suitable technique for expressing the behavior and the damage of all tested beams.
Section 2 of this paper illustrates the details of the experimental works and reviews
their outcomes. Section 3 discusses the details of developing the numerical FE models.
Section 4 presents the numerical simulation outcomes. Section 5 illustrates the parametric
studies conducted, their results, and discussion. Section 6 provides a summary of the
obtained conclusions.

2. Synopsis of Experimental Data

According to the experimental work done by Yin et al. [14], a three-point-bending
test was carried out, as indicated in Figure 1. This test was conducted on six series of
notched plain concrete beams having different S/D ratios. Each beam series included
four typical beams. The depth (D) and the breadth (B) of each beam were 150 mm and
100 mm, respectively. The length (L) of beams ranged from 375 mm to 1100 mm, while the
corresponding span (S) ranged from 300 mm to 900 mm. These span ranges were selected
to achieve S/D ratios ranging from 2 to 6. An initial notch (ao ) of 60 mm at the middle of
all beams was considered. Table 1 illustrates the details of beams. The behavior of each
beam was captured in the form of a P-CMOD relationship. These relationships, along with
the crack propagation path after cracking, are also provided.

Figure 1. Experimental test loading scheme used.

Table 1. Concrete beams studied.

Beam Breadth Depth (D) Length (L) Span (S) Notch Length
S/D
Series (B) mm mm mm mm (ao ) mm
T2 375 300 2
T2.5 475 375 2.5
T3 550 450 3
100 150 60
T4 750 600 4
T5 950 750 5
T6 1100 900 6

3. Evolution of the Numerical FE Models

This section explains the details of developing ABAQUS FE models employing CIT,
VCCT and XFEM.

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Materials 2021, 14, 7349

3.1. Contour Integral Technique

The contour integral technique (CIT) was used to study the commencement of damage
in quasi-static problems [13]. To use CIT, the crack front region, crack line, and extension
direction were specified. Moreover, a region with separate faces was modeled to be free
to move apart as the crack mouth began to open. These faces were created using the
seam command in ABAQUS. To simulate the nonlinearity of concrete, the CDP model
was employed. The CDP model was utilized for its capability of expressing the inelastic
responses of concrete and quasi-brittle materials, as well as damage characteristics in both
compression and tension.

3.1.1. Concrete Tensile Behavior

The uniaxial behavior of concrete in tension was defined using a relationship between
the tensile stresses and their corresponding cracking strains. Defining this relationship
makes it necessary to convert the tensile strain (ε t ) to the cracking strain (ε∼
t ) using
ck

Equation (1).
ε∼t
ck
= ε t − εelot (1)
where εelot refers to the tensile elastic strain of the undamaged material condition and equals
σt0 / Eo ; σt0 is the maximum elastic tensile stress and Eo is the concrete modulus of elasticity.
A modified tension stiffening material model suggested by Wahalathantri et al. [19]
was used in the present work to obtain the uniaxial tensile stress–strain relationship. The
modifications were made to overcome convergence problems and to avoid ABAQUS solu-
tion errors. This model is based on the tension stiffening model of Nayal and Rasheed [20].

3.1.2. Concrete Compressive Behavior

The uniaxial behavior of concrete in compression was defined using a relationship
between the compressive stresses and their corresponding inelastic strains. Based on the
ABAQUS documentation, the compressive strain (ε c ) was converted to the inelastic strain
(ε∼
c ) to define this relationship by employing Equation (2).
in

ε∼
c
in
= ε c − εeloc (2)

where εeloc refers to the compressive elastic strain condition of the undamaged material and
equals σc / Eo , and σc is the maximum elastic compressive stress.
A numerical material model for concrete developed by Hsu et al. [21] was employed
to obtain the stress–strain relationship in compression. This material model can be used
for concrete material with a concrete cube compressive strength (σcu ) up to 62 MPa [19,21].
It considers that the stress–strain relationship behaves linearly up to 50% of σcu in the
hardening portion of the relationship. Afterward, numerical material model equations
were used to describe the relationship until the softening occurred and reached the value
of 30% of the σcu in the softening portion. The numerical material model equations can be
expressed as follows: !
β(ε c /ε o )
σcomp. = σcu (3)
β − 1 + (ε c /ε o ) β
1
β= h i (4)
σcu
1− ε o Eo

ε o = 8.9 × 10−5 σcu + 2.114 × 10−3 (5)

Eo = 1.2431 × 102 σcu + 3.28312 × 103 (6)
where σcomp. is the compressive stress. The parameter β is a parameter that depends on the
stress–strain diagram shape, and ε o is the compressive strain at peak stress.

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Materials 2021, 14, 7349

3.1.3. Concrete Damage Parameters

The concrete damage plasticity (CDP) model expresses concrete damage utilizing a dam-
age parameter ranging between zero (indicating the intact material state) and one (indicating
a complete loss of material strength). Thus, the operative modulus of elasticity after tensile
and compressive damage can be evaluated using Equations (7) and (8), respectively.

Et = Eo × (1 − dt ) (7)

Ec = Eo × (1 − dc ) (8)
where dt and dc refer to the tensile and compressive damage parameters, respectively, and
can be evaluated using Equations (9) and (10), respectively.
 
σt
dt = 1 − (9)
σt′
 
σc
dc = 1 − (10)
σc′
where σc′ and σt′ are the effective compressive and tensile strength, respectively.
Along with stress–strain relationship and damage parameter data, five plasticity
parameters are needed to define the CDP model in ABAQUS. These parameters can be
described as follows:
1. The dilation angle (Ψ) measured in the p–q plane at high confining pressure and
is necessary to evaluate the potential plastic flow, which uses the Drucker–Prager
◦ ◦
hyperbolic function. The dilation angle ranges between 0 to 56 [5]. In the current
◦
research, a value of 31 was used, according to Hafezolghorani et al. [22].
2. Flow potential eccentricity (ǫ)designates the rate at which the hyperbolic Drucker–
Prager function reaches the linear Drucker–Prager function. A value of 0.1 was used.
This value guarantees that the material has nearly the same dilation angle among a
wide band of confining pressure values [13].
3. The ratio of initial equibiaxial compressive strength (fb0 ) to the initial uniaxial com-
pressive strength (fc0 ) is responsible for the evolution of yield surfaces. This ratio
contributes to the evaluation of the yield function proposed by Lubliner et al. [23] and
modified by Lee and Fenves [24]. This parameter ranges between 1.10 and 1.16 [13].
The default value of 1.16 is used by many researchers [25] and was adopted in the
current study.
4. The ratio (Kc ) of the second stress invariant on the tensile meridian (q TM ) to that
on the compressive meridian (qCM ) contributes to evaluating the yield function. It
ranges between 0.5 and 1 [26]. The default value of 2/3 was employed in the present
simulation as per many researchers [25].
5. The viscosity parameter (µ) helps to make the tangent stiffness of the degrading
material have a positive value for small time increments. This value is achieved by
allowing stresses to be outside the developed yield surfaces. Using small values of µ
compared to the characteristic analysis time increment tends to enhance the rate of
solution convergence in the softening regime. The default value of zero [13] caused
premature termination of the analysis due to the damage that occurred in the element.
According to Tao et al. [5], µ has no significant effect on the analysis precision. Thus,
a value of 0.0007 was utilized.
In the current research, a reduced integration quadratic 20-node brick element (C3D20R)
was used. This element is a second-order element type, which gives higher accuracy and is
effective in bending dominated problems [13]. As result of a sensitivity study for mesh size,
a fine mesh size of 10 mm was used for the different models made for the present study.

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(𝐺 )
1
𝐺 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚   𝐹 (𝑣 − 𝑣 )
→ 2𝑏𝛥𝑎 ,
3.2. Virtual Crack Closure Technique
Δ𝑎 𝑏
The virtual crack𝐹 , closure technique (VCCT) employs the principles of linear elastic
fracture mechanics 𝑣 (LEFM) 𝑣 [13,27] and Irwin’s criterion [28]. Rybicki and Kanninen [29]
presented this technique, and it was improved by Raju [30] as higher-order interpolation
elements were added. This technique assumes that once the crack is opened to a specific
extent, it releases the same amount of strain energy needed to close the crack by the same
extent [13]. As shown in Figure 2, nodes 1, 2, 3, and 4 were debonded nodes, while the
𝑓
others were bonded nodes. The energy release rate of mode I fractures ( G I ) for 4-noded
𝐺 𝐺
elements can be estimated using Equation (11).
𝑓
1
G I = lim 𝑓 = F5,6 (v3 − v4 ) (11)
∆a→0 2b∆a

where ∆a and b are the length and the width 𝐺of the elements at the crack front, respectively.
The symbol F5,6 denotes the force between nodes 5 and 6. The displacements of nodes 3
and 4 are v3 and v4 , respectively.

Figure 2. Virtual crack closure technique (VCCT) debonding at crack location.

The VCCT technique requires a predefined crack path along which to propagate [31].
To define the crack path, the beam was modeled as two separate identical parts. A contact
interaction was assigned to the bonded mutual nodes of the two parts. This interaction
included a fracture criterion factor ( f ) that depends on the overall rate of energy release
(GT ) and is fulfilled when the critical energy value (GTC ) is achieved. The fracture criterion
factor ( f ) is evaluated using Equation (12).

GT
f = (12)
GTC

A value of 0.06 N/mm was adopted for GTC [14]. Based on the mesh sensitivity study,
a fine mesh of reduced integration continuum 8-node biquadratic plane stress elements
(CPS8R) was used for the VCCT models.

3.3. Extended Finite Element Method Technique

The extended finite element method (XFEM) utilizes the principles of LEFM until
the crack is initiated. This technique was first proposed by Belytschko and Black [32],
and was modified by Moës et al. [33]. The XFEM technique facilitates the study of crack
propagation along an arbitrary path that depends on the solution. In this technique, the
separation is performed by providing supplementary freedom degrees to elements around
the crack path and the crack tip. It uses the partition of the unity property FE method
of Melenk and Babuška [34], in which the summation of all shape functions equals one.

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The displacement function expressed in Equation (13) allows the propagation of the crack
through the meshed elements without the need for remeshing [35].

SI Sc St 4
u= ∑ NI ( x ) u I + ∑ Nc ( x ) H ( x ) ac + ∑ Nt ( x ) ∑ Fα (r, θ )btα (13)
I =1 c =1 t =1 α =1

where S I expresses the node count in the elements that contain the fracture, Sc represents
the node count within the elements that include the fracture line, and St , is the node
count in the elements enclosing the fracture tip. The node shape functions for elements
enclosing the crack tip, elements including crack line and elements containing a fracture
are denoted by the symbols Nt , Nc and NI , respectively. The standard displacement of
node I is denoted by u I . Both ac and btα are the coefficients that express the degrees of nodal
enhanced freedom for the nodes related to the elements that enclose the crack line and the
tip, respectively. H ( x ) is the Heaviside function across the crack surfaces and Fα (r, θ ) is the
crack tip asymptotic enrichment function.
To initiate a discontinuity among the damaged elements to represent a crack, the
Heaviside function H ( x ) is employed as expressed in Equation (14).
(
1 if ( x − x ∗ ) · n ≥ 0
H (x) = (14)
−1 otherwise

where x is a sample (Gauss) point, x ∗ is the point on the crack closest to x and n is the unit
outward normal to the crack at x ∗ .
The asymptotic enrichment function Fα (r, θ ) was adopted to allow the fracture to grow
and propagate. This function adds supplementary freedom degrees to the nodes related
to the element containing the fracture tip using Equation (15). The symbol α represents
the node number within the element that encloses the crack tip while r and θ express
the distance and the angle of the fracture within the element enclosing the fracture tip,
respectively [36].

√ θ √ θ √ √
         
θ θ
Fα (r, θ ) = rcos , rsin , rsin sin(θ ), r cos sin(θ ) (15)
2 2 2 2

It is essential to specify the crack domain and the initial crack location within the
selected domain [13]. Moreover, it is critical to define a material damage initiation crite-
rion, such as the maximum principal strain (MAXPE) or the maximum principal stress
(MAXPS) [13]. That is why the MAXPS damage criterion factor (z) was employed and can
be expressed using Equation (16).  
σmax
z= o
(16)
σmax
where σmax
o is the maximum allowable principal stress. The 〈〉 symbol denotes the Macaulay
bracket to indicate that pure compressive stress cannot cause or commence damage. Instead,
the damage is set to start if the maximum principal stress ratio reaches 1. The maximum
allowable principal stress σmax
o was 2.2 MPa to express the concrete tensile strength.

4. FE Models Verification and Discussion

All models were developed using CIT, VCCT, and XFEM. Based on the results deduced
from the T6 simulations, the most suitable technique was determined by using five different
statistical indicators that are used by researchers in different fields [37–39]. These statistical
indicators are: 1. root mean square error (RMSE); 2. Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) [40];
3. modified index of agreement (md) [41]; 4. coefficient of determination (R2 ); and 5. Kling–
Gupta efficiency (KGE) [42]. The RMSE measures the differences between the experimental
and the numerical data, RMSE has an optimal value of zero. The NSE determines the
relative magnitude of the residual variance in the numerical data compared to the variance
in the experimental data. The md estimates the additive and proportional differences in

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the means and variances of the experimental and numerical data. The R2 assesses the
degree of collinearity between the numerical and experimental data. The KGE assesses
the correlation, bias, and variability between the experimental and numerical data, thus
providing a complete similarity estimation. The last four statistical indicators have an
optimal value of one. The RMSE, NSE, md, R2 , and KGE were computed as shown below:
s
2
∑iN=1 ( x̂i − xi )
RMSE = (17)
N
2
" #
∑iN=1 ( x̂i − xi )
NSE = 1 − 2
(18)
∑iN=1 ( x̂i − x mean )

∑iN=1 | xi − x̂i |
md = 1 − (19)
∑iN=1 (| x̂i − x mean |+ | xi − x mean |)
 2
∑iN=1 [( xi
− x mean )( x̂ − x̂ mean )]
R2 =  q q i  (20)
2 2
∑i=1 [ x̂i − x̂ mean ] ∑iN=1 [ xi − x mean ]
N

v
2 !2
ˆ x̂ mean
u  mean
u
2 x̂ S.D/
KGE = 1 − ( Pc − 1) +
t −1 + −1 (21)
x mean S.D/x mean

where N is the number of data points, xi is the actual experimental data value, x̂i is the
numerical data value, x mean is the experimental data mean value, x̂ mean is the numerical
data mean value, Pc is the Pearson’s correlation coefficient, S.D is the standard deviation
of the experimental data, and S.D ˆ is the standard deviation of the numerical data. For
the beam T6, the results were monitored as shown in Figure 3. From this figure, it can be
deduced that, for CIT model, the flexural capacity conforms with the experimental findings.
On the other hand, the post-failure stage does not reflect the experimental results. Both
XFEM and VCCT were found to capture the flexural response and simulate the softening
part more precisely. Table 2 shows the results of RMSE, NSE, md, R2 , and KGE for CIT,
VCCT, and XFEM and shows that both XFEM and VCCT have better correlation to the
experimental results. The XFEM managed to achieve the closest optimal value for each
statistical indicator, indicating that XFEM offered the best flexural simulation.

Figure 3. Loading level (P) versus crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD).

RMSE
−
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Table 2. Results of statistical indicators.

Statistical Indicator CIT VCCT XFEM Optimal Value

RMSE 1.000 0.210 0.170 0
NSE −3.740 0.950 0.960 1
md 0.370 0.890 0.900 1
R2 0.570 0.950 0.970 1
KGE 0.000 0.910 0.910 1

 
The fracture energy G f was evaluated by dividing the work (Wo ) by the ligament
area (A L ) of the notched beam, as given in Equation (22). From Table 3, it can be concluded
that both VCCT and XFEM provide better fracture energy estimates than CIT. Moreover,
XFEM gives better a estimation of the experimental result.

Wo
Gf = (22)
AL
 
Table 3. Fracture energy G f for different analyses versus experimental results for beam T6.

CIT VCCT XFEM Experimental

Wo (N.m) 3.380 1.175 1.260 -
A L (m2 ) 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009
G f (N/m) 375.556 130.556 140.000 175.960

According to the experimental results [14], the crack propagation path indicated the
dominance of mode I fractures among all tested beam series. It can be noticed from Figure 4.
That, for CIT analysis, the crack propagation path could not be captured. Instead, only
a tensile damage region was captured. This is due to the stationary nature of CIT cracks.
Conversely, XFEM and VCCT models showed a crack initiation and propagation path that
followed the experimental behavior precisely. The initiation and propagation of concrete
damage is illustrated in Figure 4.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 4. Concrete damage initiation and propagation paths; (a) tensile damage for contour integral technique (CIT) model;
(b) extended finite element method (XFEM) model; (c) VCCT model.

It can be concluded that both XFEM and CIT are the most suitable and least suitable
techniques for plain concrete beam fracture simulation, respectively. To support this
conclusion and to identify the discrepancy between the two techniques, both XFEM and
CIT were considered to verify the experimental results of the other beams stated in Table 1.
Figure 5 shows the verification of all beams using both XFEM and CIT as a relationship
between P and CMOD. It can be noted that both XFEM and CIT can express the flexural
capacity of all beams in a good correspondence with the experimental outcomes. As for

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XFEM, it can simulate the experimental flexural behavior and the post-failure softening
precisely for all beams unlike CIT which shows an obvious discrepancy. These findings
support the conclusion that XFEM is the most suitable approach for plain concrete beam
fracture simulation.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 5. The P-CMOD relationships for beams (a) T2; (b) T2.5; (c) T3; (d) T4; (e) T5; (f) T6.

5. Parametric Study and Results

In the current study, three parameters were investigated for plain and reinforced
concrete beams to study their effect on the flexural behavior. These parameters were:
1. the initial notch-to-depth ratio; 2. the shear span-to-depth ratio; 3. the use of external
post-tensioning. This investigation was carried out on beam T6. For reinforced concrete
beams, the reinforcement consists of two top corner bars as stirrup hangers, two bottom
corner bars as the main reinforcements, and shear stirrups. All bars had a diameter of 6 mm.
The spacing between the stirrups was 100 mm. The reinforcement steel grade used was the
standard ASTM (A 615M/A 615) grade 300. This steel grade has a minimum yield strength
of 300 MPa. A constant concrete cover of 10 mm was maintained in the current work.

5.1. Influence of Changing Initial Notch-to-Depth Ratio

Initial notch-to-depth ratio (ao /D) values of 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5 were studied. These
values imply that the corresponding values of initial notch height (ao ) were 45 mm, 60 mm,
and 75 mm, respectively. The FE models for plain and reinforced beams were executed.
Figures 6 and 7 show P-CMOD relationships when considering different values of ao /D
for plain and reinforced concrete beam models, respectively. For plain concrete beams, it

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can be noted that the flexural capacity increases with reduction of the ao /D. This is because
reducing the ao /D increases the ligament area of the notched beam, causing increased
resistance to flexural damage leading to higher flexural capacity. Furthermore, a complete
flexural softening can be noticed for all XFEM results unlike CIT. For the reinforced concrete
beam, it can be noted that the behavior became more ductile as there was no sudden failure.
Instead, a failure plateau took place. Also, the flexural capacity was drastically increased
due to the presence of reinforcement. Moreover, the flexural capacity of the reinforced
concrete beam seems to be nearly constant regardless the ao /D value. This means that
even with a light amount of reinforcement, damage initiation and propagation can be
controlled, causing stability. Additionally, it is noted that both the CIT and XFEM models
gave very similar results, as no softening occurred in the reinforced beam. Thus, it can be
concluded that CIT can give reliable results for reinforced concrete beams, unlike plain
concrete beams.

Figure 6. Plain concrete beam P-CMOD relationships for different initial notch-to-depth ratios (ao /D).

Figure 7. Reinforced concrete beam P-CMOD relationships for different initial notch-to-depth
ratios (ao /D).

5.2. Influence of Changing the Shear Span-to-Depth Ratio

In order to study the effect of changing the shear span-to-depth ratio (S.S/D), the
model was modified to follow the four-point loading setup. As seen in Figure 8, the beam
was subjected to two equal loads (0.5 P). Both loads were located at the same distance (X)
from the support. In the current study, the three different distances (X) considered were
X = 150 mm, X = 300 mm, and X = 450 mm. These distances imply to S.S/D values of 1, 2,
and 3, respectively. The P-CMOD relationships of the plain and reinforced concrete beams
are shown in Figures 9 and 10, respectively. These figures indicate that increasing the S.S/D

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decreases the flexural capacity. This is because a more direct influence is delivered to the
mid-notch, causing faster crack propagation and lower flexural capacity. For plain concrete
beams, XFEM showed lower flexural capacity than CIT for lower S.S/D. This means that
XFEM has higher sensitivity to damage initiation and propagation than CIT. It is noted that
implementing light reinforcement led to higher flexural capacity and increased ductility.
It can be also noted that, after using reinforcement, the results obtained when utilizing
XFEM were almost identical to the corresponding results when using CIT. This supports
the conclusion that CIT is reliable for simulating reinforced concrete beams, unlike plain
concrete beams.

Figure 8. Four-point loading scheme for T6.

Figure 9. Plain concrete beam P-CMOD relationships for different shear span-to-depth ratios (S.S/D).

Figure 10. Reinforced concrete beam P-CMOD relationships for different shear span-to-depth ra-
tios (S.S/D).

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5.3. Influence of Using External Post-Tensioning

External post-tensioning (EPT) rods were used in a three-point bending loading
scheme at three locations and four levels of post-tensioning stress. This was study their
effects on the flexural behavior of the plain and reinforced T6 concrete beams. These rods
had a yield strength of 900 MPa [43]. The EPT configurations were different in the manner
of rod location relative to the crack height, as shown in Figure 11. These locations were:
1. at the crack mouth (X= 10 mm); 2. at the middle of the crack height (X = 30 mm); and
3. at the crack tip (X = 60 mm).

Figure 11. Schematic external post-tensioning (EPT) setup for beam T6.

Each configuration was investigated at four levels of post-tensioning stress, as follows:

1. rods are present but without post-tensioning; 2. rods are post-tensioned with 25% of
their yield strength; 3. rods are post-tensioned with 50% of their yield strength; 4. rods are
post-tensioned with 75% of their yield strength.
Two cylindrical steel anchor pins were placed at both ends of the concrete beam to
connect the post-tensioning rods at both beam sides. Surface-to-surface contact interaction
was used for the mutual surfaces between the steel anchor and the concrete beam. The
motion of the steel anchor pins was constrained to the motion of the prestressing rod ends
to apply the prestressing effect on the beam.
For all EPT beam models, the following findings can be drawn:
1. Placing the EPT rods towards the crack mouth and increasing the EPT stress gives
a better effect. This is because increasing EPT towards the crack mouth enhances
the role of post-tensioning in resisting the crack opening, resulting in improved
crack control.
2. For plain concrete beam models, Figure 12 shows that EPT rods increase the flexural
capacity and show more ductile flexural response. The increased capacity and ductility
are attributed to the contribution of post-tensioning in handling the applied stresses.
3. For plain concrete beam models, EPT rods reduce flexural softening when they are
placed closer to the crack mouth. The reduction of the flexural softening occurred
because the stresses were handed over to the EPT rods earlier when they were closer
to the crack mouth. As result, more softening and degradation was captured for the
beams having EPT rods closer to the crack tip.
4. For plain concrete beam models, increasing the EPT stress to reach 75% of the rod’s
yield strength reduced flexural softening even with a rod location at the crack tip. This
indicates that this amount of post-tensioning stress is capable of enhancing damage
control even if the EPT rods are not located at crack mouth.
5. For plain concrete beam models, a clear discrepancy can be noticed between the CIT
and XFEM results. The discrepancy is attributed to the stationary nature of a CIT

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crack that does not grow, preventing a complete failure regime. Conversely, XFEM is
capable of representing complete damage softening.
6. For the reinforced concrete beam models, Figure 13 shows higher flexural capacity
due to reinforcement presence.
7. For the reinforced concrete beam models, the flexural results are close as the reinforce-
ment managed to control the damage initiation and propagation.
8. For the reinforced concrete beam models, both the CIT and XFEM results are in good
agreement. This supports the conclusion that CIT can give trustworthy results for
reinforced concrete beams, unlike plain concrete beams. Additionally, this agreement
reveals that using reinforcement has more performance in controlling damage than
using EPT only. This is due to the complete bond with the concrete, the bond between
the reinforcement bar and the concrete is achieved along the entire bar. Conversely,
EPT rods are placed outside the concrete section and are bonded to the concrete at the
end anchorages only.
Based on all previous simulations, beneficial practical implications can be interpreted.
For both plain and reinforced concrete fracture simulations, the XFEM model is favored
over the CIT model. However, the CIT model still can be used effectively to simulate
reinforced concrete fractures. Additionally, using a minimal bonded steel reinforcement
is capable of controlling the fracture damage propagation and enhancing the flexural
performance significantly. Moreover, decreasing shear spans to eliminate shear stress
at notched sections can contribute to the escalation of the flexural capacity and fracture
control performance. For rehabilitation and renovation purposes, using unbonded external
post-tensioning at the crack mouth at higher stresses can improve flexural tensile capacity
and tensile damage resistance.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 12. Plain concrete beam P-CMOD relationships for different EPTs at different locations: (a) 0%; (b) 25%; (c) 50%;
(d) 75%.

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Materials 2021, 14, 7349

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 13. Reinforced concrete beam P-CMOD relationships for different EPTs at different locations: (a) 0%; (b) 25%; (c) 50%;
(d) 75%.

6. Conclusions
This study aimed to develop numerical models using different notch modeling tech-
niques built in ABAQUS. Notched plain and reinforced concrete beams subjected to three-
point-bending and four point-bending loading setups were simulated. These notch mod-
eling techniques were CIT, VCCT, and XFEM. The outcomes were compared with those
of a pervious experimental study. Additionally, the influence of changing some param-
eters, such as ao /D, S.S/D, and EPT, was investigated. The XFEM and VCCT models
simulated flexural response in good agreement with the experimental outcomes. The CIT
model showed a discrepancy for plain concrete simulations but yielded reliable results
for reinforced concrete beams. Furthermore, the XFEM model was considered the most
suitable, as it had better fracture energy estimation, solution-dependent crack path, and
lower RMSE. It was found that increasing the ao /D and S.S/D decreased the flexural
capacity. Reinforcement implementation controlled concrete damage and increased the
ductility and the flexural capacity for all studied parameters. Additionally, using EPT rods
and increasing EPT stress increased the flexural capacity and ductility. Also, placing EPT
rods near the crack mouth reduced flexural softening. However, for higher EPT stresses,
flexural softening was reduced even if EPT rods were at the crack tip. For future research, it
is recommended to extend this study by investigating the effect of using different strength-
ening materials to replace the bonded steel reinforcement and the unbonded steel external
post-tensioning. The strengthening materials to be studied may include carbon fibers, glass
fibers, and shape memory alloys.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.E.-D.F.T., S.Y.M., A.B.T.; methodology, S.E.-D.F.T.,

S.Y.M., A.B.T.; validation, A.B.T.; software, A.B.T.; visualization, A.B.T.; writing—original draft
preparation, S.E.-D.F.T., S.Y.M., A.B.T.; writing—review and editing, S.Y.M., A.B.T.; supervision,
S.E.-D.F.T., S.Y.M.; project administration, S.E.-D.F.T., S.Y.M. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

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Materials 2021, 14, 7349

Data Availability Statement: The FE data used to support the findings of this study are available
upon request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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 materials
Article
Mechanical Properties of Recycled Aggregate Concretes
Containing Silica Fume and Steel Fibres
Soheil Jahandari 1, * , Masoud Mohammadi 1 , Aida Rahmani 1, *, Masoumeh Abolhasani 2 , Hania Miraki 3 ,
Leili Mohammadifar 4 , Mostafa Kazemi 5 , Mohammad Saberian 6 and Maria Rashidi 1

1 Centre for Infrastructure Engineering, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia;
[email protected] (M.M.); [email protected] (M.R.)
2 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Alaodoleh Semnani Institute of Higher Education,
Garmsar 5815, Iran; [email protected]
3 Department of Civil Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran 6846, Iran;
[email protected]
4 Department of Architectural Engineering, Kerman Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kerman 1167, Iran;
[email protected]
5 GeMMe Building Materials, Urban and Environmental Engineering, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium;
[email protected]
6 School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (S.J.); [email protected] (A.R.)

Abstract: In this study, the impact of steel fibres and Silica Fume (SF) on the mechanical properties
Citation: Jahandari, S.;
of recycled aggregate concretes made of two different types of Recycled Coarse Aggregates (RCA)
Mohammadi, M.; Rahmani, A.;
sourced from both low- and high-strength concretes were evaluated through conducting 60 compres-
Abolhasani, M.; Miraki, H.;
sive strength tests. The RCAs were used as replacement levels of 50% and 100% of Natural Coarse
Mohammadifar, L.; Kazemi, M.;
Saberian, M.; Rashidi, M. Mechanical
Aggregates (NCA). Hook-end steel fibres and SF were also used in the mixtures at the optimised
Properties of Recycled Aggregate replacement levels of 1% and 8%, respectively. The results showed that the addition of both types of
Concretes Containing Silica Fume RCA adversely affected the compressive strength of concrete. However, the incorporation of SF led
and Steel Fibres. Materials 2021, 14, to compressive strength development in both types of concretes. The most significant improvement
7065. https://doi.org/10.3390/ in terms of comparable concrete strength and peak strain with ordinary concrete at 28 days was
ma14227065 observed in the case of using a combination of steel fibres and SF in both recycled aggregate concretes,
especially with RCA sourced from high strength concrete. Although using SF slightly increased the
Academic Editors: elastic modulus of both recycled aggregate concretes, a substantial improvement in strength was
Dario De Domenico
observed due to the reinforcement with steel fibre and the coexistence of steel fibre and SF. Moreover,
and Luís Filipe Almeida Bernardo
existing models to predict the elastic modulus of both non-fibrous and fibrous concretes are found
to underestimate the elastic modulus values. The incorporation of SF changed the compressive
Received: 26 October 2021
stress-strain curves for both types of RCA. The addition of steel fibre and SF remarkably improved
Accepted: 18 November 2021
Published: 21 November 2021
the post-peak ductility of recycled aggregates concretes of both types, with the most significant
improvement observed in the case of RCA sourced from a low-strength parent concrete. The existing
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral model to estimate the compressive stress-strain curve for steel fibre-reinforced concrete with nat-
with regard to jurisdictional claims in ural aggregates was found to reasonably predict the compressive stress-strain behaviour for steel
published maps and institutional affil- fibres-reinforced concrete with recycled aggregate.
iations.
Keywords: compressive behaviour; elastic modulus; recycled aggregates; steel fibres; silica fume

Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. 1. Introduction
This article is an open access article Concrete is considered the most widely used construction material in the world [1–13].
distributed under the terms and Rapid urbanisation due to population growth results in the redevelopment of housing
conditions of the Creative Commons sectors and infrastructures in many cities around the world [14–18]. These redevelopments
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// generate huge amounts of demolition waste due to the destruction of existing infrastructure,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ such as buildings and bridges [19,20]. New construction activities also generate concrete
4.0/).

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Materials 2021, 14, 7065

and building waste. Therefore, a significant amount of construction and demolition (C&D)
waste is generated, and only a small amount is recycled in road bases while the rest goes to
landfills [21–24]. Conversely, in many cities, land areas for C&D wastes disposal are scarce,
and the landfill levy to dump these C&D wastes is also increasing every year. Hence, the
additional cost is paid off by contractors and asset owners. The use of waste materials,
such as C&D wastes, as aggregates in concrete is a sustainable and economical practice in
the construction industry [23,25,26].
The properties of concrete made by recycled aggregates have been analysed in many
research studies [27,28]. Therefore, there is a good understanding of the mechanical and
durability properties of recycled aggregate concrete. As a result, the partial replacement of
natural aggregates with recycled aggregates in concrete has been adopted in many projects
around the world [29,30]. However, previous studies on the use of the recycled coarse
aggregates (RCA) in concrete indicate the lower mechanical and durability characteristics
of recycled aggregate concrete in comparison with the natural aggregate concrete, which is
due to the weaker properties of RCA in comparison to the natural coarse aggregate (NCA).
The weaker performance of RCA is due to the presence of attached mortar and inferior
interfacial transition zone (ITZ).
Like concrete-containing natural aggregates, recycled aggregate concrete also exhibits
brittle behaviour in tension and flexure [31]. Therefore, various fibres are used to reinforce
recycled aggregate concrete to improve its mechanical properties [32–35]. Among many
fibres, steel fibre is one of the most effective materials to enhance the tensile strength of
recycled aggregate concrete [36–38]. Most studies have investigated the improvement in the
mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete containing steel fibres by measuring
the compressive, tensile and flexural strengths.
To mitigate the weaker performance of RCA and make it more comparable to conven-
tional concrete, multiple approaches have been utilized in previous research, including
the addition of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) such as fly ash, electric arc
furnace slag, ground granulated blast furnace slag, and SF [39]. Such SCMs contribute to
strength enhancement through eliminating the inferiority of RCA and make it compara-
ble to natural aggregate concrete. For instance, the latent hydraulic property of ground
granulated blast furnace slag as well as its pozzolanic characteristics contributes to the
mitigation of the adverse mechanical impacts of RCA [40].
In addition to the desirable impact of the mentioned materials, previous research
studies indicate the superb performance of SF in the enhancement of mechanical and
durability properties of recycled concrete [41]. The addition of SF improves the mechanical
and durability properties of recycled aggregate concrete in two ways. First, SF fills out RCA
pores, which later improves the microstructure of the interfacial transition zone; second,
hydration products fill the micro-cracks initially present in the RCA during crushing [42].
The incorporation of SF also improves the behaviour of fibre-reinforced concrete [43].
However, there is still a need to better understand the stress-strain behaviour of steel fibre-
reinforced recycled aggregate concrete in the construction of structures once SF is used
as a supplementary cementitious substance [44,45]. While determining the compressive
strength is necessary for calculating the strength of structural components, the stress-strain
curve is required for evaluating the toughness resistance to determine the ductility of
structures made with sustainable materials [46–48].
Carneiro et al. [49] measured the compressive stress-strain behaviour of steel fibre-
reinforced concrete containing recycled aggregates replaced by 25% of natural aggregates.
The results showed that steel fibres affect the stress-strain behaviour of recycled aggregate
concrete and increase its toughness. The behaviour of steel fibre-reinforced recycled aggre-
gate concrete under compression was similar to that of fibre-reinforced natural aggregate
concrete. However, to maximise the use of RCA in concrete and increase its sustainability,
high amounts of RCA as a replacement for natural coarse aggregate are required.
Meesala [50] studied the effects of various types of fibres, such as woollen fibres,
glass fibres, and steel fibres, on the mechanical and durability properties of recycled

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Materials 2021, 14, 7065

aggregate concretes. The experimental results showed that the incorporation of fibres
could significantly improve the mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete.
However, steel fibres showed the best performance in enhancing the mechanical properties
of concrete. In another study [16], the axial stress-strain behaviour of macro-polypropylene
fibres reinforced recycled aggregate concrete was investigated. Test results indicated that
the peak stress, peak strain, and ultimate strain of concrete specimens increased with an
increase in the fibres dosage, and the addition of fibres had a positive effect on the ductility
of recycled aggregate concrete. Additionally, it has been reported that lower aspect ratio of
fiber could lead to strength reduction [51]. This is due to the weak bond properties between
the cement matrix and the fibres at lower aspect ratios. Furthermore, it has been reported
that when the aspect ratio is higher than a specific value, with the addition of steel fibres,
the ductility increases rather than the strength of concrete [52].
A better understanding of the compressive stress-strain behaviour and elastic modulus
of recycled aggregate concrete containing steel fibre, SF, and their combination needs to be
accepted by many designers, contractors, and policymakers as a sustainable alternative to
conventional concrete. Therefore, the current study aims to evaluate the impacts of steel
fibre and SF and their combination on the compressive stress-strain behaviour and elastic
modulus of different recycled aggregate concretes. In published research, it is proven that
the replacement levels of up to 30% of NCA by RCA does not significantly jeopardise
the mechanical properties of concrete. A recent study reported a 5.0–9.3% reduction in
compressive strength when different amounts of RCA were utilized [53]. However, due to
the poor mechanical properties of RCA, increasing the replacement levels of NCA by RCA
to over 30% can adversely affect the strength properties of concrete once no other additives,
such as SF, are added into the mixes [16,54,55]. Therefore, the RCA replacement levels in
this study were considered at 50% and 100%, and two different types of RCAs sourced
from both low- and high-strength concretes were prepared and tested to investigate the
improvement in mechanical properties.

2. Experimental Program
2.1. Raw Materials
The cementitious materials used in this study were ordinary Portland cement (OPC),
equivalent to ASTM Type I, and SF. Their chemical compositions and physical properties
are summarised in Table 1. The water quality used to make concrete specimens has a
significant impact on concrete strength properties [56–59]. Therefore, distilled water was
utilised for the characterisation tests and tap water for moulding the specimens [60–69].
Furthermore, the workability of the concrete mixtures was adjusted by using a Sika HRF-2
superplasticiser. Hooked-end steel fibres with a 50 mm length, 0.85 mm diameter, aspect
ratio of 60, and tensile strength of 1309 MPa were used. The RCAs, with an angular shape,
were obtained by crushing two laboratory concretes with low and high strength levels
labelled as “Type A” and “Type B”, with water/cement ratios of 0.60 and 0.40, respectively.
The compressive strength of the Type A and B concretes cured for 28 days were 27 MPa and
41 MPa, respectively. The sieve analysis and physical properties of the used aggregates are
presented in Figure 1 and Table 2, respectively. The attached mortar was obtained according
to the thermal method, as recommended by other researchers [70,71]. In this method, before
removing all the impurities, such as asphalt, plastics, and bricks, the prepared sample
of recycled aggregate (mi) was immersed in water for 2 h to fully saturate the attached
mortar. Next, the recycled aggregate sample was placed in a muffle at 500 ◦ C to dry before
being immersed in the cold water. This sudden cooling procedure caused cracks and
stress generation, leading to easy removal of the mortar from the recycled aggregates. To
remove the remaining attached mortar, a rubber hammer was used. Finally, to screen the
recycled aggregate sample, a 4 mm sieve was used. Equation (1) was used for calculating
the attached mortar:

% attached mortar = (mi − m f )/mi × 100 (1)

163
Materials 2021, 14, 7065 % 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑟 = (𝑚𝑖 – 𝑚𝑓)/𝑚𝑖 × 100

where mi and mf are the initial and final masses of the sample, respectively.
Table 1. Characteristics of cementitious materials [71].

Properties Cement Silica Fume

SiO2 21.66 90.01
Al2 O3 4.21 1.29
Fe2 O3 3.10 1.09
CaO 63.41 -
MgO 2.82 1.80
SO
SO33 2.61
2.61 -
Loss of ignition 0.81
0.81 -
Relative density, g/cm3 3.11 2.20
Specific surface, cm2 /g 2950 20.700

100
90
80
Cumulative passing (%)

70
60
50
40
30 NCA

20 RCA-A
10 RCA-B
0
1 10 100
Grain size (mm)
Figure 1. Sieve analysis of natural aggregates and RCAs.

Table 2. Physical characteristics of the aggregates.

Type of Attached Water

Crushing Value (%) Density (kg/m3 )
Aggregates Mortar (%) Absorption (%)
RCA (A) 27.3 2440 25.34 4.45
RCA (B) 27.1 2470 33.51 4.07
SAND - 2510 - 0.91
NCA 26.5 2630 - 0.47

2.2. Mixture Proportions

The mix design of the concrete samples is shown in Table 3. In total, twenty mixtures
were prepared, which were divided into four main groups. According to previous research
studies [15,71], the optimum percentages of steel fibres and SF that provide sufficient
mechanical strength for concrete mixes are 1% (by volume) and 8% (by cement weight),
respectively. Therefore, the first group consisted of five control concrete mixtures containing
NCA and RCA (including types A and B); the second group included 8% SF used as a
partial replacement for OPC. In the third group, 1% steel fibres by volume were added
to the mixtures. “S” and “F” were denoted at the beginning of the names of groups two
and three, respectively. In the fourth group, the concretes contained 8% SF as a partial
replacement for OPC and 1% steel fibres by volume, and “FS” was denoted at the beginning
of the mixtures.

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Materials 2021, 14, 7065

Table 3. Mixture design of concrete samples.

Steel
Cement SF Sand RCA NCA SP
Group Mix Code Water/Binder Fibres
(Kg/m3 ) (Kg/m3 ) (Kg/m3 ) (Kg/m3 ) (Kg/m3 ) (Kg/m3 )
(Kg/m3 )
NC 380 0.40 - - 910 - 910 2.30
RC50-A 380 0.40 - - 910 455 455 2.30
Control RC100-A 380 0.40 - - 910 910 - 2.30
RC50-B 380 0.40 - - 910 455 455 2.30
RC100-B 380 0.40 - - 910 910 0 2.30
SNC 350 0.40 - 30 910 - 910 2.30
SRC50-A 350 0.4.0 - 30 910 455 455 2.30
Silica SRC100-A 350 0.40 - 30 910 910 - 2.30
fume SRC50-B 350 0.40 - 30 910 455 455 2.30
SRC100-B 350 0.40 - 30 910 910 0 2.30
FNC 380 0.40 78 - 900 - 900 4.40
FRC50-A 380 0.40 78 - 900 450 450 4.40
Steel fibre FRC100-A 380 0.40 78 - 900 900 - 4.40
FRC50-B 380 0.40 78 - 900 450 450 4.40
FRC100-B 380 0.40 78 - 900 900 0 4.40
FSNC 350 0.40 78 30 900 - 900 4.40
Steel fibre FSRC50-A 350 0.40 78 30 900 450 450 4.40
and silica FSRC100-A 350 0.40 78 30 900 900 - 4.40
fume FSRC50-B 350 0.40 78 30 900 450 450 4.40
FSRC100-B 350 0.40 78 30 900 900 - 4.40
F: concrete containing steel fibre, S: concrete containing silica fume, NC: normal concrete, FS: concrete containing steel fibres and silica
fume, RC: recycled aggregate concrete, FSRC100-B: steel fibre-reinforced concrete containing 100% RCA and silica fume.

A constant water-to-binder ratio equal to 0.4 was used in all the mixtures. Two
different RCA contents included the partial replacement of NCA (50% by mass) and full
replacement (100% by mass). It should be noted that the replacements were made by mass
because the RCA featured a different density compared with the NCA.
The trial-and-error method was used to find the suitable mixing procedure. First,
the fine aggregates and binders were mixed using a Hobart mixer for one minute until a
homogenous mixture was obtained. Next, half of the mixing water and super-plasticiser
were added to the mix of binder and aggregates and were mixed for two minutes. The
coarse aggregates and the other half of the water were then added, and the mixing process
was resumed for five minutes. Finally, the fibres were added, and the mixing was resumed
for five minutes.

2.3. Sample Preparation and Test Methods

The freshly mixed concrete was poured into cylindrical moulds with a 100 mm di-
ameter and 200 mm in height to undergo the compressive strength tests and determine
the stress-strain curves [45,72]. Next, 24 h after casting, the specimens were demoulded
and cured in a basin with 100% relative humidity at 23 ◦ C for 28 days [72,73]. In total,
60 cylindrical samples were prepared, and the compressive strength tests were carried
out on them. Three replicate samples were prepared for each test to increase the accuracy
of the test results. The uniaxial compressive strength and the stress-strain curves were
automatically measured via a data logger connected to a compressive strength test machine
with a maximum capacity of 2000 kN, and the loading rate was set to 24 MPa/min.
The slump values of all the mix designs adopted in this study were set to be between
50 mm and 75 mm, which is a reasonable value for practical applications. Moreover, the
workability of the samples was slightly reduced while replacing the natural aggregates
with both types of recycled concrete aggregates, or by using higher amounts of silica fume.
Detailed information regarding the sample preparation, compression tests, and the used
standards can be found in recent research studies conducted by the authors [45,74]. The

165
Materials 2021, 14, 7065

elastic modulus for each specimen was measured by calculating the slope of the linear
portion of the compressive stress-strain curve [46]. In other words, the concrete elastic
modulus (Es) was calculated from the stress-strain curves according to Equation (2) [75]:

σ2 − σ1
Es = (2)
ε 2 − 0.005%

where σ2 is equivalent to the 40% of the peak load, σ1 corresponds to the strain at 0.005%,
and ε 2 is the strain when the stress is equal to σ2 .

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Compressive Stress-Strain Behaviour
The compressive stress-strain behaviours of the non-fibrous concretes containing RCA
types A and B are shown in Figure 2a,b respectively. The stress-strain curves in both types
only contain the ascending branch and the peak stress at which the specimen suddenly
fractured and failed. This was due to the fact that in the absence of fibre, the samples
exhibited brittle behaviour and failed after reaching their peak strength. When comparing
the ascending branch of concrete containing NCA with those of the concretes containing
RCA types A and B, the slope in the latter cases is less stiff than that of the former. In
addition, between concretes containing two types of RCA, the concrete containing RCA
type A was less stiff than that of concrete containing RCA type B. The results indicated
that the fracture strain of the concretes containing two types of RCA was higher than that
of the control concrete containing NCA. This may have been due to the fact that the total
ITZ of RCA is higher than that of concrete containing NCA. The increased interfacial zone
may give rise to the progressive development of micro-cracks at these interfaces and lead
to reduced strength. Naturally, the ITZs of RCA type A, which produced from the low
strength concrete, were more extensive than those of the RCA type B, and this may be the
reason for the low strength and higher fracture strain of the concrete containing RCA type
A. The lower strength of the samples containing RCA type A can also be attributed to the
lower strength of the parent concrete. The effect of the SF addition on the ascending branch
of the compressive stress-strain behaviour of all the concretes is also shown in Figure 3.
Irrespective of coarse aggregate type, the compressive strength and the stiffness of the
slopes of all the concretes increased by adding SF. The reason for the improved behaviour
in the control concrete containing NCA is pore refinement owing to the particle packing
and the formation of additional calcium-silica-hydrate due to the pozzolanic reaction of the
SF. The SF also decreased the pores and densified the matrix in the ITZ between the RCAs
and the matrix. Previous studies have also reported improvement in the case of ordinary
concrete containing NCA [31].
Figure 3 presents the impact of steel fibre inclusion on the compressive stress-strain
behaviour of all the concretes. The descending branch of the stress-strain curves was due
to the contribution of steel fibres, which increased both the toughness and the ductility of
the specimens. The compressive strength and the stiffness of the ascending branch of the
stress-strain curve of all the concretes also increased due to the addition of steel fibres. In
the case of the concretes containing RCA, the improvement was more prominent. It was
observed that the coexistence of steel fibre and SF compensated for the negative effect of
RCA in the concretes with the highest strength values of 58.38 and 58.23 MPa for FSRC
100-A and FSRC 50-B, respectively. The results also indicate that the impact of SF was
more significant in the fibrous concrete compared with the non-fibrous concretes. This
could be tied to the better bonding of steel fibre with the matrix, as observed recently in
another study [76]. Additionally, the failure pattern of the fibrous specimens changed from
brittle to ductile. The peak strain of the fibrous concretes increased approximately 10 times
compared to that of the non-fibrous concretes. The addition of SF also improved the
stiffness of the ascending branch slope of the fibrous recycled aggregates concretes, with
significant improvement in the case of the concrete containing RCA type B.

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Materials 2021, 14, 7065

60

Compressive stress (MPa)

50
NC
40
SNC
30 RC50-A
20 RC100-A
SRC50-A
10
SRC100-A
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
Axial strain (mm/mm)
(a)

60
Compressive strss (MPa)

50

40 NC
SNC
30
RC50-B
20 RC100-B
SRC50-B
10
SRC100-B
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
Axial strain (mm/mm)

(b)

Figure 2. Compressive stress-strain behaviour of non-fibrous concretes containing RCA: (a) type A
and (b) type B.

Figure 3. Compressive stress-strain performance of steel fibre-reinforced concretes containing RCA:

(a) type A, (b) type B.

The typical failure patterns of all the concrete samples are shown in Figure 4. All
the non-fibrous samples exhibited brittle failure, including those containing RCAs. The
addition of steel fibres changed the failure pattern of the cylinders from brittle to ductile,
as evidenced from the shear-type failure plane in the specimens, which was also similar
to the samples prepared with the combination of SF and steel fibres. By comparing the

167
Materials 2021, 14, 7065

failure patterns of the concretes containing steel fibre with those containing both SF and
steel fibres, more minor damage was seen in the latter than in the former.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

(i) (j) (k) (l)

Figure 4. Failure patterns of control concrete and recycled aggregate concretes containing SF, steel fibre, and combination of
SF and steel fibre: (a) NC; (b) SNC; (c) FNC; (d) FSNC; (e) RC100-A; (f) SRC100-A; (g) FRC100-A; (h) FSRC100-A; (i) RC100-B;
(j) SRC100-B; (k) FRC100-B; (l) FSRC100-B.

3.2. Modulus of Elasticity

The calculated elastic modulus values of all the concretes are presented in Figure 5. It
can be observed that the modulus of elasticity of the recycled aggregate concretes decreased
with an increase in the RCA content. This change could have been due to the lower elastic
modulus of the RCA than that of the NCAs and the weaker ITZ of the RCA. Similar
results were achieved by Xiao et al. [75] and Salem and Burdette [77]. The replacement
with RCA at 50% of both types reduced the modulus of elasticity by about 25%. With
100% replacement of the NCA with RCA types A and B, the elastic modulus decreased by

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about 40% and 10%, respectively, compared to that of normal concrete. The addition of SF
increased the modulus of elasticity of the mixtures in comparison to conventional concrete.
This increase could have been due to the pozzolanic activity of SF, which improved the
ITZ of the concrete and thus enhanced the modulus of elasticity. Similar results were also
reported by Corinaldesi and Moriconi [42]. The addition of steel fibre reduced the elasticity
modulus of both the recycled aggregate concretes. For instance, through the introduction
of steel fibres, the elasticity modulus of the RC50-A sample was reduced by approximately
19% (from 36.37 to 29.46 GPa in the FRC50-A sample). These results are in line with the
findings of Altun et al. [78], who concluded that the modulus of elasticity decreases by
increasing the percentage of steel fibre volume. However, the combination of steel fibre
and SF had no significant impact on the mixtures containing recycled aggregates type A,
but reduced the modulus of elasticity by about 18% in the mixtures containing recycled
aggregates type B.

(a)

(b)

Figure 5. Modulus of elasticity for (a) non-fibrous concretes and (b) steel fibre-reinforced recycled aggregate concretes.

A correlation between the compressive strength and the modulus of elasticity of the
non-fibrous recycled aggregates concretes was established, as shown in Figure 6. A reliable

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Materials 2021, 14, 7065

correlation was obtained with R2 equal to 0.87. The measured elastic modulus values
were compared with those predicted by existing models for both the non-fibrous and steel
fibre-reinforced concretes to examine the feasibility of using existing models. In the case
of the non-fibrous concrete, the models proposed by Warner et al. [79] and Thomas and
Ramaswamy [80] for steel fibre-reinforced concrete were considered and compared with
the measured values.

Figure 6. Relationship between elastic modulus and compressive strength of non-fibrous recycled
aggregate concretes.

Figure 7a,b show the correlations between the experimentally measured and the model-
predicted elastic modulus of non-fibrous and steel fibre-reinforced recycled aggregates
concretes, respectively. A good correlation can be seen in both cases, with the slight
deviation of a few experimentally measured elastic modulus values.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Comparison between experimentally measured elastic modulus and predicted modulus from: (a) AS 3600 for
non-fibrous recycled aggregate concretes; and (b) for steel fibre-reinforced recycled aggregate concretes [80].

The effect of SF addition on the toughness of both types of steel fibre-reinforced

recycled aggregates concretes was calculated from the area under the compressive stress-
strain curve in each concrete. The results are summarised in Figure 5b. The toughness
values of all the non-fibrous samples were less than 0.1; hence, they are not indicated
in the Figure. The toughnesses of the steel fibre-reinforced recycled aggregate concretes
containing RCA’s types A and B were comparable with those of the steel fibre-reinforced

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Materials 2021, 14, 7065

concrete containing NCA. The addition of SF improved the toughness of both steel fibre-
reinforced recycled aggregate concretes such that the toughness increased about 31% (from
0.47 in FRC100-A to 0.62 in FSRC100-A). Similar results were observed in the case of
concrete containing NCA. This could have been due to the densification of the ITZ of the
steel fibre in the cement matrix, which improved the steel fibre bond in the matrix and
hence better post-peak ductility in the concrete.
The consequences of adding SF on the peak compressive strain and compressive
strength of both non-fibrous and fibrous recycled aggregates concretes are shown in
Figure 8.
70 0.004

60 0.0035
Compressive strength (MPa)

0.003
50
0.0025

Peak strain
40
0.002
30
0.0015
20
0.001
10 0.0005
0 0

Compressive strength (MPa) Peak strain

(a)

70 0.004
Compressive strength (MPa)

60 0.0035

50 0.003
Peak strain

0.0025
40
0.002
30
0.0015
20 0.001
10 0.0005
0 0

Compressive strength (MPa) Peak strain

(b)
Figure 8. Impact of SF and steel fibre and coexistence of steel fibre and SF on the peak strain
and compressive strength of recycled aggregate concretes. (a) non-fibrous concretes and (b) steel
fibre-reinforced recycled aggregate concretes.

As shown in Figure 8, the peak strain of both types of recycled aggregates concretes
was slightly decreased due to the addition of SF. However, in the case of the steel fibres
reinforced recycled aggregates concrete, a significant improvement in the peak strain was
observed. This improvement can be attributed to the bridging of micro-cracks by the steel

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Materials 2021, 14, 7065

fibres. The addition of SF led to a slight improvement in the peak strain of the steel fibre-
reinforced recycled aggregate concretes; however, this amount was not very insignificant.

3.3. Modelling of Stress-Strain Behaviour of Recycled Aggregates Concretes Containing Steel Fibre
and Combination of Steel Fibre and SF
The prediction of compressive stress-strain behaviour of concrete helps to model the
structural behaviour of concrete structures. Various models that predict the compressive
stress-strain behaviour of concrete containing natural aggregates and fibre-reinforced
concretes can be found in previous research, Ezeldin and Balaguru [81] proposed the
following model Equation (3) to predict the compressive stress-strain behaviour of ordinary
concrete containing steel fibres:
εc
fc β ε co
=  β (3)
fc f
β − 1 + εεcoc

β = 1.093 + 0.7132 ( RI )−0.926 (4)

l
RI = Vf (5)
ø
where f c f is the compressive strength of fibre concrete; εco is the strain corresponding to the
compressive strength ( f c ), and ε c is the strain value in the compressive stress-strain curve.
The value β is the material parameter and RI is a reinforcing index combining the effect of
the steel fibre volume fractions, where Vf is the volume fraction of fibers, and l and ø are
the length and diameter of fibers, respectively [82].
The comparison between the experimental compressive stress-strain curve of RCA
and that predicted by the aforementioned model proposed by Ezeldin and Balaguru [81]
for ordinary concrete containing steel fibres is shown in Figure 9. The model for steel
fibre-reinforced concrete containing natural aggregates agrees well with the ascending
branch of the stress-strain curve for all recycled aggregates concretes. However, a slight
variation in the post-peak behaviour between the model predicted and the experimentally
observed curve for recycled aggregates concretes can be seen. Nevertheless, the existing
model proposed for steel fibre-reinforced ordinary concrete can be used to predict the
compressive stress-strain behaviour of steel fibre-reinforced recycled aggregates concretes
even with RCA from different grades of concrete.

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Materials 2021, 14, 7065

1 1
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
fc/fcf

0.5

fc/fcf
0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
ɛc/ɛco ɛc/ɛco
Exp Model Exp Model

(a) (b)

1 1
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
fc/fcf

0.5
fc/fcf

0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
ɛc/ɛco ɛc/ɛco

Exp Model Exp Model

(c) (d)

1 1

0.9 0.9

0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
fc/fcf
fc/fcf

0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
ɛc/ɛco ɛc/ɛco
Exp Model Exp Model

(e) (f)

Figure 9. Comparison between the experimental compressive stress-strain curve of steel fibre-reinforced RAC and the
predicted model for steel fibre-reinforced NAC proposed by Ezeldin and Balaguru (1992): (a) FNC, (b) FSNC, (c) FRC100-A,
(d) FSRC100-A, (e) FRC100-B, (f) FSRC100-B.

4. Conclusions
The effects of steel fibres, silica fume (SF), and the combined use of steel fibres and
SF on the mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concretes containing 50% and
100% recycled coarse types aggregates (RCA), sourced from both low- and high-strength
concretes, were investigated. The following main conclusions were drawn based on the
experimental and prediction studies:

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Materials 2021, 14, 7065

1. The discrete addition of SF and steel fibre slightly increased the compressive strength
of concretes containing both types of RCA. The combined use of SF and steel fibre
significantly improved the compressive strength of recycled aggregates concretes,
especially with RCA sourced from high-strength concrete. Similar behaviour was also
observed in both recycled aggregate concretes in the case of peak strain.
2. The addition of SF slightly increased the elastic modulus of both recycled aggregate
concretes; however, a significant improvement was observed due to the addition of
steel fibre and a combination of steel fibre and SF. Existing models underestimate the
elastic modulus of both non-fibrous and fibrous concretes at higher magnitudes.
3. The addition of SF improved the ascending branch of the compressive stress-strain
curve of the concretes containing both types of RCA. No significant changes in the
ascending branch of the compressive stress-strain curve were observed due to the
addition of SF in the recycled aggregate concretes containing steel fibre. The addition
of steel fibres and the combined addition of SF and steel fibre significantly improved
the post-peak ductility of the recycled aggregate concretes of both types, with the
most significant improvement, in the case of RCA, sourced from the low-strength
parent concrete.
4. The existing model reasonably predicts the compressive stress-strain behaviour of
steel fibre-reinforced concrete containing both natural aggregates and recycled aggre-
gates. This indicates the applicability of the existing model for steel fibre-reinforced
recycled aggregates concretes with and without SF.
For future research studies, it is recommended to explore the effects of different
water/cement ratios on the same mix designs. The investigation of the impact of using
other types of fibres on the engineering properties of the mix designs adopted in this
research is also suggested.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, data curation, investigation, methodology, writing—

review and editing, resources, supervision, S.J.; formal analysis, writing original draft, validation,
project administration, M.M.; writing original draft, investigation, writing—review and editing,
supervision, A.R.; writing original draft, writing—review and editing, investigation, M.A.; data
curation, writing—review and editing, investigation, formal analysis, H.M.; writing—review &
editing, investigation, visualization, resources, L.M.; conceptualization, data curation, methodology,
M.K.; investigation, writing—review and editing, M.S.; project administration, supervision, writing—
review and editing, M.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study was funded by Chem Concrete Pty Ltd. and Abadgaran Negin Jonoobshargh
Company [2009A12].
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding authors.
Acknowledgments: This study was supported by Chem Concrete Pty Ltd., Abadgaran Negin
Jonoobshargh Company (ANJ Co.), and SAHM research team at Western Sydney University. The
authors would also like to thank Mojgan Akbari for her valuable advice on the test program.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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 materials
Article
Influence of CNT Incorporation on the Carbonation of
Conductive Cement Mortar
Gun-Cheol Lee 1,† , Youngmin Kim 1,† , Soo-Yeon Seo 1 , Hyun-Do Yun 2 and Seongwon Hong 3, *

1 Department of Architectural Engineering, Korea National University of Transportation, Chungbuk,

Chungju 27469, Korea; [email protected] (G.-C.L.); [email protected] (Y.K.); [email protected] (S.-Y.S.)
2 Department of Architectural Engineering, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea;
[email protected]
3 Department of Safety Engineering, Korea National University of Transportation, Chungbuk,
Chungju 27469, Korea
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +82-43-841-5339
† Both authors contributed equally to this manuscript and are dual first authors.

Abstract: This study analyzed the influence of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) on the carbonation conduc-
tive cementitious composites. Two powder types of CNT, multi-walled and single-wall CNTs, were
employed to give the cement mortar the conductivity, and four tests including the accelerated carbon-
ation, compressive and flexural strength, electrical resistance, and porosity tests were carried out. To
intentionally accelerate the carbonation, the prismatic specimens of conductive cement composites
were fabricated and stored in the controlled environmental chamber at a constant temperature of
20 ± 2 ◦ C, constant relative humidity of 60 ± 5%, and carbon dioxide (CO2 ) concentration of 5% for
12 weeks. It was observed that carbonation resulted in only chemical damage so that there was no
change in the electrical resistance value of conductive cementitious mortar that had undergone a
carbonation attack.

Citation: Lee, G.-C.; Kim, Y.; Seo,

Keywords: multi-walled and single-walled carbon nanotubes; carbonation; electrical resistance;
S.-Y.; Yun, H.-D.; Hong, S. Influence
porosity; strength
of CNT Incorporation on the
Carbonation of Conductive Cement
Mortar. Materials 2021, 14, 6721.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216721
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Dario De Domenico The quality degradation of concrete structures is generally caused by the continuous
occurrence of various types of environmental factors [1]. In particular, the carbonation
Received: 30 September 2021 problems of concrete structures that are common phenomena in metropolitan areas, sea-
Accepted: 2 November 2021 side cities, or underground spaces have been gradually raised since the 1980s, and the
Published: 8 November 2021 durability due to the carbonation has significantly decreased as the result of global climate
changes [2–9]. In general, carbonation is the result of a chemical reaction in which calcium
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral hydroxide, a hydrate in the concrete structures, is changed into calcium carbonate as carbon
with regard to jurisdictional claims in dioxide (CO2 ) diffuses, and carbonation lowers the pH in concrete or cementitious com-
published maps and institutional affil- posites, leading to neutralization. As the carbonized concrete or cementitious composite is
iations. neutralized, the reinforcing bars inserted inside reinforced concrete structures are prone
to corrosion, and the corroded reinforcement generates internal cracks due to its volume
expansion. Furthermore, as this process progresses for long periods of time, such cracks
that occur on the surface of the structure pose a great threat to structural safety. Particularly,
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. underground structures, such as a subway structure, are exposed to a CO2 concentration
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. of more than 660 ppm and high humidity at 60–70%, which promotes carbonation [10,11].
This article is an open access article Recent research in the fields of concrete structure has been focused on the develop-
distributed under the terms and ment of structural health monitoring systems (SHM) using self-monitoring or self-sensing
conditions of the Creative Commons composites [12]. Choi E.K. et al. [13] used steel fibers both to embed the self-sensing
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
system into the concrete structures and to strengthen the tensile strength. In addition to
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
the incorporation of steel fiber in concrete mixtures, using carbon nanotubes (CNTs) has
4.0/).

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Materials 2021, 14, 6721

been investigated by many researchers and scholars because CNTs can give the concrete
composites the conductivity [14–16]. Generally, the dosage of CNTs was up to 2.0% of
the weight of the binder because of its low density of 1.3–1.4 g/cm3 [17,18]. Moreover,
poor dispersion of CNTs in the composites induced by van der Waals forces between
the CNT particles has become a major issue because it caused low mechanical perfor-
mance of the concrete structures [19]. To address this problem, many studies have been
conducted. Collins F. et al. [20] used aqueous solutions containing CNTs with several
types of admixtures such as air-entraining agents based on alkylbenzene sulfonic acid,
styrene butadiene rubber copolymer latex, and aliphatic propylene glycol ether including
ethoxylated alkylphenol, polycarboxylate, calcium naphthalene sulfonate, naphthalene
sulphonic acid derivative, and lignosulfonate. Sobolkina A. et al. [21] investigated the
effects of sonication on CNT dispersion with anionic and nonionic surfactants. Various
surfactants including cetrimonium bromide, sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate, and triton
X-100 were used as admixtures to uniformly disperse the CNTs in the mixtures [22]. To de-
velop the appropriate dispersion of CNT in cementitious composites, Gao et al. [23] added
graphene oxide and employed an ultrasonication technique. As the CNT mixtures have
been uniformly dispersed, it has not only proper strength but also excellent self-sensing
performance. Despite numerous published articles, investigations, and studies on the
carbonation of concrete structures and SHM using CNT above, to the authors’ knowledge,
at present there is no strong consensus in the literature regarding the analysis of carbon-
ated conductive cementitious composites. To bridge this gap, physical, mechanical, and
electrical characteristics of CNT incorporated cementitious mixtures that have undergone
carbonation attack are first obtained through various experiments, and the data and results
of experiments can be used to update how carbonation influences the performance of
conductive cementitious composites.
The remainder of this research is organized as follows; the ordinary Portland cement
(OPC), standard sand, and two powder types of CNT used in the experiment were first an-
alyzed in terms of physical and chemical properties, the mixture proportions of conductive
cementitious composites were explained in detail, four experiments including compressive
and flexural strength, electrical resistance, and porosity tests were conducted to investigate
the CNT effects on the carbonation and finally, through the data from electrical resistance
and porosity experiments, meaningful findings were reached.

2. Experimental Program
2.1. Materials
In this experiment, ordinary Portland cement (OPC, Type I KSL 5201 [24]) and standard
sand (KS L ISO 679 [25]) were employed. Table 1 and Figure 1 show the chemical and
physical properties of OPC and particle size distribution curve of standard sand (KSL ISO
679 [25]), respectively. To make conductive composites, two powder types of CNTs, multi-
wall CNT (MW) and single-wall CNT (SW) (Tuball, OCSiAI, Leudelange, Luxembourg),
were added to the mixtures and presented in Figure 2, and their physical porosities are
summarized in Table 2.

Table 1. Properties of ordinary Portland cement.

Chemical Properties (%) Physical Properties

Density Specific Surface Area
SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 CaO MgO
(g/cm3 ) (cm2 /g)
22.23 5.21 3.38 64.58 2.3 3.15 3300

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Figure 1. Particle size distribution curve of standard sand (KS L ISO 679).

Figure 2. Picture of powder-type carbon nanotubes: (a) multi-walled carbon nanotubes; (b) single-walled carbon nanotubes.

Table 2. Physical properties of multi-walled and single-walled carbon nanotubes.

MW SW
Electrical resistance (Ω·m2 ) 5.1 × 10−6 10 × 10−4
Diameter (nm) 5–100 1.2–3.0
Length (µm) 10 10
Specific surface area (m2 /g) 130~160 700~900
Tension (GPa) 50 45
Thermal conductivity (W/m·K) 3000 6000

2.2. Mixture Proportions

The mixture proportions are shown in Table 3. The CNTs used in this study are divided
into MW and SW and prepared at three levels (0, 1.0, and 2.0% mass fraction), which are
determined based on the literature review [17,18]. The specimens were fabricated in
accordance with KS L ISO 679 [25]. Admixture (poly carboxylate-based high-performance
water reducing agent, KS F 2560 [26]) was added to the mixture to improve workability
and homogenous dispersion, and its amounts at MW 1.0, SW 1.0, MW 2.0, and SW 2.0 were
2.0, 6.0, 4.0, and 14.0%, respectively.

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Table 3. Mixture proportion of conductive cement mortar.

Weight (g)
Sample W/C (%)
Cement Water Sand CNT
Plain 0
MW 1.0 or 50 450 255 1 350
4.50
SW 1.0
MW 2.0 or
9.00
SW 2.0

2.3. Experimental Method

To analyze the conductive properties of the cement mortar incorporating CNTs under-
gone carbonation, the accelerated carbonation, compressive and flexural strength, electrical
resistance, and porosity tests were carried out. External factors affecting the carbonation
of cementitious composites are generally temperature, humidity, and carbon dioxide con-
centrations. In this study, to accelerate the carbonation of the conductive cement mortar,
the prismatic specimens with a cross-section of 100 × 100 mm2 and a length of 400 mm
were fabricated and stored in a carbonation acceleration chamber (SSENES Lab & Scientific
Instrument, NEX1200) at a constant temperature of 20 ± 2 ◦ C, constant relative humidity
of 60 ± 5%, and CO2 concentration of 5% until the target age (up to 12 weeks), as demon-
strated in Figure 3. The control specimens with the same dimension were cured in a water
tank at 20 ± 2 ◦ C for the same number of days. The specimens were cut into two halves
and sprayed with a 1% phenolphthalein solution on the measurement surface, and the
carbonation depth was then determined by measuring the distance from the edge of the
specimen to the color boundary in accordance with the carbonation depth measurement
method of cementitious composites (KS F 2596 [27]). The carbonation velocity coefficient
(A) was calculated based on Equation (1).
√
xc = A t (1)

where xc is carbonation depth (mm), and t is accelerated carbonation period (week).

(a) (b)

Figure 3. Cont.

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(c)

Figure 3. Carbonation acceleration chamber: (a) outside chamber; (b) inside chamber; (c) control system.

In accordance with KS L ISO 679 [25], three prismatic specimens with a cross-section
of 40 × 40 mm2 and a length of 160 mm were fabricated, demolded after 24 h, and cured in
a water tank maintained at 20 ± 1 ◦ C until the target day. The compressive and flexural
strengths were measured at 3, 7, and 28 days. Figure 4 displays the prismatic specimen
dimensions of conductive cement mortar for the electrical resistance test, which were the
same dimension as the strength tests. To properly measure the resistance, copper plates
were installed at both ends of the specimen and a two-probe method with the DAQ970A
data acquisition system with the BenchVue program was used and alternating current (AC)
was used. Due to the moisture content effect of cementitious composites [28], the specimens
were dried in an environmental chamber for 24 h at a temperature of 80 ± 1 ◦ C. After
drying, 5 V AC power was supplied to the copper plates at both ends of the cementitious
composites. To stabilize the resistance value, it was measured approximately 20 min
after the supply of current. Since pore size and its distribution can influence mechanical
properties of conductive cementitious composites which have undergone a carbonation
attack, pore distribution curves are necessarily obtained [29–31]. For this, approximately
2 g of sample was collected from the top surface of the specimen, and mercury porosimetry
analysis was performed by using the Mercury Porosimeter (ATS Scientific Inc., Autopore V
9600, Burlington, ON, Canada). The pressure range of Autopore V 9600 is between 50 and
60,000 psi and it can measure pore sizes of 0.003–900
μ µm.

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Figure 4. Specimen dimension of conductive cement mortar for electrical resistance measurement.

3. Test Results and Discussion

3.1. Carbonation Depth of Conductive Cement Mortar
Carbonation occurs in the cement mortar as the calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2 ) in
cement reacts with CO2 from the atmosphere and water in the pore. First, carbon acid
(H2 CO3 ) is the result of a reaction between carbon dioxide and water. The generated carbon
acid reacts with the calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) and water, as
shown in Equation (2). In general, the volume of calcium carbonation increases by about
11.7% compared to that of calcium hydroxide. Consequently, as carbonation proceeds in
plain cement mortar, the carbonated region forms a dense pore structure resulting in the
prevention of the CO2 penetration and restraint of the CO2 effect [32,33]. However, the
conductive cement mortar has a larger pore than that of plain composites so that more
diffusion of CO2 in the CNT cementitious composites through these pores takes place.
Figure 5 shows the results of carbonation of conductive cement mortar assessed by using
alkalinity indicator, Phenolphthalein, after 12 weeks of the accelerated carbonation test. It
was confirmed that CNT cementitious materials accelerated the carbonation.

Ca(OH)2 + H2 CO3 → CaCO3 + 2H2 O (2)

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Figure 5. The results of carbonation of conductive cement mortar (12 weeks): (a) plain; (b) MW 1.0; (c) MW 2.0; (d) SW 1.0;
(e) SW 2.0.
Figure 6 provides the results of carbonation depths of conductive cement mortar
after the carbonation attack. In the case of the plain specimen, the carbonization depth
increased to 2 mm with no coefficient of variation (COV) for 12 weeks. The depth of
the MW 1.0 and MW 2.0 specimens was 5.3 mm with COV of 11% and 8 mm with COV
of 25%, respectively, for 12 weeks whereas the carbonation depth of SW 1.0 and SW 2.0
was observed to be 12.6 mm with COV of 9% and 19.6 mm with COV of 8%, respectively,
for 12 weeks. It signified that CNT clearly influenced accelerating the carbonation of
conductive cement mortar.

Figure 6. Carbonation depths of conductive cementitious composites after carbonation.

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Figure 7 exhibits the relationship between carbonation depths and time. The carbona-
tion velocity coefficient was 0.60 with an R-squared (R2 ) of 98.9% for the plain specimen
without CNTs. The carbonation velocity coefficient of the MW 1.0 and MW 2.0 specimens
was measured to be 1.56 with an R2 of 99.7% and 2.38 with an R2 of 98.9%, respectively,
while that of SW 1.0 and SW 2.0 was 3.99 with an R2 of 93.0% and 5.86 with an R2 of 98.0%,
respectively. It was observed that the carbonation velocity coefficient of SW was 250%
greater than that of MW and the carbonation rate of conductive cement mortar increased
by 150% as the amount of CNT was doubled in the mixture. Therefore, it was confirmed
that the incorporation of CNTs accelerated the carbonation of cement mortar.

Figure 7. Relationship between carbonation depths and time of conductive cement mortar.

3.2. Compressive and Flexural Strength of CNT Cementitious Materials

The flexural and compressive strength results of conductive cement mortar are shown
in Figures 8 and 9, respectively. The specimens incorporating CNTs showed a further
decrease in compressive and flexural strengths compared with the plain specimen. Particu-
larly, when the amount of incorporation of CNTs increased, the compressive and flexural
strengths decreased because CNT is a hydrophobic composite, so it is impossible to be
dispersed properly in the mortar mixtures, and it exists as pores in the composites, which
results in decreases in the mechanical performance of CNT-embedded cementitious com-
posites. This is also the reason why conductive cement mortar accelerated carbonation.
Since SW 2.0 was not completely cured by the age of 7 days, its strength was zero. Because
excessive chemical admixture (14%) was used, it was considered that it delayed the curing.
It was clearly observed that compressive and flexural strength decreased as the amount of
CNT incorporation increased, and the decrease of SW was greater than that of MW.

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Figure 8. Flexural strength of conductive cementitious composites.

Figure 9. Compressive strength of conductive cement mortar.

3.3. Electrical Resistance Properties of Conductive Cementitious Composites

Figure 10 displays the electrical resistance properties of conductive cementitious
before and after the accelerated carbonation. The electrical properties of the specimen
before deterioration damage showed that as the CNTs were incorporated, the resistance
value suddenly decreased to about 80–90%. By comparing MW with SW, it was clearly
measured that the electrical resistance of SW was lower than that of MW. Since CNTs are
conductive nanomaterials, conductivity can be given to the cement mortar and the small
resistance is measured in spite of the bundle phenomenon induced by the van der Waals
force in the composites. In other words, cement mortar mixing with CNTs has the capability
to exhibit electrical performance. In addition, it was found that there was no significant
change in the electrical resistance value as carbonation proceeded. The carbonation of
cementitious composites did not result in internal damage, but it was a chemical change
in which calcium hydroxide reacts with CO2 to produce calcium carbonate, which made
only dense pore structures in the mixtures. It signified that the carbonation of conductive
cementitious materials caused only mechanical damage so that there was no change in
electrical performance.

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Materials 2021, 14, 6721

Figure 10. Electrical resistance of conductive cement mortar before and after carbonation.

3.4. Pore Distribution Characteristics of Conductive Mortar

Figures 11 and 12 present the pore size distribution and its cumulative pore volume of
the conductive cementitious specimen before and after the carbonation attack, respectively.
Before the carbonation in Figure 11a, it was observed that relatively large pores with sizes
ranging between 370 µm and 80 µm increased with increasing the dosage of CNTs. In
particular, in the range from 370 µm to 80 µm, the largest cumulative pore volume of SW 2.0
specimens was measured (see Figures 11a and 12b) and the pore size of conductive cement
mortar incorporating SW was relatively larger than that of the composites with MW, which
are clearly different pore size characteristics from the plain specimen. The filling effect
due to the diameter of 5–100 ηm and 1.2–3.0 ηm for MW and SW, respectively, resulted
in no pore distribution between 0.1 µm and 0.05 µm for MW 2.0 and SW 2.0. However, it
was obviously observed that the specimen of MW 1.0 and SW 1.0 had pores from 0.1 µm
and 0.05 µm. These are because that CNTs were hydrophobic and difficult to be uniformly
distributed in the composites. In the case of plain mortar, the pore size was between 370 µm
and 35 µm and there were no micro-pore characteristics. These pores from 370 µm to 35 µm
were considered to be the ones left as the remaining water evaporated after the water
reacted with cement. Figure 11b provides the pore distribution curve of the cementitious
composites after carbonation. The maximum pore distribution of the conductive mortar
was the same as ones before the carbonation attack. Carbonation of concrete structure
implied loss of alkali and it became neutralization. Carbonation did not result in the internal
and/or external damage of the concrete structures caused by freeze–thaw or sulfuric acid
erosion. Instead of physical change, the generated calcium carbonate caused the filling
effect as shown in Figures 11 and 12. Therefore, it was considered that no physical damage
occurred in the conductive cementitious composites that had undergone carbonation so
that the connection between CNTs was maintained and conductivity was not physically
damaged. Moreover, as the CNT incorporation dosage increased, the distribution of large
pores was measured. This is the evidence supporting the above results of compressive and
flexural strength as well.

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Materials 2021, 14, 6721

Figure 11. Pore size distribution of conductive cementitious composites before and after carbonation:
(a) before carbonation and (b) after carbonation.

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Materials 2021, 14, 6721

Figure 12. Cumulative pore volume of conductive cement mortar before and after carbonation:
(a) before carbonation and (b) after carbonation.

4. Conclusions
To evaluate the change in the conductivity of the cementitious mortar incorporating
MW and SW due to the carbonation, four laboratory tests such as the accelerated car-
bonation, compressive and flexural strength, electrical resistance, and porosity tests were
performed and the following findings were drawn;
1. The acceleration rate of carbonation of conductive cementitious composite increased
with an increasing amount of incorporation of CNTs because the large pores generated
from the incorporation of CNTs facilitated the penetration of CO2 in the mortar. It was
found that the carbonation velocity coefficient of SW was 2.5 times greater than that
of MW and the carbonation rate of conductive cement mortar increased by 1.5 times
as the dosage of CNT was doubled in the mixture.
2. When CNTs were mixed with the cement mortar, the compressive and flexural
strengths decreased compared to those of the plain mortar due to an increase in
the internal pore volume. In particular, it was measured that relatively large pores
with sizes ranging from 370 µm to 80 µm occurred due to the van der Waals force
resulting from the incorporation of CNTs. These pores resulted in the degradation of
mechanical properties.
3. The electrical resistance value of the conductive cement mortar was about 10–20% of
the plain specimen, signifying that it had conductivity performance. In addition, the

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Materials 2021, 14, 6721

decrease in resistance value was greater in SW than in MW, indicating that SW had
better electrical properties than NW. Furthermore, there was no significant change in
the electrical properties due to the carbonation. It denoted that carbonation only led
to chemical change without causing any physical damage to the inside of the cement
mortar, and the connection of CNTs was thus unimpaired.
4. Through the test results of the pore distribution curve, it was worth noting that large
pores with sizes ranging between 370 µm and 80 µm increased with the increase
in the amount of CNTs. The filling effect due to the diameter of 1.2–100 ηm for
CNTs caused no micro-pore distribution in a range between 0.1 µm and 0.05 µm
for MW 2.0 and SW 2.0, while it was obviously detected that the MW 1.0 and SW
1.0 composites had micro-pores. It implies that hydrophobic CNTs were difficult
to be uniformly dispersed in the mixtures and CNT incorporation clearly resulted
in a decrease in the mechanical performance of cement mortar. After carbonation
the pore distribution curves were clearly changed because the pore created by CNTs
would be the penetration route of CO2 into the inside of cementitious composites,
causing acceleration of carbonation. The generated calcium carbonate resulted in
the filling effect and chemical change in the composites such that the connection
between CNTs were not damaged and the conductive cementitious composite had a
self-sensing performance.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.-C.L., S.-Y.S. and H.-D.Y.; methodology, G.-C.L. and
S.-Y.S.; validation, G.-C.L., S.-Y.S., H.-D.Y., Y.K. and S.H.; formal analysis, G.-C.L., H.-D.Y. and S.H.;
investigation, G.-C.L., S.-Y.S. and S.H.; resources, G.-C.L. and Y.K.; data curation, G.-C.L. and Y.K.;
writing—original draft preparation, G.-C.L., Y.K., S.-Y.S. and S.H.; writing—review and editing,
G.-C.L., S.-Y.S., H.-D.Y. and S.H.; visualization, S.H.; supervision, G.-C.L., S.-Y.S. and S.H.; project
administration, G.-C.L. and S.-Y.S.; funding acquisition, G.-C.L., S.-Y.S., H.-D.Y. and S.H. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National
Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (No. 2021R1A4A2001964)
and by NRF grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT) (No. 2020R1F1A104824112).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data contained within the article.
Acknowledgments: Not Applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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 materials
Article
A Combined Experimental-Numerical Framework for Assessing
the Load-Bearing Capacity of Existing PC Bridge Decks
Accounting for Corrosion of Prestressing Strands
Dario De Domenico * , Davide Messina and Antonino Recupero

Department of Engineering, University of Messina, Villaggio S. Agata, 98166 Messina, Italy;

[email protected] (D.M.); [email protected] (A.R.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-0906765921

Abstract: Bridges constitute important elements of the transportation network. A vast part of
the Italian existing infrastructural system dates to around 60 years ago, which implies that the
related bridge structures were constructed according to past design guidelines and underwent a
probable state of material deterioration (e.g., steel corrosion, concrete degradation), especially in those
cases in which proper maintenance plans have not been periodically performed over the structural
lifetime. Consequently, elaborating rapid yet effective safety assessment strategies for existing bridge
structures represents a topical research line. This contribution presents a systematic experimental-
numerical approach for assessing the load-bearing capacity of existing prestressed concrete (PC)
bridge decks. This methodology is applied to the Longano PC viaduct (southern Italy) as a case
study. Initially, natural frequencies and mode shapes of the bridge deck are experimentally identified
from vibration data collected in situ through Operational Modal Analysis (OMA), based on which a
Citation: De Domenico, D.; Messina,
numerical finite element (FE) model is developed and calibrated. In situ static load tests are then
D.; Recupero, A. A Combined
carried out to investigate the static deflections under maximum allowed serviceability loads, which
Experimental-Numerical Framework
are compared to values provided by the FE model for further validation. Since prestressing strands
for Assessing the Load-Bearing
Capacity of Existing PC Bridge Decks
appear corroded in some portions of the main girders, numerical static nonlinear analysis with a
Accounting for Corrosion of concentrated plasticity approach is finally conducted to quantify the effects of various corrosion
Prestressing Strands. Materials 2021, scenarios on the resulting load-bearing capacity of the bridge at ultimate limit states. The proposed
14, 4914. https://doi.org/10.3390/ methodology, encompassing both serviceability and ultimate conditions, can be used to identify
ma14174914 critical parts of a large infrastructure network prior to performing widespread and expensive material
test campaigns, to gain preliminary insight on the structural health of existing bridges and to plan a
Academic Editor: Jorge de Brito priority list of possible repairing actions in a reasonable, safe, and costly effective manner.

Received: 6 August 2021

Keywords: bridges; prestressed concrete bridge decks; operational modal analysis; dynamic identifi-
Accepted: 27 August 2021
cation; corrosion; corroded strands; structural vulnerability assessment; structural health monitoring;
Published: 29 August 2021
nonlinear static analysis

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
1. Introduction
iations.
Most of the existing bridges and viaducts in Italy were constructed around 60 years
ago, thus complying with past design guidelines. Many of these bridges were realized
with prestressed concrete (PC) deck (with either pretensioned strands or post-tensioned
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
tendons) [1,2] and reinforced concrete (RC) piers. In addition to the differences between
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
design regulations in force at the time of bridge construction and the current design stan-
This article is an open access article
dards, the vulnerability of these structures is further increased by material deterioration
distributed under the terms and phenomena occurred over the structural lifetime, primarily corrosion of steel element (both
conditions of the Creative Commons reinforcement bars of RC piers and prestressing strands of PC main girders). Durability
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// issues of these structures, which are related not only to construction details, but also (and
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ most importantly) to the frequency and extensiveness of inspections and related mainte-
4.0/). nance interventions, have been often neglected and not considered as key performance

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Materials 2021, 14, 4914

objectives in the past few decades. However, recent collapses of bridges occurred in Italy
in recent years have revealed the importance of such aspects for the risk mitigation of exist-
ing bridges and for the safety of the overall infrastructure network [3]. A representative
example is given by the Polcevera viaduct failure in Genoa [4] occurred on 14 August 2018,
causing social and economic losses estimated in 43 deaths and around 2 years of down-
time. Consequently, the managing bodies of the road network (be them national agencies
or private companies) are currently performing a comprehensive survey of the bridge
structures through experimental measurements accompanied by numerical investigations
aimed at safety assessment of existing bridges. The aim is to rapidly identify potential
critical portions of the road network without performing extensive material tests, based
on which specific plans of retrofitting actions and, above all, intervention priorities can be
adopted in a timely and precise manner [5]. Retrofitting interventions to extend bridge
service life can be either localized to specific, weak zones, such as applying composite
strips to bridge deck slabs [6], or designed to control the overall bridge structural behavior,
such as via the introduction of passive energy dissipation systems (e.g., viscous dampers)
when an insufficient seismic capacity is detected [7].
Until one year ago, inspection activities on Italian bridges were regulated by guide-
lines established in a Technical Circular issued by the Italian Ministry of Public Works and
dating back to 1967 [8]. The increasing importance of safety assessment of existing bridges
has led to the development of a new document entitled “Guidelines for classification
and risk management, safety assessment, and structural health monitoring of existing
bridges” [9], approved in April 2020 and compliant with the Italian Technical Rules for
Constructions [10] (in sequel simply referred to as NTC2018) in terms of load combinations,
safety checks, load models and partial safety factors for the structural analysis of bridge
structures. This document has allowed an extensive classification of the entire existing
bridge stock, based on a simplified risk analysis combined with a multi-hazard methodol-
ogy (including structural, seismic, geotechnical, and hydraulic hazards) to define an overall
attention class of the bridge.
One of the most critical structural systems identified in the above-mentioned guide-
lines [9] and in recent inspections of existing bridges concerns PC girders that may be
vulnerable to a series of structural issues, such as construction defects in the anchorage
zones, prestressing steel relaxation losses [11], durability problems and deterioration phe-
nomena, primarily corrosion on steel tendons [12]. Indeed, RC and PC structures placed in
aggressive environments (e.g., featured by high concentration of sulphates and/or chlo-
rides from marine environments, deicing salts, etc.) suffer from corrosion problems related
to carbonation of concrete and electrochemical oxidization of steel tendons. Apart from
the reduction of the steel area, the iron oxides and rust, occupying a volume six times
higher than the original metal, cause transversal tensile stresses in steel [13], thus leading
to diffuse microcracking in the surrounding concrete and resulting in spalling of concrete
cover, deterioration of the bond links between concrete and steel [14,15], reduction of the
sectional capacity [16] and consequent modification of the structural behavior [17]. These
effects are more impactful on the load-bearing capacity of PC structures than ordinary
RC structures, because steel strands operate at higher levels of stress (up to five times)
than those of mild steel re-bars. Consequently, evaluating to what extent corrosion of steel
strands (in pretensioned PC girders) or steel tendons (in post-tensioned PC girders) affects
the load-bearing capacity of the bridge structure is of utmost importance.
The load-carrying capacity assessment of existing bridge structures represents a topi-
cal research line, as confirmed by the wide number of experimental [18], numerical [19],
and combined experimental-numerical works [20] in the literature, including multi-level
approaches [21] and probabilistic, time-dependent methods [22,23] accounting for degra-
dation of material parameters, especially corrosion of steel. Generally, numerical analysis
is assisted by field test results such as diagnostic load tests [24,25], or other non-destructive
testing techniques like impact echo [26].

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Materials 2021, 14, 4914

This contribution falls into this research line and proposes a rapid yet effective ap-
proach for the assessment of the safety conditions of existing bridge structures under both
serviceability and ultimate loading conditions. In particular, the focus of the work is on
PC bridge decks representing a common structural scheme for medium span bridges. The
proposed methodology consists in a combined experimental-numerical framework that is
applied to the case study of the PC bridge deck of the Longano viaduct, Barcellona P.G.,
Italy, and whose main steps are summarized as follows. First, dynamic identification of
natural frequencies and mode shapes of the bridge deck is performed through operational
modal analysis (OMA) based on vibration data collected in situ. These measurements are
subsequently used for calibrating a numerical FE model of the bridge deck using 1D beam
elements for girders and transverse diaphragms. Experimental static load tests on the
bridge deck are then carried out in situ under increasing loads levels (in three subsequent
phases) up to the maximum allowed serviceability loads, and measuring the corresponding
deflections associated with each load step. The static tests performed in situ are also
simulated through the previously calibrated FE model, by applying appropriate tributary
loads on the beam elements and comparing the obtained numerical deflections with those
measured experimentally for further validation. Once the FE model is calibrated and
validated, additional numerical analyses are performed to investigate the bridge behavior
at ultimate limit states. Macroscopic observations on the bridge deck reveal a state of
advanced corrosion in some prestressing steel strands, which may significantly reduce the
cross-sectional resisting capacity and may seriously affect the ultimate structural behavior
of the bridge deck. To this aim, static nonlinear analysis with a concentrated plasticity
approach is finally performed to assess the influence of various corrosion scenarios of
the prestressing strands on the resulting load-bearing capacity of the bridge deck. The
proposed experimental-numerical framework makes it possible to preliminarily assess the
structural behavior of the bridge under simultaneous service and ultimate load conditions
prior to performing extensive material test campaigns, unlike other methods from the
literature. This preliminary assessment is a crucial goal to plan appropriate retrofitting
interventions in a large infrastructure network. Moreover, the presented methodology en-
ables one to investigate the influence of various corrosion scenarios of prestressing strands
under extreme loading conditions. The latter information can be extremely useful to evalu-
ate, in an effective and rapid manner, the structural vulnerability of bridge structures in
those circumstances in which experimental measures of the actual strand corrosion rate are
available, or when imminent inspections are designed to investigate material degradation
phenomena in situ.

2. Description of the Longano Viaduct

The Longano viaduct was built in 1970. It is located in the municipality of Barcellona
Pozzo di Gotto, Sicily (southern Italy), approximately 1 km in front of the Tyrrhenian Sea.
This viaduct belongs to the A20 infrastructure network connecting the provinces of Messina
and Palermo; location and photograph of the viaduct are provided in Figure 1.
With an overall length of 88 m, the viaduct is articulated in two twin parts, each
representing an independent roadway, with a straight longitudinal configuration and
modest altimetric variations. Each roadway (one following the traffic direction from
Messina to Palermo and the other in the opposite direction) is composed of: 2 circular piers
of heights 5.50 m and 6.00 m, having diameter 2.20 and equipped with spiral reinforcement
and Dywidag prestressing steel bars with diameter 32 mm; 2 abutments with height 6 m and
7 m in RC; 3 spans with a statically determinate scheme in PC, having length equal to 29 m
(two external spans) and 30 m (central span); RC slab having thickness 20 cm and width
11 m, including curbs and parapets. The structural scheme is composed of an assembly of
4 longitudinal I-shaped PC girders, spaced 2.75 m, with 42 pretensioned steel 0.6′′ strands,
of which 26 in the bottom flange, 2 in the web, 4 in the top flange (all of them arranged
in straight configuration) and the remaining 10 inclined from the upper portion of the
section (near the girder supports) to the bottom flange via intermediate deviators located

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Materials 2021, 14, 4914

8 m from the supports (see Figure 2a,b) that show just one half of the girder reinforcement
configuration up to midspan, the other half being perfectly symmetric). The longitudinal
I-shaped PC girders, of height 1.65 m and width 0.70 m, are mutually connected through
transverse PC (post-tensioned) diaphragms (5 per each span), having rectangular section
(20 cm × 80 cm) and spaced 7.00 m (see Figure 2c,d) showing the horizontal and transverse
sections of the bridge deck). The PC girders are simply supported on neoprene bearings
having dimensions 0.60 m × 0.45 m × 0.064 m. In the transverse direction, the bridge
deck has a couple of RC seismic restraints realized in the pier cap and in the abutments.
As to the materials adopted, the original design drawings report concrete grade C35/45
(cylindrical characteristic strength ≥ 35 MPa), prestressing strands with ultimate tensile
strength greater than 1667 MPa and reinforcement bars (of RC slab) with yielding stress
greater than 430 MPa and ultimate strength greater than 540 MPa.

Figure 1. Location and photograph of the Longano viaduct, Barcellona P.G., Italy analyzed in this paper as a case study.
(Base map © 2021 Basarsoft US Department of State Geographer Data, U.S. Navy, GEBCO Image Landsat/Copernicus).

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Figure 2. Original design drawings of the Longano viaduct: (a) configuration of the prestressing strands in longitudinal
girders; (b) cross-sections of PC girders; (c) horizontal section of the bridge deck (two independent roadways); (d) transverse
section of the bridge deck.

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3. Visual Inspection and Motivations of the Experimental Campaign

Considering the location of the Longano viaduct (just 1 km from the sea) and the fact
that the bridge was built more than 50 years ago, some deterioration phenomena might
have occurred in the materials, mainly ascribed to aggressive agents like chlorides from
the marine environment. These hypothetical considerations are supported by the bridge
deterioration state actually detected by visual inspection, whose outcomes are briefly
illustrated here and form the basis of the experimental campaign planned afterwards.
According to the multi-level approach recommended by the Italian Guidelines for
bridges [9], after the level-0 process of data collection of the bridge, including location,
design drawings to identify structural system, check for past reports of retrofit interventions,
etc. [27], the next level 1 concerns a visual inspection on the bridge with the aim to detect
existing damage signs, including (among others) cracking spots, spalling of concrete cover
and, most importantly, steel corrosion. A set of photographs taken on different parts of
the Longano viaduct is reported in Figure 3. It is clearly noticed that there is a widespread
deterioration state along the bridge deck with concrete cover completely removed in
extensive portions of the girder soffit and marked corrosion phenomena in prestressing
strands (more pronounced in the strands located in the bottom part of the I-shaped section)
as well as in the mild steel bars of the RC slab. On the contrary, the inspection does not
reveal any damage state in the transverse diaphragms (neither cracking, nor concrete
spalling, nor corrosion of steel tendons).
Based on the preliminary data acquired during the visual inspection, it is reasonable to
think that the observed corrosion phenomena of prestressing strands might have reduced
the sectional capacity of the PC longitudinal girders. Depending on the initial prestressing
force considered in the design stage and the extensiveness of the corrosion process (which
are two unknown parameters), theoretically speaking, the reduced steel area of the strands
may either affect the ultimate limit states only, or also influence the sectional capacity under
serviceability loads. Indeed, it is not easy to foresee whether the corrosion rate is such to
produce the cracking state under service loading conditions. Should this critical scenario of
cracking under service loads occur, the evolution of damage state detected from the visual
inspection might evolve more and more rapidly under service traffic loads. It is, therefore,
of extreme importance to check the structural behavior of the bridge under serviceability
loads (up to the maximum loads allowed by the Italian regulations NTC2018 [10]). To this
aim, static load tests on the bridge deck are planned to reproduce such extreme service
loading conditions corresponding to the characteristic combination of loads reported in the
Eurocode 0 [28] §6.5.3, with unitary combination coefficients for variable actions (normally
used for irreversible limit states). However, before performing such static load tests, it is
decided to preliminarily identify natural frequencies, mode shapes and damping ratios of
the bridge through OMA (collecting free vibration data). These dynamic characteristics
serve as useful indicators of the bridge structural health and are, therefore, checked and
compared prior to and after the static load tests to assess whether some irreversible damage
is caused by the applied loads. The description of the in situ experimental campaign is
reported in the next section.

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Figure 3. Widespread corrosion state of the Longano viaduct detected from visual inspection.

4. In Situ Experimental Dynamic and Static Tests under Service Loads

4.1. Operational Modal Analysis and Identification of Dynamic Parameters
The aim of dynamic tests performed in this experimental campaign is to identify
dynamic parameters (natural frequencies and mode shapes, as well as damping ratios)
of the bridge deck through free vibration analysis. As already said, the knowledge of
such dynamic parameters is strictly related to the geometric and mechanical properties of
the Longano viaduct and is, therefore, useful for a rapid control of the bridge structural

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health in operating conditions. Modal identification is typically performed through either

operational modal analysis (OMA) [29], which is an output-only technique in which the
vibrations of the structure are measured without knowing the excitation characteristics, or
experimental modal analysis (EMA) [30], which is an input-output technique measuring
the structural response to a given (known) dynamic excitation (e.g., artificial exciter or
vibrodine). In structural health monitoring, OMA is more widely used because of the ease
of realization, low cost of execution, and possibility of exerting a relatively weak excitation,
which avoids exceeding the linear elastic regime of the structure. This technique is used in
this work to identify natural frequencies and mode shapes of the Longano viaduct.
Six accelerometers with vertical axis are installed on the bridge deck (following
an identical scheme in the two independent roadways). The accelerometers are placed
symmetrically with respect to the roadway width and are rigidly anchored to the RC slab
at 1/4, 1/2 and 3/4 of the span, cf. Figure 4. The signal acquisition is performed with
sampling rate ∆t = 0.001 s (sampling frequency f s = 1 kHz). The range of accelerometer
sensitivity is (912–1006) mV/g for the six devices employed, with g being the acceleration
of gravity.

Figure 4. Position of the six accelerometers (S1–S6) on the bridge deck (top) and representative
accelerometer photograph (bottom).

Two different excitations are considered to trigger free vibrations of the bridge deck
and to identify the largest possible number of modal parameters: (1) pulse load exerted
by a 4 kg hammer, as illustrated in Figure 5, which is applied to three different positions,
namely at a quarter of the span (from either side) and at midspan; (2) step load exerted by
the transit of a three-axle heavy truck (with gross weight of 347 kN) passing on a 12 cm
step, as depicted in Figure 6, which is applied to three different positions, namely at a
quarter of the span (from either side) and at midspan.
In the postprocessing phase of the recorded signals, the acceleration time histories
are subjected to a Butterworth filter of order 6 to remove the frequencies falling outside
the range of interest, here selected as (3–40) Hz. Subsequently, each recording signal
is processed in the frequency domain through the fast Fourier transformation (FFT), a
representative example of which is shown in Figure 7. It is worth noting that the two
types of excitations (hammer pulse and truck transit) affect the modal response to a rather
different extent: the hammer blow pulse generally amplifies a wider range of frequencies,

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including higher order modes, whereas the transit of the heavy truck mainly excites the
first (low frequency) modes of vibration, cf. again Figure 7.

Figure 5. Dynamic excitation of the Longano viaduct with a pulse load produced by a 4 kg hammer
blow and related filtered acceleration signals.

Figure 6. Dynamic excitation of the Longano viaduct realized with the transit of a three-axle 347 kN
gross-weight truck on a 12 cm step and related filtered acceleration signals.

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Figure 7. FFT of the S1 signal under hammer pulse load (top) and truck step load (bottom).

Due to the vicinity of the first frequencies to each other, the natural frequencies
and mode shapes are identified through the frequency domain decomposition (FDD)
technique [31]. The FDD is based on the calculation of the power spectral density (PSD)
matrix of the output (i.e., of the structural response of the bridge deck y(t)) Gyy (ω ) that,
under the assumption of a white noise input (broad-banded excitation) and lightly damped
system, is proportional to the frequency response function matrix and, consequently, is
useful to identify dynamic parameters of the structure. According to the FDD, the spectral
matrix is decomposed into a series of auto spectral density functions, each associated with
a single degree of freedom (SDOF) system. The PSD matrix Gyy provides information on
how the signal
h power is distributed
i along the frequency spectrum; this matrix has three
dimensions m × m × N f , where m is the number of recorded signals (in this case m = 6)
and N f is the number of discrete output frequencies. This matrix contains the auto spectral
density functions along the diagonal and the cross spectral density function as off diagonal
terms and is here estimated through the built-in MATLAB function cpsd [32] from the
filtered accelerometer signals. Once an estimate of the output PSD matrix Ĝyy is obtained
at discrete frequencies ωi , the singular value decomposition (SVD) of this Hermitian matrix
is performed as follows:
Ĝyy (ωi ) = Ui Si UiH , (1)
where Ui is the unitary (complex orthogonal) matrix in which each column collects the
singular vectors, Si is a diagonal matrix collecting the scalar singular values, i.e., the eigen-
values of the matrix Gyy (ω ) in descending order and UiH is the conjugate transpose matrix
of Ui . The SVD is performed through the built-in MATLAB function svd [32] from the
estimated PSD matrix and provides six singular values and corresponding singular vectors.
The determination of natural frequencies and mode shapes from the PSD matrix as-
sumes that near the resonant frequency of the structure (where there is only one dominant
mode) the singular vectors represent estimates of the mode shapes, and the corresponding
singular values represent estimates of corresponding natural frequencies. Some representa-
tive examples of singular values of the PSD matrix and the resulting identification of the
natural frequencies by peak picking technique is illustrated in Figure 8.

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Figure 8. Identification of natural frequencies based on peak picking from the first singular values of the PSD matrix.

The list of natural frequencies identified from OMA is reported in Table 1 for each
excitation configuration considered in the experimental campaign, while the first four
mode shapes are illustrated in Figure 9. These results are relevant to the dynamic tests
performed in the roadway from Palermo to Messina; however, similar results (not shown
here for brevity) are obtained in the twin roadway from Messina to Palermo. It is worth
noting that the mode shapes are identified by the modal coordinate corresponding to
each of the six accelerometers. Since these six accelerometers are placed on the two
sides of the bridge deck, it is not easy to distinguish between longitudinal flexural modes
(mainly involving longitudinal PC girders) and transversal flexural mode (mainly involving
transverse diaphragms) of the bridge deck. To capture this detail, additional accelerometers
along the width of the deck (e.g., at W/4, W/2 and 3/4 W) should have been placed.
Despite the relatively low number of signals, it is possible to foresee, based on the results in
Figure 9, that the first and third vibration modes are of flexural type, while the second and
fourth modes are of torsional type. These conclusions can be inferred by the critical analysis
of the modal displacements: in the first and third modes the modal displacements related
to the two sensor lines (i.e., S1-S2-S3 and S4-S5-S6) have the same sign, which indicates a
flexural (longitudinal or transversal) deformation of the bridge deck, whereas in the second
and fourth mode, they have opposite signs, which denotes a torsional deformation of the
deck. The obtained results are useful for the development of the numerical FE model of the
bridge deck, which is described in the following subsection.
In addition to natural frequencies and mode shapes, dynamic tests are useful to
identify the inherent damping ratio. Experimental measurements of damping ratios,
typically achieved through the logarithmic decrement method or through the half-power
bandwidth method [33], are useful to detect signs of damage of an existing structure. In this
work, the second method is used to identify the damping ratio corresponding to the first
and second modes of vibration. To this aim, the peak of the response amplitude (i.e., the
resonant amplitude) u0 is first identified from the frequency response curve (FRC), then the
half-power
√ bandwidth is computed from the frequency points at which the amplitude is
u0 / 2 on either side of the resonant frequency f n , namely f 1 and f 2 . These two frequencies
define an interval of frequencies, called half-power bandwidth, that is twice the damping
ratio ζ, see Figure 10. Thus, the damping ratio can be estimated as:

f2 − f1
= 2ζ. (2)
fn

The right part of Figure 10 shows the application of Equation (2) for the determination
of the first-mode damping ratio based on the acceleration frequency response curves of

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the S1 signal, which results in ζ 1 ≈ 2.4%. Similar results are obtained for the other five
signals. Experimental damping ratios (average values out of the six measures from the six
accelerometers) of the first two modes identified for the two roadways separately are listed
in Table 2. It is noted that average values of the first two damping ratios are approximately
2.5%, which are reasonable values for PC structural elements in elastic regime. These
results suggest that there is no irreversible damage occurred or ongoing in the bridge deck,
at least in the considered operating conditions.

Table 1. Identified natural frequencies from OMA related to different excitation configurations before static load tests.

Excitation Configuration f1 [Hz] f2 [Hz] f3 [Hz] f4 [Hz]

hammer pulse load at midspan 4.45 4.88 13.48 -
hammer pulse load at a quarter of span 4.39 4.88 13.43 15.44
truck load step at midspan 4.50 4.87 13.18 -
truck load step at a quarter of span 4.37 4.94 13.41 -

Figure 9. First four mode shapes identified from OMA before static load tests.

Table 2. Experimental damping ratios (average values) for the first two modes of vibration.

Average Damping Ratio ζ Average Damping Ratio ζ

Mode Shape
Messina to Palermo Roadway Palermo to Messina Roadway
mode 1 2.51% 2.10%
mode 2 2.39% 2.61%

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Figure 10. Identification of modal damping via half-power bandwidth: qualitative representation (left, adapted from
Chopra [33]) and application to experimental frequency response curve for detecting the first mode damping ratio (right).

4.2. Development and Preliminary Calibration of the Numerical FE Model

A simplified numerical FE model of the bridge deck is realized via a mesh of 1D beam
elements representing the longitudinal PC girders and the transverse diaphragms, each
incorporating a collaborating portion of RC slab whose effective width be f f is calculated
according to prescriptions from NTC2018 [10] (in a similar fashion to what reported in
Eurocode 4 for composite steel-concrete structures [34]).
A sketch of the FE model realized with the structural analysis software SAP2000 [35]
is illustrated in Figure 11. Only one span (length 29.00 m) is simulated in the model to
reproduce the structural behavior of the bridge deck. Each node has six degrees of freedom.
Pinned restraints are assumed at the abutment and at the intermediate pier. The exact
geometry of the bridge deck is reproduced by also accounting for variation (widening) of
the cross section at the two terminals of the girders, near the supports. Sectional properties
(moments of inertia, torsional stiffness, etc.) are directly calculated by the Section Designer
tool [35] that is integrated within SAP2000, based on geometrical input characteristics. A
diaphragm constraint is assigned to all nodes of the bridge deck to simulate the membrane
stiffening effect provided by RC slab and transverse diaphragms. Mass distribution is
computed from the load analysis of the bridge deck, including self-weight of structural
elements and superimposed dead loads (road pavement and guardrails).
Modal analysis (eigenvector analysis) is performed to determine the natural frequen-
cies and mode shapes of the bridge deck. The first four modes of vibration along with
corresponding frequencies are depicted in Figure 12. It is observed that the first (dominant)
mode of vibration is, as reasonably expected, relevant to a longitudinal flexural mode
of the bridge deck and has a frequency equal to 4.01 Hz. This frequency is only slightly
different (8% lower) from the first natural frequency identified from OMA (4.37 Hz). The
first natural frequency obtained by the FE model matches well with the theoretical first
mode (flexural) frequency of a simply supported continuous beam with length L = 29.00 m
and cross-sectional properties of the PC longitudinal girders (i.e., area A = 1.13 m2 and
moment of inertia J = 0.4836 m4 ). This first frequency can be analytically calculated
as follows: s
π EJ
f analytical = = 4.01 Hz (3)
2 µL4
where E = 34.660 GPa is the elastic modulus for concrete grade C35/45 (calculated
in accordance with Eurocode 2 [36] expressions based on hypothetical 28-day concrete

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characteristic compressive strength equal to f ck = 37.5 MPa) and µ = Gtot /g is the linear
mass density calculated as the ratio between the total permanent load acting on a single
PC girder Gtot = 35.65 kN/m (from load analysis) and the acceleration of gravity g. It is
worth noting that the analytical frequency in Equation (3) is perfectly identical to the first
frequency detected from the numerical FE model of the bridge deck, which is reasonable
considering that this first mode is related to the flexural longitudinal response of the bridge
deck, thus uniquely involving the flexural behavior of the PC longitudinal girders.

Figure 11. FE model of the bridge deck with 1D beam elements: extruded and standard view.

Figure 12. First four mode shapes obtained from FE model of the bridge deck.

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A stiffer behavior of the bridge deck is identified from OMA (first two frequencies
equal to 4.37 Hz and 4.94 Hz) compared to that obtained from the numerical FE model
(first two frequencies equal to 4.01 Hz and 4.33 Hz), which may be due to the stiffening
effect of the RC slab in the actual configuration of the bridge that is only approximately
included in the simplified FE model, or to slightly different support conditions related
to possible wear in the neoprene bearings. Apart from these minor differences, the first
four mode shapes from the FE model are qualitatively consistent with the experimental
one, cf. Figure 12 with Figure 9, and the comparison between experimental and numerical
natural frequencies is also reasonably acceptable (relative errors are listed in Table 3). It can
be concluded that the simplified FE model developed is accurate enough to capture the
dynamic characteristics of the bridge deck. Further validation of the model is performed in
the next subsection to simulate static load tests.

Table 3. Comparison between experimental and numerical natural frequencies of the bridge deck.

Mode Type of Vibration Frequency Frequency

Relative Error [%]
Number (Exp = FE Model) (Exp) [Hz] (FE Model) [Hz]
1 longitudinal flexural 4.37 4.01 8.23
2 1st torsional 4.94 4.33 12.35
3 transversal flexural 13.41 14.11 5.22
4 2nd torsional 15.44 15.41 0.19

4.3. Static Load Tests

Static load tests are performed on the Longano viaduct to investigate the bridge
structural behavior when subjected to service load conditions. The aim of these tests is
to verify whether the bridge remains in elastic phase (without any cracking and damage
sign) under the maximum allowed serviceability loads prescribed by the NTC2018 [10],
by checking that the residual deflection measured after the load tests does not exceed
15% of the maximum deflection measured during the tests [10]. Code-conforming traffic
loads on the bridge are computed based on the NTC2018 prescriptions [10] by dividing the
deck in three equivalent lanes and applying uniformly distributed loads combined with
tandem concentrated loads simulating heavy vehicle wheels. The worst loading position in
longitudinal direction is first identified via girder analysis, and subsequently deck analysis
is performed to evaluate the transversal distribution of loads.
For preliminary design of static load tests, a complete finite element model (FEM) is
realized. Load schemes adopted for the static load tests are then designed to reproduce the
same stress levels on the bridge deck (bending moments and shear forces) as those obtained
under the characteristic combination of loads (with unitary combination coefficient for
variable actions) prescribed by the NTC2018 [10].
In the static tests, the loads are applied to the bridge deck by means of six heavy
trucks identified by a unique ID (from 1 to 6), having either three or four axles. The truck
loads are applied gradually in subsequent phases of increasing magnitude to check any
possible sign of cracking or other damage-related phenomena. The layout of the actual
truck loads relevant to the three phases is depicted in Figure 13 for the representative
roadway from Palermo to Messina. However, a similar layout of truck loads is applied to
the other roadway in the opposite direction (from Messina to Palermo).
Some measurement points of displacement are located on the two sides of the deck.
More specifically, measurements of deflections are carried out via surveyor’s levels located
in eight measurement points of displacement P1-P8, namely near the two end supports
(P1 and P5), at the midspan (P3, P7) and at the two quarters of the bridge span (P2, P4, P6,
P8). The sensitivity of the considered instrumentation is of the order of two hundredths
of mm, which represents a reasonable threshold considering the deflection values usually
measured in bridges (including those reported in this experimental campaign).

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Loading phase 1 Loading phase 2 Loading phase 3

L = 29.00 m

P8 P7 P6
L/4
L/2 from Palermo to Messina
3L/4

1 6
W = 11.00 m

2.15
1.5 1.75 2.55 1.35 1.75 1.65 1.4 2.3 2.05 1.5
2.1

40580 kg 41500 kg
4.45

3 5 2 4
1.5 3.6 1.35 1.55 1.5 1.9 2.35 1.45 1.35 1.35 1.45 2.35 1.9 1.5 1.45 1.4 3.5 1.55

2.1
34350 kg 41780 kg 41620 kg 34710 kg
0.8 0.8

0.5
1.35

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
0.8

0.8
three-axle truck four-axle truck

Monitoring of deflections via levelling rod

Figure 13. Plan of static load tests on the Longano viaduct deck with location of eight measurement points of displacement
–
(P1–P8) and actual arrangement of three-axle and four-axle heavy trucks in three subsequent loading phases.

Geometrical details of the trucks sketched in Figure 13 are listed in Table 4. Each truck
is filled with coarse gravel such that the final gross mass reaches up to more than 34 t and
xles 𝒂 [𝐦] 𝒃 [𝐦] 𝒄 [𝐦] 𝒅 [𝐦] 𝒆 [𝐦] 𝒇 [𝐦] 𝑭 [𝐦] kg]
40 t for the three-axle and four-axle trucks, respectively. Some photographs taken during
the various loading phases of the tests (pertinent to the roadway from Palermo to Messina)
are reported in Figure 14. Between subsequent loading phases, a certain waiting time is
expected to allow the stabilization of the deflection value. The time of loading phase 1 and
2 is of around 10 min, while that of phase 3 is of around 30 min to ensure stabilization of
deflection. During the loading phases, the deck is monitored from below with a movable
basket to control that all girders (including prestressing strands) do no exhibit any damage
sign. After the three load steps, the unloading phase is performed by removing the truck
loads following the opposite order of the loading phases.
The measured deflections on the eight measurement points are reported in Figure 15,
for each loading phase and for each traffic direction (roadway). It can be noted that
the trend of the static deflections in the two roadways is substantially similar. Minor
differences are observed when comparing the results from phase 2, which may be due to a
slightly different arrangement of the trucks in the two roadways. The first loadings phases
(especially phase 1) cause a positive displacement (i.e., raising of the deck) in the side

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opposite to the loading area (see measured deflections for points P6–P8) as the eccentric
truck loads induce a torsional response of the bridge deck. The maximum deflections
measured in the midspan of the deck (P3) are approximately 17 mm for both the roadways.
It can be observed that the residual deflection measured upon unloading are negligible and
are largely below the 15% limit threshold prescribed by the NTC2018 [10]. These results
lead to the conclusion that the corrosion of the prestressing strands (documented above in
Figure 3) does not affect the structural behavior of the bridge under service loads, i.e., does
not produce decompression phenomena under service loads. This seems to reasonably
indicate that the level of initial prestressing force that was considered in the design stage
is large enough to compensate the reduction of resistant area of the prestressing strands
induced by corrosion.

Table 4. Characteristics of the heavy trucks used for the load tests on the Longano viaduct.

Truck ID N. of Axles a [m] b [m] c [m] d [m] e [m] f [m] F [m] Gross Mass [kg]
1 4 1.50 1.75 2.55 1.35 1.75 2.10 2.60 40,580
2 4 1.50 1.90 2.35 1.45 1.35 2.10 2.60 41,620
3 3 1.50 3.60 1.35 1.55 - 2.10 2.60 34,350
4 3 1.55 3.50 1.40 1.45 - 2.10 2.60 34,710
5 4 1.50 1.90 2.35 1.45 1.35 2.10 2.60 41,780
6 4 1.50 2.05 2.30 1.40 1.65 2.15 2.65 41,500

Figure 14. Photographs of static load tests in three subsequent phases for the roadway from Palermo to Messina.

To support the above conclusions, additional dynamic tests are performed after the
removal of truck loads to check whether the natural frequencies of the bridge deck are
altered by the static load tests. Pertinent OMA results for the same excitation configurations
described before (i.e., hammer pulse and truck load step) are listed in Table 5 for the Palermo

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to Messina roadway. Comparing the natural frequencies before (Table 1) and after (Table 5)
the static load tests, minimal differences are found, which cannot be certainly ascribed to
a potential accumulation of damage of the Longano viaduct. It can be inferred that the
bridge deck remains in elastic regime under the maximum allowed serviceability loads
prescribed by the NTC2018 [10].

Figure 15. Experimental deflections for each measurement point obtained from static load tests on Longano bridge deck.

Table 5. List of identified natural frequencies from OMA after static load tests (to compare with results from Table 1).

Excitation Configuration f1 [Hz] f2 [Hz] f3 [Hz] f4 [Hz]

hammer pulse load at midspan 4.39 4.87 13.48 -
hammer pulse load at a quarter of span 4.41 4.82 13.43 15.38
truck load step at midspan 4.34 4.85 - -
truck load step at a quarter of span 4.37 4.88 13.42 -

4.4. Further Validation of the FE Model against Load Test Results

The numerical FE model of the bridge deck developed for simulating the dynamic tests
is further validated against the load test results. To reproduce the actual load conditions of
the tests, the FE model include self-weight of the structure, superimposed dead loads (road
surface and parapets) and truck loads with appropriate distributions. For computational
simplicity, it is assumed that the gross weight of each truck is equally distributed on
the wheels.
Using 1D beams elements, loads can only be applied to the beam axis, whereas truck
loads are transferred on the RC slab through wheel imprints that are generally not aligned
with the beam axis. Consequently, to calculate equivalent loads on the longitudinal girders

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generated by the trucks located on the bridge deck, a simplified scheme for a reasonable
transversal distribution is adopted as shown in Figure 16. Here, the reactions of the
supports in the deck analysis are applied as concentrated loads (in opposite direction) to
the longitudinal girders of the FE model.

Figure 16. Simplified calculation of load distribution in FE model, representative example simulating loading phase 1.

Once the truck loads are defined and implemented in the FE model, static linear anal-
ysis is performed to compute the deflections of the bridge deck. For comparative purposes,
particular attention is paid to the deflections of those nodes closest to the eight locations of
the measurement points considered in the experimental campaign. The comparison of the
experimental (exp) and numerical (FEM) deflections is illustrated in Figure 17 for both the
roadways (from Palermo to Messina and vice versa) and for the eight monitored points.
There is a reasonable agreement between the FE results and the experimental dis-
placements, with average relative errors in the order of 10–15%. The highest discrepancies
(30–40%) are observed in the measurement line P6-P7-P8, which is opposite to the loaded
portion of the bridge deck. This may be ascribed to the simplified transversal load dis-
tribution adopted. It is also found that the FE model generally provides slightly larger
deflections than the static load tests, which can be justified by the additional stiffening
contribution of the RC slab that is only approximately incorporated in the resisting section
of the longitudinal girders. Finally, some deviations between numerical and experimental
results are noted (although not clearly shown in Figure 17) near the supports: it is expected
that some minor displacements occur due to deformability of abutment and intermediate

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pier in the experimental case that are not captured in the FE model using pinned restraints
that prevent translations in the three directions. Apart from these critical considerations, it
can be concluded the analysis results further validate the numerical FE model. In the next
section, the validated FE model is used to investigate the ultimate limit state behavior of
the bridge deck accounting for different corrosion scenarios.

Figure 17. Comparison between experimental (exp) and numerical (FEM) displacements of the Longano bridge deck.

5. Nonlinear Static Analysis Accounting for Different Corrosion Scenarios

Based on the visual inspection, the bridge is subject to widespread corrosion phenom-
ena concentrated only in the prestressing strands (cf. again Figure 3). Although it has
been experimentally and numerically demonstrated that the corrosion does not affect the
structural behavior of the bridge under service loads, it is reasonable to expect that the
load-bearing capacity of the bridge deck at the ultimate limit states is seriously influenced
by the corrosion-induced reduction of the cross-sectional area of the prestressing strands.
Unfortunately, no experimental measurements of the actual corrosion rates are available
so far, but they are planned for the near future. However, it is of utmost importance to
gain insights, or at least to obtain preliminary estimates, on how the corrosion of steel
strands affects the load-bearing capacity of the bridge. To this aim, this section is devoted to
investigating, from a numerical point of view, the ultimate limit-state behavior of the bridge
deck accounting for different (hypothetical) corrosion scenarios of prestressing strands.
The results from this numerical investigation will be useful to quantify the risk level of the
infrastructure associated with different extents of corrosion (whose actual values will be
identified through subsequent experimental findings).
Numerical static nonlinear analysis under incremental loads is performed to quantify
the post-elastic structural response focusing on the reduction of the load-bearing capacity

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of the bridge deck induced by corrosion. It is worth noting that in the literature many
models were developed to describe the effect of corrosion on the strength and ductility
of RC structures [37,38]. Generally, the reduction of mechanical properties is more severe
for pitting corrosion than for uniform corrosion, especially in presence of permanent
cracking. Without any experimental results concerning the actual corrosion state of the
bridge deck and considering the absence of cracking, here, some simplified hypotheses
must be declared; in particular, a status of uniform corrosion of the prestressing strands is
assumed and the indirect degradation of the mechanical properties of surrounding concrete
close to corroded steel is neglected. For comparative purposes, six different nonlinear
FE models of the bridge deck are realized, each characterized by a different corrosion
rate (CR), or mass loss in percentage, namely 0% (uncorroded bridge configuration), 5%,
10%, 20%, and 30%. In each FE model, the distribution of vertical loads is consistent with
the static load tests. Assuming as initial condition the scheme of the loading phase 3 (cf.
Figure 13), these loads are increased monotonically up to the collapse of the structure. The
choice of this initial loading configuration (loading phase 3 related to the static load tests
previously described) is motivated by the eccentricity of the loads in the deck that generate
simultaneous flexural effects on the girders and torsional effects of the deck.
To perform nonlinear static analysis, material nonlinearity is incorporated in the
numerical FE model. A concentrated plasticity approach based on plastic hinges located
in some specific portions of the beam elements is adopted. Preliminary calibration of the
moment-curvature M − χ relationships of some representative sections of the longitudinal
girders, namely section A-A, B-B and C-C depicted in Figure 2b), is made. These three
sections are characterized by three different positions of the prestressing strands and, thus,
by different yielding and ultimate moment values and moment-curvature relationships.
Assuming an ultimate tensile strength of the prestressing strands of longitudinal girders
equal to f pk = 1700 MPa, the resulting characteristic yielding stress is f p(0.1)k = 1544 MPa
(a hardening ratio equal to 1.1 is adopted). Initial stress (allowable stress) is then calculated
as σpi = 0.90 f p(0.1)k = 1360 MPa according to EC2 [39,40]. Since the Longano viaduct was
built in 1970, stress losses in the prestressing strands play an important role in the definition
of the sectional capacity and cannot be ignored in the analysis. The stress losses due to
concrete shrinkage, creep, and steel relaxation are computed and combined in accordance
with Eurocode 2 expressions [39], assuming class 1 for ordinary wires and strands [40]. The
final value of combined stress losses is equal to 345.45 MPa, thus leading to an effective
stress for the strands equal to 1016.55 MPa. This value is used to compute the M − χ
relationships for the calibration of the plastic hinges.
The nonlinear (concentrated-plasticity) FE model of the bridge deck is shown in
Figure 18 along with the corresponding moment-curvature laws for the three representative
sections A-A, B-B, and C-C, and for the six corrosion scenarios analyzed in this study. It
can be observed that the ultimate moment decreases with increasing values of CR, while
the ultimate curvature increases with CR because the failure tends to be more ductile,
as it is achieved with a higher strain level in the corroded prestressing strands (having
reduced resistant sections due to corrosion) than the uncorroded case. From the M − χ
relationships, normalized moment-rotation curves are constructed and implemented in
SAP2000 [35] based on a plastic hinge length equal to the section height. In a separate
model, plastic hinges are also calibrated and implemented for the transverse diaphragms,
besides those in longitudinal PC girders; however, it has been found that the yielding
moment of these transversal elements, even in the most extreme loading and corrosion
scenarios, is never exceeded, which implies that transverse diaphragms can be assumed as
linear elastic elements for computational simplicity.
Displacement-controlled nonlinear static analysis is carried out in SAP2000 [35], by
monitoring the displacement of the midspan node (on the roadway side that is mostly
loaded) under loads of increasing amplitudes, as sketched in Figure 19. As reasonably
expected, the development of the plastic hinges under monotonically increasing loads
indicates that the most critical sections are those located near the mid span.

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Figure 18. FE model of the corroded bridge deck with material nonlinearity simulated through a set of plastic hinges in
longitudinal girders (concentrated plasticity approach) with properly calibrated moment-curvature relationships.

Figure 19. Deformed shape and plastic hinge development corresponding to three incremental loading steps (of increasing
magnitude) during the nonlinear static analysis.

The pushover curves in terms of base reactions (sum of reactions of abutment supports
and intermediate pier supports) versus monitored displacement are shown in Figure 20. It
can be observed that the pushover curve starts from a base reaction R0 = 4305 kN for all
the corrosion scenarios, which corresponds to the end of loading phase 3, i.e., the reaction

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computed under the maximum allowed serviceability loads. Further load increase (up
to yielding load 8000–10,000 kN, depending on CR) is allowed by the bridge deck while
remaining in elastic regime, after which the behavior becomes nonlinear. The corrosion
evidently affects (reduces) the load-bearing capacity of the bridge deck.

Figure 20. Results from nonlinear static analysis of the bridge deck: pushover curve (top) and
corresponding load multiplier λ computed by normalizing the base reaction with respect to the value
obtained at the end of loading phase 3 (bottom).

For the generic step s of the nonlinear static analysis, the base reaction can be ex-
pressed as R(s) = λ(s) · R0 , where λ(s) represents a dimensionless load multiplier at the
considered step s that quantifies the increase of the load beyond the elastic threshold at
the end of loading phase 3. In addition to the pushover curve in dimensional form, the
bottom part of Figure 20 reports the trend of such load multiplier λ versus the monitored
displacement for the six considered corrosion scenarios. It can be easily observed that
both the yielding load (i.e., the base reaction corresponding to the formation of the first
plastic hinge) and the load-bearing capacity of the bridge deck (peak of the pushover curve)
decrease with increasing CR values.
To summarize the main results, Figure 21 illustrates the trend of three characteristic
load multiplies versus the CR value, namely the yielding load, the load-bearing capacity
(maximum load) and the ultimate load calculated as the 85% of the maximum load. These
diagrams are useful to preliminarily estimate the reduction of the load-bearing capacity
of the bridge deck depending on the corrosion rate. The yielding load multiplier in the
uncorroded case is 2.37, which means that the first plastic hinge formation occurs at a
load level approximately two times and a half higher than that simulated in the loading
phase 3 for the on-site static tests. This is a relatively high value considering the time of
construction of the bridge, which confirms that the bridge is rather safe under the service

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loads prescribed by the current regulations NTC2018 [10]. Moreover, the corrosion leads
to a considerable drop of the three load multipliers, following a linear trend with almost
comparable slope. In particular, the following linear regression formula well describes the
decreasing trend of the load-bearing capacity of the bridge deck:

Fcorroded = Funcorroded − 0.028 · CR[%] (4)

which is valid under the simplified assumption of uniform corrosion for all the prestressing
strands and within the limitations of corrosion levels considered in this numerical study
(i.e., up to 30%). This formula can be applied to predict a first estimate of the corrosion-
induced reduction of the load-bearing capacity of existing PC bridge decks sharing similar
features to the Longano viaduct here analyzed as case study. This is particularly important
when a large infrastructure network is analyzed, in which generally many bridges are
similar from the perspective of (aggressive) environmental conditions, static scheme and
age of construction. Therefore, it is expected that the degradation of material parameters is
comparable for a series of bridge structures belonging to the same infrastructure network.
As an example, for a reasonable corrosion rate equal to 10%, Equation (4) predicts a
considerable reduction of the load-bearing capacity of almost 30%. Although this is only a
preliminary estimate that is acceptable under the strict assumption of uniform corrosion,
in most cases it is difficult to obtain a punctual and precise evaluation of the mass loss
in percentage of each prestressing strand. Indeed, many practical difficulties exist when
performing experimental measurements, including (among others) costs and feasibility
considerations for finding a convenient access to girders and other structural elements.
Considering such circumstances, the proposed experimental-numerical approach can be
used as a preliminary assessment tool to identify critical parts of a large infrastructure
network prior to performing widespread and expensive material test campaigns.

Figure 21. Reduction of load multipliers obtained from nonlinear static analysis of the bridge deck
for increasing corrosion scenarios.

6. Conclusions
This paper has presented a systematic approach for the preliminary assessment of
the load-bearing capacity of existing PC bridge decks by combining experimental mea-
surements and numerical analyses. The methodology proves to be particularly useful for
existing PC bridges exhibiting corrosion in the prestressing strands in order to ascertain
whether and to what extent these phenomena affect the structural behavior of the bridge in
both serviceability and ultimate conditions. The main steps of the procedure, here applied
to the real case study of the PC bridge deck of the Longano viaduct (southern Italy), are
summarized as follows:

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1. Dynamic identification tests are preliminary performed based on OMA from vibration
data collected in situ. These tests are performed in free vibration mode and do not
cause any damage to the bridge deck. In addition to providing natural frequencies and
mode shapes of the bridge deck, these measurements also serve to obtain estimates of
the damping ratios (for instance, by the half-power bandwidth method), which are
useful indicators of the potential ongoing damage of the bridge deck.
2. The results of the dynamic tests from step 1 are then used to develop and calibrate
a numerical FE model. For simplified estimates of the structural response, 1D beam
elements can be used for the structural analysis of the bridge deck.
3. Static load tests are performed in situ to investigate the structural behavior (deflec-
tions) of the bridge deck under service loads. These tests are designed and performed
in different loading phases of increasing amplitude to avoid sudden damage of struc-
tural members in case of advanced material deterioration state. The test results
are used to study whether the bridge behavior remains in elastic regime under the
maximum allowed (code-conforming) serviceability loads, i.e., by checking that the
residual deformation upon unloading does not exceed a critical threshold, which
may be an indicator of irreversible damage in some part of the bridge. These test
results, if possible, should be followed by a second series of dynamic tests to compare
the natural frequencies after the application of loads with those identified in the
previous step 1.
4. The results of the static load tests from step 3 are then used to further verify the validity
of the FE model developed in step 2, by reproducing the actual load conditions of the
tests and comparing numerical deflections with experimental measurements.
5. In addition to the response under service loads, numerical static nonlinear analysis
with the previously validated FE model is performed to investigate the influence of
different corrosion scenarios on the resulting structural behavior of the bridge deck
at ultimate limit states. This numerical analysis is useful to quantify the variation
of the load-bearing capacity depending on some hypothetical corrosion rates of the
prestressing strands. To this aim, a regression formula has been proposed based on
the numerical results found in this study that can be utilized to obtain preliminary
estimates of the corrosion-induced degradation of the bridge structural performance
for other viaducts sharing similar features to those of the Longano viaduct here
analyzed as case study.
In the authors’ opinion, the proposed experimental-numerical framework can pro-
vide a rapid overview of the bridge structural health in both serviceability and ultimate
conditions without performing detailed and extensive tests on material and structural
components (which would be certainly needed for deepening the level of investigation).
In this context, the methodology can represent a convenient assessment tool to rapidly
identify critical portions of a large infrastructure network prior to performing detailed
analyses to establish a list of intervention priorities in a timely and reasonable way. Future
research developments concern the validation of the findings from this study with addi-
tional material test results, and the comparison of the numerical outcomes with alternative
time-dependent approaches available in the literature.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.D.D., D.M. and A.R.; methodology, D.D.D., D.M.
and A.R.; software, D.D.D., D.M. and A.R.; validation, D.D.D., D.M. and A.R.; formal analysis,
D.D.D., D.M. and A.R.; investigation, D.D.D., D.M. and A.R.; data curation, D.D.D., D.M. and
A.R.; writing—original draft preparation, D.D.D.; writing—review and editing, D.M. and A.R.;
supervision, A.R.; funding acquisition, A.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received external funding by the Consorzio Autostrade Siciliane (C.A.S.).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

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Materials 2021, 14, 4914

Data Availability Statement: Data sharing not applicable.

Acknowledgments: Special thanks are due to the Italian Superior Council of Public Works (CC.SS.LL.PP.),
and the Network of University Laboratories of Seismic Engineering (RELUIS). The results were
achieved in the national agreement for implementing the agreement pursuant to art. 15 law 7 August
1990, No. 241 between the Superior Council of Public Works and RELUIS.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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 materials
Article
Evaluation of Smeared Constitutive Laws for Tensile Concrete
to Predict the Cracking of RC Beams under Torsion with
Smeared Truss Model
Mafalda Teixeira and Luís Bernardo *

Centre of Materials and Building Technologies (C-MADE), Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: In this study, the generalized softened variable angle truss-model (GSVATM) is used to
predict the response of reinforced concrete (RC) beams under torsion at the early loading stages,
namely the transition from the uncracked to the cracked stage. Being a 3-dimensional smeared truss
model, the GSVATM must incorporate smeared constitutive laws for the materials, namely for the
tensile concrete. Different smeared constitutive laws for tensile concrete can be found in the literature,
which could lead to different predictions for the torsional response of RC beams at the earlier stages.
Hence, the GSVATM is used to check several smeared constitutive laws for tensile concrete proposed
in previous studies. The studied parameters are the cracking torque and the corresponding twist.
The predictions of these parameters from the GSVATM are compared with the experimental results
from several reported tests on RC beams under torsion. From the obtained results and the performed
comparative analyses, one of the checked smeared constitutive laws for tensile concrete was found to
lead to good predictions for the cracking torque of the RC beams regardless of the cross-section type
(plain or hollow). Such a result could be useful to help with choosing the best constitutive laws to be
Citation: Teixeira, M.; Bernardo, L.
Evaluation of Smeared Constitutive
incorporated into the smeared truss models to predict the response of RC beams under torsion.
Laws for Tensile Concrete to Predict
the Cracking of RC Beams under Keywords: RC beams; torsion; generalized softened variable angle truss-model (GSVATM); tensile
Torsion with Smeared Truss Model. concrete; smeared constitutive law; cracking torque; cracking twist
Materials 2021, 14, 1260. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ma14051260

Academic Editor: Lizhi Sun 1. Introduction

In the second half of the last century, the Space Truss Analogy (STA) was successively
Received: 16 February 2021
refined in order to better predict the response of structural concrete beams under torsion.
Accepted: 4 March 2021
Nowadays, modern truss-based models can be considered reliable, comprehensive and
Published: 7 March 2021
unified analytical models. They are able to simulate the complex 3-dimensional features of
the torsional phenomenon, including the nonlinear behavior and the interaction between
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
the material components of the beam in all loading stages. Models based on the STA
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
constitute the basis models for most codes of practice to establish the design procedures
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
for torsion and still continue to be improved and extended [1,2].
A STA-based model assumes that a reinforced concrete (RC) beam under torsion
behaves like a cracked thin tube, where the external torque is resisted through a transversal
circulatory shear flow. The tube is modeled with a spatial truss, which includes longitudinal
and transverse steel reinforcement under tension interacting with inclined concrete struts
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
under compression. The model satisfies the three Navier’s principles of the mechanics of
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
materials, namely, stress equilibrium, strain compatibility and constitutive laws.
This article is an open access article
Among the STA-based models that have been developed, one of the most commonly
distributed under the terms and
used and extended is the Variable-Angle Truss Model (VATM), which was originally
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
proposed by Hsu and Mo in 1985 [3]. This model incorporated for the first time smeared
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
constitutive laws, or smeared stress (σ)—strain (ε) relationships, for both tensile steel
4.0/). reinforcement embedded in concrete and compressive concrete. Such constitutive laws

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Materials 2021, 14, 1260

are established from controlled experimental tests on RC panels under in-plane shear, in
order to account for, on average (considering an area sufficiently wide to include several
cracks), the effect of the biaxial stress state in the principal direction of stresses, the effect
of cracking, the interaction between the material components, and both the softening and
stiffening effects. The Universal Panel Tester at the University of Houston is one of the
testing devices which has most contributed to the establishment of smeared constitutive
laws for smeared truss models [4].
Despite being a nonlinear model with an incremental and iterative calculation proce-
dure, the VATM is relatively simple to implement, having access to programming languages
in a computer. The model allows us to calculate the full response of RC beams under tor-
sion, namely the torque (MT )–twist (θ) curve. The predictions from the VATM showed
good agreement with experimental results, namely when predicting the response of RC
beams under torsion at the ultimate stage [3,5,6]. When compared with more complex
models also proposed for the RC beam under torsion, which sometimes involve large
computational effort (for instance [7–10]), the VATM is recognized as a simpler and more
reliable model for predicting the torsional strength of RC beams under torsion, which is
one of the most important key parameters for design. It should also be mentioned that
smeared approaches, such as the VATM, constitute an alternative approach to local ones
in which the local fracture properties are directly accounted for, such as in the numerical
models from [11,12]. In smeared approaches, smeared constitutive laws for the materials
are incorporated into the model. Such models have been shown to be reliable, on aver-
age, for modeling the global behavior of structural elements, such as for the RC beams
under torsion.
The VATM has been extended for prestress concrete (PC) beams [13] and also for axially
restrained RC beams [14,15]. The VATM was also improved in order to reliably predict
the response of RC beam under torsion for the low loading stages, namely the transition
between the uncracked stage and the cracked stage. This was achieved by incorporating
into the model the contribution of the tensile concrete (neglected in the VATM) through an
additional smeared σ—ε constitutive law in the perpendicular direction to the concrete
struts. The new model, called generalized softened variable angle truss-model (GSVATM),
was proposed in 2015 for RC solid beams under torsion [16]. The predictions from the
GSVATM showed good agreement with experimental results for all loading stages. The
GSVATM was recently extended for PC beams [17], hollow RC beams [18] and RC flanged
beams [19]. A unified version of the model was also recently proposed [2].
The predictions from any smeared truss model, such as the VATM or the GSVATM,
strongly depend on the smeared σ—ε relationships for the materials. This important aspect
was previously demonstrated by Bernardo et al. in 2012 [20] for the prediction of the
torsional strength and corresponding twist for the RC beams under torsion. The study
aimed to find the most reliable smeared σ—ε relationships for the materials, among the
several ones found in the literature, to be incorporated into the VATM to better predict the
ultimate response of RC beams under torsion. The best constitutive laws found in [20],
for both the concrete in compression and steel reinforcement in tension, were posteriorly
incorporated in the GSVATM [16]. Bernardo et al. in 2012 [20] did not include in their
study the prediction of the key parameters for the low loading stages because, as referred
to before, the predictions from the VATM were shown to be in good agreement with the
experimental results only for the ultimate stage. This is mainly because the model assumes
that the member has been fully cracked since the beginning of loading, which is not true.
For design, it is also important to reliably predict the behavior for the low loading
levels. The current codes of practice compel us to check the structural members for both the
serviceability and ultimate limit states. For the first one, it is important that the cracking
torque is known. As previously referred to, the GSVATM is able to predict the full response
of the RC beams under torsion, including the transition between the uncracked stage and
the cracked stage. The prediction of such a transition zone highly depends on the smeared
constitutive law for the tensile concrete. As for the other constitutive laws referred to

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Materials 2021, 14, 1260

(for concrete in compression and steel reinforcement in tension), different proposals of

smeared constitutive laws for tensile concrete can be found in the literature. To the best
of the authors’ knowledge, no previous study was found with the aim of checking such
constitutive laws in smeared truss models, in order to evaluate which features allow the
model to give the best predictions for the low loading stages. Usually, researchers working
with smeared truss models use their own smeared constitutive laws or choose them based
on the proposals from other studies.
In this study, the GSVATM is used to check some proposed smeared constitutive laws
for tensile concrete found in the literature. The GSVATM was the chosen model because, as
previously stated, it is able to predict the full response of the RC beams under torsion for all
loading stages. In addition, this model was proposed by the corresponding author [16] and
has also been successfully used in previous studies [2,17–19,21]. The chosen parameters to
be studied are the cracking torque and the corresponding twist. The theoretical predictions
of such parameters are compared with the experimental results from several reported
tests on RC beams under torsion. Only RC beams with rectangular sections are studied
because they constitute the current solution used in practice. In addition, the number of
reported experimental results in the literature for such beams is much higher than for other
typologies such as PC beams or beams with a flanged cross-section.

2. The Generalized Softened Variable Angle Truss-Model

For the sake of the readers of this article, a brief description of the GSVATM is pre-
sented. The GSVATM was initially proposed for RC plain beams under torsion [16]. Re-
cently, the model was extended and unified for RC hollow beams under torsion [18]. Details
about the assumptions of the model, the derivation of the equations and the justification of
the calculation solution procedure can be found [16,18].
According to the GSVATM, a cracked RC thin beam element under a vertical shear
force V, which induces a shear flow q in the cross-section, is modeled with a smeared plain
truss analogy, as illustrated in Figure 1. The behavior of the RC thin beam is governed
by Equations (1) to (5). The smeared plain truss incorporates inclined concrete struts
(with compressive force C) with an angle α to the longitudinal axis, and perpendicular
concrete ties (with tensile force T). The corresponding stress fields are denoted by σc2 and
σc1 , respectively. The meanings of the parameters are (see Figure 1): R is the resultant force,
β is the angle of R to the force C, γ is the angle of R to the longitudinal axis, tc is the width
of the cross-section and dv is the distance between centers of the longitudinal bars.
p
R= C2 + T 2 (1)

β = arctan( T/C ) (2)

γ = α+β (3)
C = σc2 tc dv cos α (4)
T = σc1 tc dv sin α (5)
An equivalent cracked RC hollow beam under a torque MT , as illustrated in Figure 2,
is modeled as the union of four thin beam elements as in Figure 1. Each thin beam
constitutes a wall of the RC hollow beam. As a result of this union, the torque MT induces a
circulatory shear flow q and the beam can be modeled with a smeared spatial truss analogy.
The center line of the circulatory shear flow q coincides with the center line of the walls. The
behavior of the RC hollow beam is governed by equilibrium equations, Equations (6) to (8),
and compatibility equations, Equations (9) to (12). If γ = α + β > 90◦ , Equation (7) must
be multiplied by (−1). The previous equations account for the strain gradient along the
walls’ thickness due to the bidirectional opposite curvatures induced by bending (Figure 3).

2AR sin γ
MT = (6)
dv

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Materials 2021, 14, 1260

Asl f sl cos β
tc = for γ = α + β ≤ 90◦ (7)
σ2c p cos α cos γ
q
F2 (tan β)2 + F (tan β)4 + F + (tan β)2


α = arctan  with F = Ast f st p (8)

2
F (tan β) + 1 Asl f sl s

A2o σc2 sin γ

!
1 c
εst = − ε (9)
p MT cos β tan α sin α 2 2s

A2o σc2 sin γ

!
1 c
εsl = − ε (10)
p MT cos β cot α sin α 2 2s

εc2s
θ= (11)
º
1
2tc sin α cos α
εc1s = 2εc1 = 2εsl + 2εst + εc2s (12)

tc
T σc1 𝑀
γ = α + β < 90º

T
𝑀
T 𝑞 V dv
R C q 𝑞
γ
β α
α
C C
σ 2 γ = α + β > 90°
c
d v cotg α
−

Figure 1. Reinforced concrete (RC) thin beam element [18].

𝑀
𝑞
αt 𝑞
Al1 f l q
Al2 f l Cracks γ=α+
q −
q q αr
Al3 f l

Al4 f l
s

Figure 2. RC hollow beam element [18].

2𝐴 𝑅sin𝛾
𝑀 =
1 𝑑
224
𝐴 𝑓 cosβ Cracks
2 𝑡 = γ = α + β ≤ 90°
σ 𝑝 cosαcosγ
 εsl εst
ε c2s ε1sc
Materials 2021, 14, 1260
ε1c θ

w CONCRETE STRUT (DIRECTION 2)

ε2sc βσ f?
c σ2c = k 2c βσ f?
c

center line of the

x shear flow
1 1 εc2=ε2sc /2 tc
t ψ
tc /2
t

neutral axis
ε σ
y 1

C CONCRETE TIE (DIRECTION 1)

ε1sc fcr σ1c = k 1c fcr
T

center line of the

shear flow
t ϕ εc1=ε1sc /2 tc
T 1 tc /2

2 neutral axis
ε σ
C 1

Figure 3. Curvatures and strain gradient in the walls [18].

In the previous equations (see Figures 2 and 3), tc is the effective thickness of theσ
εconcrete strut and tie in the walls, A = ( x − tc )(y − tc ) and p = 2( x − tc ) + 2(y − tc )
are the area enclosed and the perimeter of the center line of the shear flow q (with x the
minor and y the major outer dimension of the beam’s cross-section), respectively, Asl is σ the ε
total area of the longitudinal reinforcement, Ast is the area of one rebar of the transverse
reinforcement, s is the longitudinal spacing of the transverse reinforcement, f sl and f st are
σ ε
the tensile stresses in the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement, respectively, εsl and
β* = βσε=c βε
εst are the tensile strains in the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement, respectively, 2s
c
and ε1s are the strains at the outer fiber of the concrete strut and concrete tie, respectively,
εc1 is the average strain in the concrete tie, and θ is the twist per unit length.
σ ε As referred to in the introduction section, the GSVATM incorporates smeared σ—ε
relationships to model the behavior of the compressive concrete in the struts, the tensile
concrete in the ties and the tensile longitudinal and transverse steel reinforcement (rebars
embedded in concrete). For the RC beams under torsion, some suitable smeared σ—ε
relationships were previously found by Bernardo et al. in 2012 [20] and are also used in this
study. For the compressive concrete, the smeared σ—ε relationship proposed by Belarbi
and Hsu in 1995 [22] (Equations (13) and (14)) with softening factor β∗ = βσ = βε , for
both the peak stress and corresponding strain, proposed by Zhang and Hsu in 1998 [23]
(Equations (15) to (18)) are used. For the steel reinforcement in tension, the smeared σ—ε
relationship proposed by Belarbi and Hsu in 1994 [24] (Equations (19) to (21)) is used.
The meaning of the parameters are: f c′ is the average uniaxial concrete compressive
strength, εo is the strain corresponding to f c′ , εc2 is the average strain in the concrete strut
(Figure 3), ρl and ρt are the longitudinal (ρl = Asl /Ac , with Ac = xy) and transverse
(ρt = Ast u/Ac s, with u = 2x + 2y) reinforcement ratios, respectively, f ly and f ty are the
yielding stresses for the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement, respectively, f cr is the
tensile concrete strength, εcr is the strain corresponding to f cr , f s and εs are the stress
and strain in the steel reinforcement (longitudinal or transversal), respectively, Es is the
Young’s Modulus for steel reinforcement, f y is the yielding stress of steel reinforcement
(longitudinal or transversal) and ρ is the reinforcement ratio (longitudinal or transversal).
  c 2 #
εc2
" 
ε2
c ′
σ2 = βσ f c 2 − if εc2 ≤ βε εo (13)
βε εo βε εo

225
Materials 2021, 14, 1260

2 #
εc2 − βε εo
" 
σc2 = βσ f c′ 1 − if εc2 > βε εo (14)
2εo − βε εo

R( f c′ )
β∗ = βσ = βε = q (15)
400εc1
1+ η′

ρl f ly
η= (16)
ρt f ty
η ≤ 1 ⇒ η′ = η

(17)
η > 1 ⇒ η′ = 1/η
5.8
R f c′ = p ≤ 0.9 (18)


f c′ (MPa)
0.975Es ε s
fs = h  m i m1 + 0.025Es εs (19)
1,1Es εs
1+ fy

1
m= ≤ 25 (20)
9B − 0.2
1 f cr 1.5
 
B= (21)
ρ fy
For the tensile concrete, the smeared σ—ε relationships checked in this study are
presented in more detail in the Section 3. However, in order to present the equations for
some correction coefficients and also the flowchart with the calculation procedure for the
GSVATM, the following general and common form of the equations are written (F (. . .)
stands for “function of . . . ”):
σc1 = Ec εc1 if εc1 ≤ εcr (22)
σ1c = F ( f cr ; εc1 ) if εc1 > εcr (23)
In Equation (22), which models the linear–elastic stage before cracking, Ec is the
Young’s Modulus for the concrete. Based on the proposals from previous studies [9,25,26],
and in order to unify the GSVATM for both the RC plain and the hollow beams under
torsion, and also to improve the predictions from the model for the low loading stages,
in 2019 Bernardo [18] presented a set of equations (Equations (24) to (29)) to compute the
parameters εcr and Ec , accounting for the correction coefficients µ and λ. These equations
apply for all smeared σ—ε relationships for tensile concrete presented in the Section 3 and
checked in this study.
εcr = 0.00008µ (24)
q
Ec = 3875λ f c′ (MPa) (25)

µ = λ = 1.45 (RC solid beams) (26)

µ = λ = 0.93 (RC thin-walled hollow beams) (27)
µ = λ = 1.20 RC thick-walled hollow beams and f c′ ≤ 48 MPa (28)

µ = λ = 1.129 RC thick-walled hollow beams and f c′ > 48 MPa (29)

The classification of the RC hollow beams into “thin wall” or “thick wall” [26] is
done during the calculation procedure of the GSVATM. The RC hollow beam is firstly
calculated as an equivalent RC plain beam until both the cracking torque MTcr,plain and
the corresponding value for the effective wall’s thickness tc,cr,plain are computed. Then,
the following classification applies (with t being the real thickness of the wall of the RC
hollow beam):
• if t ≤ 0.91tc,cr,plain the RC hollow beam has a “thin wall”;

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Materials 2021, 14, 1260

• if t > 0.91tc,cr,plain the RC hollow beam has a “thick wall”.

Then, the beam is recalculated considering the real cross-section (hollow).
For the RC beams under torsion, average stresses σc2 (Equation (30)) and σc1 (Equation (31))
are computed for the concrete strut and tie, respectively, accounting for the section type
through the correction coefficient η (Equations (32) to (35)). This simplification is assumed
because the real stress diagrams along the effective wall’s thickness tc are not uniform due to
the strain gradient (Figure 3). The coefficients kc2 and kc1 are computed from the numerical
integration of the smeared σ—ε relationships.

σc2 = ηkc2 βσ f c′ (30)

σc1 = ηkc1 f cr (31)

η = 1 (RC solid beams) (32)
q
η = 0.033 f c′ (MPa) + 0.73 (RC thin-walled hollow beams) (33)
q
η = 0.0938 f c′ (MPa) + 0.43 RC thick-walled hollow beams and f c′ ≤ 48 MPa (34)

8.45
+ 0.17 RC thick-walled hollow beams and f c′ > 48 MPa (35)


η= p
f c′ (MPa)
To solve the nonlinear procedure of the GSVATM, an algorithm incorporating a
trial-and-error technique was implemented using the programming language Delphi (see
flowchart in Figure 4) [16,18]. For each iteration, the input parameter εc2s = 2εc2 (strain at
the outer fiber of the concrete strut) is incremented in order to compute each solution point
to draw the theoretical MT —θ curve. The calculation procedure ends when the assumed
failure strains for the materials is reached, either for concrete in compression (εcu ) or for
steel reinforcement in tension (εsu ). In this study, European code Eurocode 2 was used to
define the conventional failure strains for the materials.

3. Smeared Constitutive Laws for Tensile Concrete

This section presents eight smeared σ—ε relationships for tensile concrete proposed
in previous studies (laws l1 to l8), so that they can be implemented in the GSVATM and
checked (Section 4). In a previous study, it was showed that these relationships are suitable
to be implemented in smeared truss models, such as the GSVATM, to account for the
contribution of the tensile concrete [27].
Some of the presented smeared σ—ε relationships for tensile concrete were proposed
based on the experimental results from concrete panels under shear. In such cases, the
average stress σc1 in the tensile concrete after cracking (εc1 > εcr ) is usually obtained from
the equilibrium of the stress fields applied to the panels by separating the average stresses
in both the tensile steel reinforcement and the tensile concrete. The other smeared σ—ε
relationships for tensile concrete were proposed by refining the previous ones in order to
improve the predictions of the used smeared models.
For all presented smeared σ—ε relationships for tensile concrete, two equations are
written. The first one aims to model the tensile behavior of the concrete before cracking
and is equal for all smeared constitutive laws:

σc1 = Ec εc1 if εc1 ≤ εcr (36)

The second equation aims to model the tensile behavior of the concrete after cracking,
and accounts for the tension softening (the influence of the cracks) and the tension stiffening
(the retention of concrete tensile stress due to the interaction with steel reinforcement).

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Materials 2021, 14, 1260

Figure 4. Flowchart.

228
Materials 2021, 14, 1260

As presented in Section 2, parameters εcr and Ec are computed according to Equations

(24) and (25), which apply for all the presented smeared σ—ε relationships. Further,
for all presented equations, the symbology was adapted to the same one used in the
previous section.

3.1. Law l1—Cervenka in 1985

In 1985, Cervenka proposed a smeared model for cracked RC panels. In this model,
the author implemented the following equation for the descending branch of the smeared
σ—ε relationships for tensile concrete [28]:
"  c k2 #
ε1
c
σ1 = f cr 1 − if εc1 > εcr (37)
c

Parameter c is the average tensile strain (εc1 ) for which the principal tensile stress can
be considered null. The author observed that c ranges between 0.004 and 0.005. For this
study, the average value (0.0045) was considered. The exponent k2 is related with the
curvature shape of the descending branch of the σ—ε curve after the peak tensile stress.
Cervenka proposed to consider k2 = 0.5.

3.2. Law l2—Vecchio and Collins in 1986

In 1986, based on several experimental results from RC panels under shear performed
at the University of Toronto, Vecchio and Collins proposed the smeared model called
Modified Compression Field Theory. For this model, the following postpeak smeared σ—ε
relationship for tensile concrete was proposed [29]:

f
σc1 = pcr if εc1 > εcr (38)
1+ 200εc1

3.3. Law l3—Hsu in 1991

In 1991, Hsu [30] proposed an efficient algorithm for his softened truss model theory
to analyze the nonlinear behavior of concrete membrane elements. For this model, a refined
version of the postpeak smeared σ—ε relationship for tensile concrete from Vecchio and
Collins in 1986 [29] was proposed:

f
σc1 = qcr c if εc1 > εcr (39)
ε1 −εcr
1+ 0.005

3.4. Law l4—Belarbi and Hsu in 1994

Based on experimental studies on RC panels under shear performed at the University
of Houston, Belarbi and Hsu in 1994 [24] proposed Equation (40) for the descending branch
of the smeared constitutive law for tensile concrete.
 0.4
εcr
σc1 = f cr if εc1 > εcr (40)
εc1

3.5. Law l5—Collins and Colaborators in 1996

In 1996, Collins et al. [31] proposed a postpeak smeared constitutive law for tensile
concrete slightly different from the one proposed by Vecchio and Collins in 1986 [29]:

f
σc1 = pcr if εc1 > εcr (41)
1 + 500εc1

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Materials 2021, 14, 1260

3.6. Law l6—Vecchio in 2000

The Disturbed Stress Field Model for RC was proposed by Vecchio in 2000 [32]. For this
model, the author proposed a somewhat more complicated postpeak smeared constitutive
law for tensile concrete, in order to account more precisely for the tension stiffening. The
author proposed two equations, with a maximum condition, to also account indirectly for
the level of reinforcement ratio (Equations (42) to (45)). When a low (high) reinforcement
ratio exists, tension softening (stiffening) is more relevant.
 
σc1 = max f c1a b
; f c1 if εc1 > εcr (42)

εc − εcr
 
a
f c1 = f cr 1− 1 (43)
εts − εcr
b f cr
f c1 = (44)
1+ ct εc1
p

Gf
εts = 2.0 (45)
f cr Lr
Parameter εts represents the terminal strain, which depends on the fracture energy
(G f ), assumed to be constant and equal to 75 N/m by Vecchio, and also on half of the
distance between cracks (Lr ). Parameter ct can be simply considered equal to 200 for small
members or for members incorporating steel reinforcement grids with very small spacing,
and 500 for large members. For this study, Lr was infered from the experimental data of
the used reference beams (Section 4).

3.7. Law l7—Bentz in 2005

In 2005, Bentz proposed Equations (46) and (47) for the smeared postpeak tension
stiffening relationship of tensile concrete [33].

f
σc1 = p cr if εc1 > εcr (46)
1+ 3.6Mεc1

Ac
M= (47)
∑ φπ
Parameter M (in “mm” units) accounts for the effective tensile concrete area around the
rebars (Ac ) and for the rebars’ diameter (φ). For this study, Ac was computed considering
the effective thickness of the concrete tie (tc ), which is computed from the GSVATM.

3.8. Law l8—Stramandinoli and Rovere in 2008

In 2008, for the nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete members, Stramandinoli
and Rovere proposed equations for the postpeak smeared constitutive law for tensile
concrete [34] (Equations (48) to (50)). The law accounts directly for the longitudinal
reinforcement ratio ρ.
εc
1 )
σc1 = f cr e −α( εcr
if εc1 > εcr (48)
2 3
α = 0.017 + 0.255(nρ) − 0.106(nρ) + 0.016(nρ) (49)
Es
n= (50)
Ec

3.9. Comparison between the Smeared Constitutive Laws

For comparison, Figure 5 illustrates the smeared σ—ε curves for tensile concrete for
each of the proposals presented in the previous subsections. The curves were computed
considering the same arbitrary and typical cross-section with current materials.

230
  ●
1
σ ε
Materials 2021, 14, 1260
σ ε

Figure 5. Comparison between the smeared constitutive laws.

After the peak stress, namely for the descending branch, Figure 5 shows high vari-
ability between the σ—ε curves. In spite of the peak stress coincides for all the curves, it
σ1c should be noted that the referred variability will influence the calculation of the cracking
torque and corresponding twist with the GSVATM. This is because, as previously referred,
the tensile stress σc1 computed from Equation (31) represents σ1c an average stress since the real
stress diagram along the effective tie’s thickness is not uniform due to the strain gradient
(Figure 3). The representative concrete ε1c tensile stress in the GSVATM (σc ) does not coincide
1
with theθmaximum tensile stress. Hence, the strain εc1 corresponding to the effective crack-
ing torque in the MT —θ curve computed with the GSVATM does not coincide with the
εcr σ ε
strain εcr corresponding to the peak stress in the smeared σ—ε curves for tensile concrete.
This is illustrated in Figure 6, where an example of MTθ—θ and corresponding σ—ε curves
σ ε for tensile concrete, computed with the GSVATM, are presented. The highlighted point
in the curves (with marker er ““”●”) corresponds to the effective cracking torque, which is
reached for a strain εc1 > εcr , i.e., in the descending branch of the smeared σ—ε curve for
1
tensile concrete. This explains why different smeared σ—ε curves for tensile concrete
σ ε
incorporated in the GSVATM will lead to different coordinates for the cracking torque
σ ε
(cracking torque and corresponding twist).

Figure 6. Location of the effective cracking point.

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Materials 2021, 14, 1260

4. Comparison with Experimental Results

For this study, the experimental results of 103 RC beams tested under torsion were
collected from the literature. Both RC beams with plain and hollow rectangular cross
section were considered. These beams were selected based on criteria related to minimum
requirements from codes of practice (for instance, the beams should incorporate a minimum
torsional reinforcement, the spacing between rebars should not exceed the maximum
allowed, etc.) in order to ensure a typical behavior under torsion. A detailed discussion
on such applied criteria can be found in [21]. For the RC plain beams, the data were
collected from the following studies: Hsu in 1968 [35], McMullen and Rangan in 1978 [36],
Koutchkali and Belarbi in 2001 [37], Fang and Shiau in 2004 [38], and Peng and Wong in
2011 [39]. For RC hollow beams, the following studies were consulted: Hsu in 1968 [35],
Lampert and Thürlimann in 1969 [40], Leonhardt and Schelling in 1974 [41], Bernardo and
Lopes in 2009 [42], and Jeng in 2015 [26].
Table A1 in Appendix A summarizes the main properties for each reference beam.
In Table 1, “P” and “H” stand for “plain” and “hollow” cross-section, respectively. For
all the reference beams from Table A1, the experimental values of the cracking torque
exp exp
(MTcr ) and corresponding twist (θcr ) were obtained from the data or graphs given by the
authors [26,35–42]. Such values are presented for each reference beam in Tables A2–A4
(see Appendix A).

Table 1. Comparative analysis.

Cross-Section P H P+H
exp exp exp exp exp exp
Constitutive law MTcr θcr MTcr θcr MTcr θcr
thli
MTcr θthli
cr
thli
MTcr θthli
cr
thli
MTcr θthli
cr

l1—Cervenka (1985) [28] x= 1.02 1.16 1.29 1.71 1.05 1.23

cv(%) = 12.13 25.19 21.47 35.22 21.29 38.54
l2—Vecchio and Collins (1986) [29] x= 0.96 1.11 1.24 1.62 0.99 1.16
cv(%) = 12.41 25.68 21.47 35.61 21.73 39.13
l3—Hsu (1991) [30] x= 0.91 1.04 1.18 1.55 0.94 1.10
cv(%) = 12.38 25.83 21.66 36.11 22.13 40.05
l4—Belarbi and Hsu (1994) [24] x= 1.00 1.16 1.03 1.42 1.01 1.19
cv(%) = 11.35 24.10 32.17 46.05 21.45 39.02
l5—Collins et al. (1996) [31] x= 1.04 1.20 1.33 1.74 1.07 1.24
cv(%) = 12.31 25.29 21.49 35.97 21.36 39.23
l6—Vecchio (2000) [32] x= 0.96 1.08 1.18 1.50 1.00 1.15
cv(%) = 11.82 26.20 19.22 37.88 18.56 37.43
l7—Bentz (2005) [33] x= 0.94 1.08 1.26 1.68 0.99 1.16
cv(%) = 12.24 25.91 21.23 34.90 22.79 40.35
l8—Stramandinoli and Rovere
x= 0.86 0.98 1.13 1.46 0.89 1.06
(2008) [34]
cv(%) = 12.84 26.75 22.11 36.09 22.72 39.36

The torsional response of all the reference beams was computed using the GSVATM,
for each of the smeared σ—ε relationships for the tensile concrete presented in Section 3
(laws l1 to l8). From the obtained theoretical MT —θ curves, the theoretical coordinates
of the cracking point, i.e., the cracking torque (MTcr thli , with i = 1 to 8) and corresponding
thli
twists, i.e., the cracking twists (θcr , with i = 1 to 8), were obtained. Such values are also
presented for each reference beam in Tables A2–A4 (see Appendix A). In addition, the ratios
between the experimental to the theoretical values are also presented for each reference
exp
beam (MTcr /MTcr thli and θexp /θthli , with i = 1 to 8).
cr cr
Figure 7 presents, as an example, a graph with the experimental and theoretical MT —θ
curves, computed for each smeared constitutive law for tensile concrete, for reference beam
N-20-20 [38]. Figure 7 confirms that the coordinates of the cracking point, namely the
cracking torque, as well as the postcracking response, highly depends on the used smeared

232
 / θ exp thli
cr /θ cr 1 to 8
Materials 2021, 14, 1260
θ

constitutive law for the tensile concrete. The influence of the used smeared constitutive
law is residual at the ultimate stage, namely for the maximum torque.

θ
Figure 7. Example of MT —θ curves for reference beam N-20-20.

Table 1 summarizes and compares the results from Tables A2–A4 (Appendix A) for
exp exp
the cracking torque (MTcr ) and corresponding twist (θcr ). For this, the following statistical
parameters were computed for each ratio MTcr /MTcr
exp θexp
thli and exp
cr θcr /θ
thli
cr (i = 1 to 8): the
average value (x) and the coefficient of variation (cv(%/) = 100 × s/x, θ exp thli
cr /θ cr
with 1 tothe
s being 8
sample standard deviation).
x Table 1 also presents separately the
(%) 100 /results for plain (P) and
hollow (H) beams. This is because some studies showed that noticeable differences exist
between the response of plain and hollow beams under torsion for the low loading stages,
namely for the transition between the uncracked and the cracked stage [26].
Table 1 shows that, for the RC plain beams, the smeared constitutive laws l1, l2, l4,
l5 and l6 allow us to predict the cracking torque MTcr (with 0.95 < x < 1.05) very well
and with a very acceptable degree of dispersion (cv < 13%). Among those models, the
smeared constitutive law l4 from Belarbi and Hsu (1994) [24] is the best (with x = 1.00 and
cv = 11.35%). For the RC hollow beams, this constitutive law gives the better average value
x = 1.03, although the degree of dispersion is high (cv = 32.17%). The higher difficulty
of reliably predicting the cracking torque for the RC hollow beams, when compared with
the RC plain beams, was also observed and discussed in previous studies [18,26,27]. In
particular, the RC hollow beams are more sensitive to the high variability of concrete tensile
strength, which highly influences the cracking torque. When all beams are considered
together, the smeared constitutive laws l2, l4, l6 and l7 give the best results with x ≈ 1.00,
although the degree of dispersion is higher (cv < 23%) due to the influence of the results
for the RC hollow beams. In general, it can be stated that the smeared constitutive law l4
from Belarbi and Hsu (1994) [24] allows us to best predict the cracking torque, regardless of
the cross-section type. This constitutive law has been widely used by authors in previous
studies [9,16–19,23,26]. The results from Table 1 confirm the validity of such studies having
chosen this smeared constitutive law for tensile concrete.
Regarding the twist corresponding to the cracking torque (θcr ), Table 1 shows that,
in general, there is a higher difficulty in obtaining a good prediction of this parameter.
The constitutive laws l3 and l8 give the best average values for both the RC plain beams
(0.95 < x < 1.05) and also for all the RC beams together (x ≤ 1.10). However, the
dispersion of these results is high (cv > 25%). The results are the worst for the RC hollow
beams, which was also reported in previous studies [17,18,25,27]. One possible explanation
for this is that the experimental twists are very small until the end of the uncracked stage.
Hence, experimental limitations related to the accurate measurement of the twists at this
stage are expected. However, since the cracking twist is not very important for design, the
previously reported worst results can also be considered not very important.
Figure 8 presents, for each smeared constitutive law (l1 to l8), scatter graphs showing
the experimental versus the theoretical values for the cracking torque. Similar graphs are

233
Materials 2021, 14, 1260

not presented for the cracking twist because of the high dispersion of the results previously
reported. In the graphs, different markers were used to distinguish the results regarding
mely
the cross-section type, namely ⬛” for
⬛““⬛” for RC
RC plain beams and ⬜ ⬜ ” for RC hollow beams.
d ““⬜”
beams.
150 150
150 150 150
150

125 125
125 125 125
125

100 100
100 100 100
100

exp (kNm)
Tcrexp (kNm)
exp (kNm)
Tcrexp (kNm)

MTcrexp (kNm)
MTcrexp (kNm)

75
75 75 75
75
75

MTcr
MTcr

50
50

M
50
50 50
M

50

25
25 25 25
25
25
Cervenka Vecchio
Vecchio &&Collins
(1986)(1986)
Collins - l2 -- 22
(1986)
Cervenka (1985)(1985)
Cervenka - l1 -- 11
(1985)
00
Vecchio & Collins
0 00 0
0 025
0 25
25
50 50
50
75 75
75 100
100 125 125
100 150 150
125 150
0 0025 25
25
50 50
50
75 75
100 100
75 125 125
100 150 150
125 150
MTcr MM(kNm)
thl2
thl2(kNm)
thl2 (kNm)
MTcr M
MTcr
thl1
th
(kNm)
Tcr
th11(kNm)
(kNm) Tcr
Tcr

150
150
150 150
150 150

125
125
125 125
125 125

100
100
100 100
100
exp (kNm)
Tcrexp (kNm)
100
exp (kNm)
Tcrexp (kNm)

MTcrexp (kNm)
MTcrexp (kNm)

75
75 75 75
75
75
MTcr
MTcr

50
50
M

50
50 50
M

50

25 25
25
25 25
25
Belarbi
& Hsu&&
Belarbi
Belarbi Hsu
Hsu(1994)
(1994) - l4 -- 44
(1994)
Hsu
Hsu(1991)
Hsu (1991) - l3 -- 33
(1991) 00
00 0
0 025
0 25
25 50
50 75
75 100
100 125
125 150
150
00 25 50 75 0 50 75 100 125 150
0 25 25
50 50
75 100 100
75 125 125
100 150 150
125 150
MM(kNm)thl4(kNm)
thl4 (kNm)
MM(kNm)thl3(kNm)
thl3 (kNm) MTcrthl4 Tcr
Tcr
MTcrthl3 Tcr
Tcr
150
150
150 150
150 150

125
125
125 125
125 125

100
100
100 100
100
exp (kNm)
Tcrexp (kNm)

100
exp (kNm)
Tcrexp (kNm)

MTcrexp (kNm)
MTcrexp (kNm)

75 75
75
75 75
75
MTcr
MTcr

50
50
M

50
50 50
M

50
25 25
25
25 25
25
Vecchio
(2000)(2000)
Vecchio
Vecchio - l6 -- 66
(2000)
CollinsCollins
et al. et
Collins etal.
al.(1996)
(1996) - l5 -- 55
(1996)
0 00
0 00 025
0 25
25 50
50 75
75 100
100 125
125 150
150
0 50 75 100 125 150
0 0025 25
25
50 50
50
75 75
100 100
75 125 125
100 150 150
125 150
MM(kNm)
MTcrthl6 Tcr
Tcr (kNm)
(kNm)
thl6
thl6
MM(kNm)
MTcrthl5 Tcr
thl5(kNm)
thl5
Tcr (kNm)
150 150
150
150 150
150

125 125
125 125 125
125

100 100
100
exp (kNm)
Tcrexp (kNm)

100 100
100
MTcrexp (kNm)
exp (kNm)
Tcrexp (kNm)
MTcrexp (kNm)

75
75 75 75
75
75
MTcr
MTcr

50 50
50
M

50
50
M

50
25
25 Stramandinoli
Stramandinoli & &&
Stramandinoli
25
25 25
25 Rovere (2008) - l8 -- 88
Rovere
Rovere (2008)
(2008)
BentzBentz
(2005)(2005)
Bentz - l7 -- 77
(2005)
0 00
00 025 25 50 75
75 100
0
025 25 50 75
75 100 0 0 25
50 50
75 100 125 125
100 150 150
125 150
0 0 25
50 50
75 100 125 125
100 150 150
125 150
M Tcr (kNm)
M(kNm) thl8 (kNm)
thl8
MM(kNm)thl7(kNm)
thl7 (kNm) MTcr thl8 Tcr
MTcrthl7 Tcr
Tcr

Figure 8. Experimental versos theoretical cracking torque.

234
Materials 2021, 14, 1260

Figure 8 visually confirms the observations previously stated from Table 1, namely
the higher dispersion of the results for the RC hollow beams.

5. Conclusions
In this study, the GSVATM was used to check some proposed smeared constitutive
laws for tensile concrete found in the literature in order to predict the response of the RC
beams under torsion for the low loading stage; namely the transition from the uncracked
stage to the cracked stage. As referred to in the introduction section, the smeared model
GSVATM is simpler than the other, more complex models for the RC beams under torsion.
In addition, it was also validated in several previous studies. Hence, the GSVATM was
considered to be sufficiently simpler and reliable to evaluate the smeared constitutive laws
for tensile concrete. From the obtained results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) The different proposals for the smeared constitutive law for tensile concrete analyzed
in this study lead to high differences in the shape of the postpeak descending branch
of the corresponding smeared σ—ε curves;
(2) The obtained results confirm that the predicted response of the RC beams under tor-
sion, for the transition from the uncracked stage to the cracked stage highly depends
on the smeared constitutive law for tensile concrete incorporated into the model;
(3) The predictions for the cracking torque of the RC plain beams are better than the same
ones for the RC hollow beams for which higher variability of the results is observed,
as also reported in previous studies;
(4) Regardless of the used smeared constitutive law for tensile concrete, the cracking
twist is not very well predicted. Namely, higher variability of the results is observed,
as also reported in previous studies;
(5) Among the studied smeared constitutive laws for tensile concrete, the one proposed
by Belarbi and Hsu in 1994 allows us to reliably predict the cracking torque of the RC
beams under torsion, regardless of the cross-section type (plain or hollow). This result
confirms the validity of several previous studies having incorporated this constitutive
law in the used smeared truss models.
Finally, the authors consider that the results obtained in this study, using the smeared
model GSVATM as reference model, can be extrapolated and could be useful to other
smeared models for the RC beams under torsion. It must also be pointed out that addi-
tional solutions of experiments on the different failure mechanisms and related suitable
approaches for the identification process for the parameters of relations of concrete are
greatly needed and should be further studied, namely for the cracking of the RC beams
under torsion.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.B.; methodology, L.B.; validation, L.B.; formal analysis,
M.T.; investigation, M.T.; data curation, M.T.; writing—original draft preparation, L.B.; writing—
review and editing, L.B. and M.T.; supervision, L.B.; All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: No funding supported this work.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data is contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Materials 2021, 14, 1260

Appendix A

Table A1. Properties of the reference beams.

′
x y t x1 y1 Ast /s Asl ρt ρl fty fly fc εo
Beam
cm cm cm cm cm cm2 /m cm2 % % MPa MPa MPa %
B3 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 10.16 11.36 1.17 1.17 320 328 28.1 0.20
B4 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 14.01 15.48 1.62 1.60 323 320 29.2 0.20
B5 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 18.47 20.39 2.13 2.11 321 332 30.6 0.20
B6 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 22.58 25.81 2.61 2.67 323 332 28.8 0.20
B7 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 10.16 5.16 1.17 0.53 319 320 26.0 0.19
B8 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 22.58 5.16 2.61 0.53 320 322 26.8 0.19
B9 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 4.66 11.36 0.54 1.17 343 319 28.8 0.20
C4 [35] P 25.4 25.4 - 21.6 21.6 13.11 11.36 1.76 1.76 328 337 27.2 0.20
C5 [35] P 25.4 25.4 - 21.6 21.6 17.67 15.48 2.37 2.40 329 328 27.2 0.20
C6 [35] P 25.4 25.4 - 21.6 21.6 23.91 20.39 3.20 3.16 328 316 27.6 0.20
G3 [35] P 25.4 50.8 - 21.6 47.0 8.29 11.36 0.88 0.88 328 339 26.8 0.19
G4 [35] P 25.4 50.8 - 21.6 47.0 11.29 15.48 1.20 1.20 321 326 28.3 0.20
G5 [35] P 25.4 50.8 - 21.6 47.0 15.05 20.39 1.60 1.58 328 331 26.9 0.19
G7 [35] P 25.4 50.8 - 21.6 47.0 8.84 12.00 0.94 0.93 323 319 31.0 0.20
G8 [35] P 25.4 50.8 - 21.6 47.0 12.32 17.03 1.31 1.32 329 322 28.3 0.20
I3 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 10.16 11.36 1.17 1.17 334 343 44.8 0.23
I4 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 14.01 15.48 1.62 1.60 326 315 45.0 0.23
I5 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 18.47 20.39 2.13 2.11 326 310 45.0 0.23
I6 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 22.58 25.81 2.61 2.67 329 326 45.8 0.23
J1 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 4.66 5.16 0.54 0.53 346 328 14.3 0.16
J2 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 7.21 8.00 0.83 0.83 341 320 14.6 0.16
J3 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 10.16 11.36 1.17 1.17 337 389 16.9 0.17
J4 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 14.01 15.48 1.62 1.60 332 324 16.8 0.17
K2 [35] P 15.2 49.5 - 11.4 45.7 6.77 7.74 1.03 1.03 338 336 30.6 0.20
K3 [35] P 15.2 49.5 - 11.4 45.7 10.42 12.00 1.58 1.59 321 316 29.0 0.20
K4 [35] P 15.2 49.5 - 11.4 45.7 15.05 17.03 2.28 2.26 340 344 28.6 0.20
M1 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 4.76 8.00 0.55 0.83 353 326 29.9 0.20
M2 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 6.77 11.36 0.78 1.17 357 329 30.6 0.20
M3 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 9.24 15.48 1.07 1.60 326 322 26.8 0.29
M4 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 12.33 20.39 1.42 2.11 327 319 26.6 0.19
M5 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 15.63 25.81 1.81 2.67 331 335 28.0 0.20
M6 [35] P 25.4 38.1 - 21.6 34.3 15.63 30.58 1.81 3.16 341 318 29.4 0.20
N1 [35] P 15.2 30.5 - 13.0 28.3 3.50 2.84 0.62 0.61 341 352 29.5 0.20
N1a [35] P 15.2 30.5 - 13.0 28.3 3.50 2.84 0.62 0.61 345 346 28.7 0.20
N2 [35] P 15.2 30.5 - 13.0 28.3 6.35 5.16 1.13 1.11 338 331 30.4 0.20
N2a [35] P 15.2 30.5 - 13.0 28.3 6.21 1.61 1.10 1.11 361 333 28.4 0.20
N3 [35] P 15.2 30.5 - 13.0 28.3 5.08 4.26 0.90 0.92 352 352 27.3 0.20
N4 [35] P 15.2 30.5 - 13.0 28.3 7.98 6.58 1.42 1.42 356 341 27.3 0.20
A2 [36] P 25.4 25.4 - 22.2 22.2 7.82 5.16 1.08 0.80 285 380 38.2 0.22
A3 [36] P 25.4 25.4 - 21.9 21.9 8.94 8.00 1.22 1.24 360 352 39.4 0.22
A4 [36] P 25.4 25.4 - 21.9 21.9 12.42 11.36 1.69 1.76 360 351 39.2 0.22
B3 [36] P 17.8 35.6 - 14.3 32.1 8.60 8.00 1.26 1.27 360 352 38.6 0.22
B4 [36] P 17.8 35.6 - 14.3 32.1 11.76 11.36 1.73 1.80 360 351 38.5 0.22
B5UR1 [37] P 20.3 30.5 - 16.5 26.7 6.56 5.16 0.92 0.83 373 386 39.6 0.20
B9UR1 [37] P 20.3 30.5 - 16.5 26.7 6.56 5.16 0.92 0.83 373 386 75.0 0.27
B12UR1 [37] P 20.3 30.5 - 16.5 26.7 6.56 5.16 0.92 0.83 399 386 80.6 0.27
B14UR1 [37] P 20.3 30.5 - 16.5 26.7 6.56 5.16 0.92 0.83 386 386 93.9 0.29
B12UR2 [37] P 20.3 30.5 - 16.5 26.7 6.95 5.16 0.97 0.83 386 386 76.2 0.27
B12UR3 [37] P 20.3 30.5 - 16.5 26.7 7.46 6.58 1.04 1.06 386 380 72.9 0.26
B12UR4 [37] P 20.3 30.5 - 16.5 26.7 7.88 7.74 1.10 1.25 386 373 75.9 0.27
B12UR5 [37] P 20.3 30.5 - 16.5 26.7 10.13 8.00 1.41 1.29 386 380 76.7 0.27
H-06-12 [38] P 35.0 50.0 - 30.0 45.0 7.10 20.65 0.61 1.18 440 410 78.5 0.27
H-07-10 [38] P 35.0 50.0 - 30.0 45.0 7.89 17.03 0.68 0.97 420 500 68.4 0.26
H-07-16 [38] P 35.0 50.0 - 30.0 45.0 7.89 28.39 0.68 1.62 420 500 68.4 0.26
H-12-12 [38] P 35.0 50.0 - 30.0 45.0 14.19 20.65 1.22 1.18 440 410 78.5 0.27
H-12-16 [38] P 35.0 50.0 - 30.0 45.0 14.19 28.39 1.22 1.62 440 520 78.5 0.27
H-14-10 [38] P 35.0 50.0 - 30.0 45.0 16.13 17.03 1.38 0.97 360 500 68.4 0.26
H-20-20 [38] P 35.0 50.0 - 30.0 45.0 23.46 34.06 2.01 1.95 440 560 78.5 0.27
N-06-06 [38] P 35.0 50.0 - 30.0 45.0 7.10 12.00 0.61 0.69 440 440 35.5 0.21
N-06-12 [38] P 35.0 50.0 - 30.0 45.0 7.10 20.65 0.61 1.18 440 410 35.5 0.21
N-07-10 [38] P 35.0 50.0 - 30.0 45.0 7.89 17.03 0.68 0.97 420 500 33.5 0.21
N-07-16 [38] P 35.0 50.0 - 30.0 45.0 7.89 28.39 0.68 1.62 420 500 33.5 0.21
N-12-12 [38] P 35.0 50.0 - 30.0 45.0 14.19 20.65 1.22 1.18 440 410 35.5 0.21

236
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Table A1. Cont.

′
x y t x1 y1 Ast /s Asl ρt ρl fty fly fc εo
Beam
cm cm cm cm cm cm2 /m cm2 % % MPa MPa MPa %
N-12-16 [38] P 35.0 50.0 - 30.0 45.0 14.19 28.39 1.22 1.62 440 520 35.5 0.21
N-14-10 [38] P 35.0 50.0 - 30.0 45.0 16.13 17.03 1.38 0.97 360 500 33.5 0.21
N-20-20 [38] P 35.0 50.0 - 30.0 45.0 23.46 34.06 2.01 1.95 440 560 35.5 0.21
SW12-1 [39] P 15.0 120.0 - 10.0 115.0 3.93 11.31 0.55 1.26 459 480 44.2 0.23
SW10-1 [39] P 15.0 100.0 - 10.0 95.0 3.93 9.05 0.55 1.21 459 499 29.5 0.20
SW10-2 [39] P 15.0 100.0 - 9.8 94.8 7.54 9.05 1.05 1.21 480 480 44.2 0.23
SW10-3 [39] P 15.0 100.0 - 9.8 94.8 11.31 9.05 1.58 1.21 499 499 29.5 0.20
SW10-4 [39] P 15.0 100.0 - 9.4 94.4 16.08 16.08 2.23 2.14 497 497 33.8 0.21
SW8-1 [39] P 15.0 80.0 - 10.2 75.2 4.02 7.07 0.57 1.18 433 459 29.5 0.20
SW8-2 [39] P 15.0 80.0 - 9.8 74.8 11.31 7.07 1.59 1.18 499 459 29.5 0.20
D3 [35] H 25.4 38.1 6.4 21.6 34.3 10.16 11.36 1.17 1.17 333 341 28.4 0.20
D4 [35] H 25.4 38.1 6.4 21.6 34.3 14.01 15.48 1.62 1.60 333 330 30.6 0.20
T0 [40] H 50.0 50.0 8.0 43.0 43.0 10.28 32.16 0.71 1.29 357 345 45.1 0.23
T1 [40] H 50.0 50.0 8.0 45.4 45.4 10.28 18.10 0.75 0.72 357 357 35.3 0.21
T2 [40] H 50.0 50.0 8.0 43.0 43.0 10.28 18.10 0.71 0.72 357 357 35.3 0.21
T5 [40] H 80.0 40.0 8.0 73.0 33.0 10.28 10.00 0.68 0.31 513 529 47.1 0.23
VH1 [41] H 32.4 32.4 8.0 30.4 30.4 2.88 3.46 0.33 0.33 447 447 17.2 0.17
VH2 [41] H 32.4 32.4 8.0 30.4 30.4 5.76 6.91 0.67 0.66 447 447 17.2 0.17
A2 [42] H 60.0 60.0 10.7 53.8 53.1 6.28 13.95 0.37 0.39 696 672 47.3 0.23
A3 [42] H 60.0 60.0 10.9 53.5 53.5 8.27 18.10 0.49 0.50 715 672 46.2 0.23
A4 [42] H 60.0 60.0 10.4 52.0 52.5 11.22 23.75 0.65 0.66 715 724 54.8 0.24
A5 [42] H 60.0 60.0 10.4 52.8 52.8 14.14 30.66 0.83 0.85 672 724 53.1 0.24
B2 [42] H 60.0 60.0 10.8 53.3 53.4 6.70 14.58 0.40 0.41 696 672 69.8 0.26
B3 [42] H 60.0 60.0 10.9 53.5 53.7 11.22 23.75 0.67 0.66 715 724 77.8 0.27
B4 [42] H 60.0 60.0 11.2 52.3 53.6 15.08 32.17 0.89 0.89 672 724 79.8 0.27
B5 [42] H 60.0 60.0 11.7 51.8 51.8 18.85 40.21 1.09 1.12 672 724 76.4 0.27
C2 [42] H 60.0 60.0 10.0 53.2 53.3 6.28 13.95 0.37 0.39 696 672 94.8 0.28
C3 [42] H 60.0 60.0 10.3 54.5 54.0 10.47 23.75 0.63 0.66 715 724 91.6 0.28
C4 [42] H 60.0 60.0 10.3 54.6 54.5 14.14 30.66 0.86 0.85 672 724 91.4 0.28
C5 [42] H 60.0 60.0 10.4 54.0 54.3 17.40 36.69 1.05 1.02 672 724 96.7 0.28
C6 [42] H 60.0 60.0 10.4 53.3 52.9 22.62 48.25 1.34 1.34 672 724 87.5 0.28
A095c [26] H 49.7 71.1 14.5 43.7 65.1 9.93 13.16 0.61 0.37 381 371 35.1 0.21
A120a [26] H 50.2 71.9 18.4 44.2 65.9 7.59 20.00 0.46 0.55 380 464 27.6 0.20
B065b [26] H 50.3 71.0 9.2 44.3 65.0 9.93 50.97 0.61 1.43 380 452 39.2 0.22
B080a [26] H 50.0 72.1 11.2 44.0 66.1 12.90 28.39 0.79 0.79 392 454 46.5 0.23
B110a [26] H 49.8 71.0 15.5 43.8 65.0 8.60 20.00 0.53 0.57 369 453 48.1 0.23
C065a [26] H 49.5 78.1 8.5 43.5 72.1 9.93 20.00 0.59 0.52 376 338 78.8 0.27
C100a [26] H 49.9 72.3 12.7 43.9 66.3 12.90 28.39 0.79 0.79 447 466 90.6 0.28
D075a [26] H 49.8 73.4 8.7 43.8 67.4 12.90 28.39 0.79 0.78 381 469 94.9 0.29
D090a [26] H 50.1 72.2 10.5 44.1 66.2 12.90 28.39 0.79 0.79 447 466 105.7 0.30

Table A2. Cracking torques and corresponding twists (smeared constitutive laws l1 to l3).
exp exp
MTcr θcr Mthl1
Tcr MTcr
exp θthl1
cr θcr
exp Mthl2
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl2
cr
exp
θcr Mthl3
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl3
cr
exp
θcr
Beam ◦ /m ◦ /m ◦ /m ◦ /m
kNm kNm Mthl1
Tcr θthl1
cr kNm Mthl2
Tcr θthl2
cr kNm Mthl3
Tcr θthl3
cr

B3 [35] 20.1 0.12 20.9 0.96 0.10 1.21 22.0 0.91 0.11 1.15 23.2 0.87 0.11 1.09
B4 [35] 21.9 0.12 21.0 1.05 0.10 1.20 22.0 0.99 0.10 1.15 23.1 0.95 0.11 1.09
B5 [35] 22.6 0.14 21.4 1.05 0.10 1.42 22.2 1.02 0.10 1.36 23.4 0.97 0.11 1.30
B6 [35] 25.0 0.16 20.6 1.21 0.09 1.75 21.7 1.15 0.10 1.67 22.8 1.09 0.10 1.58
B7 [35] 20.2 0.11 20.0 1.01 0.10 1.07 21.0 0.96 0.11 1.02 22.1 0.91 0.11 0.97
B8 [35] 21.8 0.13 20.3 1.07 0.10 1.28 21.3 1.02 0.10 1.22 22.3 0.98 0.11 1.17
B9 [35] 19.6 0.11 20.8 0.94 0.10 1.04 22.0 0.89 0.11 0.99 23.2 0.85 0.11 0.94
C4 [35] 11.9 0.13 11.3 1.05 0.11 1.18 11.8 1.01 0.12 1.12 12.4 0.96 0.13 1.07
C5 [35] 14.0 0.17 11.2 1.25 0.11 1.51 11.9 1.17 0.12 1.41 12.5 1.12 0.12 1.35
C6 [35] 13.9 0.17 11.3 1.23 0.11 1.61 11.5 1.20 0.11 1.57 12.0 1.15 0.11 1.51
G3 [35] 27.1 0.10 29.5 0.92 0.09 1.05 31.0 0.87 0.10 1.00 32.7 0.83 0.10 0.95
G4 [35] 28.7 0.12 30.1 0.95 0.09 1.29 31.6 0.91 0.10 1.23 33.4 0.86 0.10 1.16
G5 [35] 29.5 0.11 29.2 1.01 0.09 1.30 30.7 0.96 0.09 1.24 32.3 0.91 0.10 1.17
G7 [35] 33.6 0.13 31.7 1.06 0.09 1.45 33.3 1.01 0.10 1.38 35.1 0.96 0.10 1.31
G8 [35] 33.6 0.12 30.1 1.12 0.09 1.37 31.6 1.06 0.09 1.30 33.4 1.01 0.10 1.23
I3 [35] 25.5 0.11 25.5 1.00 0.11 0.97 27.2 0.94 0.12 0.91 28.7 0.89 0.12 0.86
I4 [35] 28.0 0.12 25.7 1.09 0.11 1.15 27.3 1.03 0.11 1.08 28.8 0.97 0.12 1.02
I5 [35] 28.1 0.15 26.0 1.08 0.11 1.43 27.4 1.02 0.11 1.36 28.9 0.97 0.12 1.29
I6 [35] 27.5 0.13 26.2 1.05 0.10 1.22 27.7 0.99 0.11 1.15 29.2 0.94 0.12 1.09

237
Materials 2021, 14, 1260

Table A2. Cont.

exp exp
MTcr θcr Mthl1
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl1
cr
exp
θcr Mthl2
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl2
cr
exp
θcr Mthl3
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl3
cr
exp
θcr
Beam ◦ /m ◦ /m ◦ /m ◦ /m
kNm kNm Mthl1
Tcr θthl1
cr kNm Mthl2
Tcr θthl2
cr kNm Mthl3
Tcr θthl3
cr

J1 [35] 14.0 0.09 15.3 0.92 0.09 0.92 15.9 0.88 0.10 0.88 16.5 0.85 0.10 0.85
J2 [35] 17.1 0.12 15.1 1.13 0.09 1.38 15.7 1.09 0.09 1.32 16.5 1.03 0.10 1.26
J3 [35] 16.9 0.10 15.9 1.06 0.09 1.08 16.6 1.02 0.09 1.03 17.5 0.97 0.10 0.98
J4 [35] 18.0 0.11 15.6 1.15 0.09 1.28 16.3 1.10 0.09 1.23 17.1 1.05 0.09 1.17
K2 [35] 12.2 0.18 12.0 1.02 0.14 1.31 12.3 0.99 0.14 1.27 13.1 0.93 0.15 1.20
K3 [35] 12.4 0.19 11.5 1.08 0.13 1.49 11.9 1.05 0.13 1.45 12.6 0.98 0.14 1.37
K4 [35] 13.1 0.21 11.1 1.19 0.12 1.71 11.6 1.13 0.13 1.63 12.4 1.06 0.13 1.53
M1 [35] 19.2 0.11 21.2 0.90 0.10 1.03 22.5 0.85 0.11 0.97 23.6 0.81 0.12 0.92
M2 [35] 20.6 0.11 21.5 0.96 0.10 1.08 22.5 0.92 0.11 1.03 23.8 0.86 0.11 0.97
M3 [35] 20.7 0.12 20.0 1.03 0.10 1.24 21.0 0.98 0.10 1.18 22.2 0.93 0.11 1.12
M4 [35] 20.7 0.13 19.9 1.04 0.10 1.41 20.8 0.99 0.10 1.34 22.0 0.94 0.11 1.27
M5 [35] 21.7 0.12 20.2 1.07 0.09 1.30 21.3 1.02 0.10 1.23 22.4 0.97 0.10 1.17
M6 [35] 22.7 0.15 20.7 1.10 0.09 1.57 21.7 1.05 0.10 1.49 22.8 0.99 0.10 1.42
N1 [35] 7.6 0.13 6.7 1.14 0.16 0.81 7.0 1.08 0.17 0.77 7.4 1.02 0.18 0.73
N1a [35] 7.0 0.11 6.6 1.06 0.16 0.69 6.9 1.01 0.17 0.66 7.3 0.96 0.17 0.62
N2 [35] 7.4 0.22 6.8 1.10 0.15 1.40 7.1 1.05 0.16 1.34 7.5 0.99 0.17 1.27
N2a [35] 7.5 0.21 6.6 1.14 0.15 1.37 6.9 1.09 0.16 1.31 7.3 1.03 0.17 1.24
N3 [35] 7.4 0.21 6.4 1.15 0.15 1.39 6.7 1.10 0.16 1.33 7.1 1.04 0.17 1.25
N4 [35] 7.6 0.21 6.4 1.19 0.15 1.43 6.7 1.13 0.16 1.36 7.1 1.07 0.16 1.29
A2 [36] 11.3 0.12 13.4 0.84 0.13 0.94 14.0 0.81 0.13 0.89 14.8 0.76 0.14 0.84
A3 [36] 12.2 0.12 13.5 0.90 0.13 0.98 14.3 0.85 0.13 0.92 15.1 0.81 0.14 0.88
A4 [36] 12.5 0.15 13.5 0.93 0.12 1.20 14.3 0.88 0.13 1.14 15.1 0.83 0.14 1.08
B3 [36] 8.8 0.15 12.0 0.73 0.14 1.06 12.6 0.70 0.14 1.01 13.3 0.66 0.15 0.96
B4 [36] 10.2 0.15 12.0 0.85 0.13 1.09 12.6 0.81 0.14 1.04 13.3 0.77 0.15 0.98
B5UR1 [37] 11.6 0.09 12.4 0.94 0.14 0.63 13.1 0.89 0.14 0.60 13.8 0.84 0.15 0.57
B9UR1 [37] 13.0 0.13 16.2 0.80 0.15 0.91 17.3 0.75 0.16 0.86 18.2 0.71 0.17 0.81
B12UR1 [37] 16.2 0.09 16.7 0.97 0.15 0.61 17.8 0.91 0.16 0.57 18.8 0.86 0.17 0.55
B14UR1 [37] 19.3 0.12 17.7 1.09 0.15 0.78 18.9 1.02 0.16 0.73 19.9 0.97 0.17 0.69
B12UR2 [37] 17.8 0.11 16.4 1.09 0.15 0.75 17.4 1.02 0.16 0.71 18.4 0.97 0.17 0.67
B12UR3 [37] 16.0 0.10 16.1 1.00 0.15 0.70 17.3 0.93 0.16 0.65 18.0 0.89 0.16 0.62
B12UR4 [37] 16.9 0.14 16.4 1.03 0.15 0.96 17.5 0.96 0.16 0.89 18.4 0.92 0.16 0.85
B12UR5 [37] 13.6 0.04 16.7 0.81 0.15 0.24 17.8 0.76 0.16 0.23 18.6 0.73 0.16 0.22
H-06-12 [38] 75.0 0.09 78.0 0.96 0.09 1.00 83.5 0.90 0.09 0.93 83.5 0.90 0.09 0.93
H-07-10 [38] 70.5 0.09 73.9 0.95 0.09 1.08 79.0 0.89 0.09 1.01 82.9 0.85 0.10 0.96
H-07-16 [38] 65.3 0.09 73.5 0.89 0.08 1.03 79.2 0.82 0.09 0.95 83.1 0.79 0.09 0.91
H-12-12 [38] 77.1 0.07 79.7 0.97 0.09 0.85 85.0 0.91 0.09 0.80 89.5 0.86 0.10 0.76
H-12-16 [38] 79.3 0.09 79.7 1.00 0.09 1.06 85.3 0.93 0.09 0.99 89.4 0.89 0.10 0.95
H-14-10 [38] 61.8 0.09 75.7 0.82 0.09 1.00 80.6 0.77 0.09 0.94 84.9 0.73 0.10 0.89
H-20-20 [38] 76.0 0.09 81.8 0.93 0.09 1.05 87.1 0.87 0.09 0.99 91.6 0.83 0.10 0.94
N-06-06 [38] 43.2 0.08 56.1 0.77 0.08 1.02 59.3 0.73 0.08 0.96 62.5 0.69 0.09 0.91
N-06-12 [38] 51.8 0.11 56.1 0.92 0.08 1.47 59.1 0.88 0.08 1.39 62.4 0.83 0.09 1.32
N-07-10 [38] 41.6 0.11 54.7 0.76 0.08 1.40 57.6 0.72 0.08 1.33 60.7 0.68 0.09 1.26
N-07-16 [38] 40.0 0.11 54.7 0.73 0.08 1.43 57.5 0.70 0.08 1.36 60.6 0.66 0.08 1.29
N-12-12 [38] 49.3 0.09 56.7 0.87 0.08 1.18 59.2 0.83 0.08 1.13 62.5 0.79 0.09 1.07
N-12-16 [38] 57.1 0.12 56.3 1.02 0.08 1.58 59.2 0.96 0.08 1.50 62.5 0.91 0.08 1.42
N-14-10 [38] 41.8 0.12 55.2 0.76 0.08 1.56 57.9 0.72 0.08 1.49 61.1 0.68 0.09 1.41
N-20-20 [38] 55.0 0.13 56.6 0.97 0.08 1.68 58.9 0.93 0.08 1.61 62.4 0.88 0.08 1.52
SW12-1 [39] 32.3 0.15 34.6 0.93 0.13 1.16 36.4 0.89 0.14 1.11 38.8 0.83 0.15 1.03
SW10-1 [39] 24.6 0.13 23.2 1.06 0.13 1.00 24.7 1.00 0.14 0.93 25.8 0.95 0.14 0.90
SW10-2 [39] 29.6 0.20 29.1 1.02 0.14 1.47 31.1 0.95 0.15 1.37 32.0 0.92 0.15 1.36
SW10-3 [39] 26.6 0.15 23.9 1.11 0.13 1.16 25.3 1.05 0.14 1.10 26.7 1.00 0.15 1.04
SW10-4 [39] 27.7 0.16 25.7 1.08 0.13 1.24 27.1 1.02 0.14 1.17 28.8 0.96 0.15 1.10
SW8-1 [39] 19.7 0.16 18.6 1.06 0.14 1.13 20.0 0.98 0.15 1.03 21.0 0.94 0.16 0.99
SW8-2 [39] 22.5 0.14 18.9 1.19 0.14 1.06 20.1 1.12 0.15 0.98 21.2 1.06 0.15 0.94
D3 [35] 15.2 0.08 8.0 1.89 0.05 1.49 8.5 1.79 0.06 1.40 8.8 1.73 0.06 1.36
D4 [35] 15.8 0.12 8.9 1.78 0.06 2.05 9.3 1.70 0.06 1.96 9.7 1.63 0.06 1.88
T0 [40] 49.8 0.06 38.8 1.28 0.03 1.92 40.8 1.22 0.03 1.81 42.5 1.17 0.04 1.75
T1 [40] 48.0 0.04 33.7 1.43 0.03 1.35 35.3 1.36 0.03 1.27 36.8 1.31 0.03 1.23
T2 [40] 52.8 0.10 33.7 1.57 0.03 3.07 35.3 1.49 0.03 2.90 36.8 1.44 0.03 2.81
T5 [40] 62.5 0.06 50.8 1.23 0.03 2.07 53.7 1.16 0.03 1.89 53.6 1.17 0.03 2.10
VH1 [41] 12.0 0.12 9.8 1.22 0.07 1.65 10.4 1.15 0.08 1.55 10.9 1.10 0.08 1.48
VH2 [41] 11.5 0.07 10.4 1.10 0.08 0.90 11.1 1.03 0.08 0.85 11.7 0.99 0.09 0.81
A2 [42] 109.5 0.06 68.6 1.60 0.03 2.44 71.6 1.53 0.03 2.34 74.8 1.46 0.03 2.25
A3 [42] 113.3 0.06 69.2 1.64 0.03 2.18 72.3 1.57 0.03 2.09 75.5 1.50 0.03 2.02
A4 [42] 120.9 0.06 75.9 1.59 0.03 2.42 79.8 1.51 0.03 2.25 83.4 1.45 0.03 2.17
A5 [42] 120.9 0.04 76.1 1.59 0.03 1.66 79.4 1.52 0.03 1.59 82.9 1.46 0.03 1.53

238
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Table A2. Cont.

exp exp
MTcr θcr Mthl1
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl1
cr
exp
θcr Mthl2
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl2
cr
exp
θcr Mthl3
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl3
cr
exp
θcr
Beam ◦ /m ◦ /m ◦ /m ◦ /m
kNm kNm Mthl1
Tcr θthl1
cr kNm Mthl2
Tcr θthl2
cr kNm Mthl3
Tcr θthl3
cr

B2 [42] 116.7 0.04 86.3 1.35 0.03 1.69 90.2 1.29 0.03 1.60 94.4 1.24 0.03 1.53
B3 [42] 130.5 0.05 94.2 1.39 0.03 1.74 98.4 1.33 0.03 1.65 103.1 1.26 0.03 1.57
B4 [42] 142.9 0.07 98.3 1.45 0.03 2.73 102.7 1.39 0.03 2.58 107.7 1.33 0.03 2.47
B5 [42] 146.3 0.06 98.0 1.49 0.03 2.44 101.4 1.44 0.03 2.38 106.3 1.38 0.03 2.28
C2 [42] 124.5 0.05 99.6 1.25 0.03 1.81 104.1 1.20 0.03 1.70 108.6 1.15 0.03 1.67
C3 [42] 131.9 0.06 100.8 1.31 0.03 2.35 104.7 1.26 0.03 2.29 109.9 1.20 0.03 2.18
C4 [42] 132.6 0.05 102.1 1.30 0.03 1.92 106.8 1.24 0.03 1.82 112.0 1.18 0.03 1.73
C5 [42] 138.3 0.05 107.4 1.29 0.03 1.91 111.3 1.24 0.03 1.85 116.9 1.18 0.03 1.76
C6 [42] 139.1 0.05 103.7 1.34 0.03 2.02 108.3 1.28 0.03 1.91 113.5 1.23 0.03 1.83
A095c [26] 102.9 0.03 101.0 1.02 0.04 0.82 106.9 0.96 0.04 0.77 112.0 0.92 0.05 0.74
A120a [26] 89.8 0.05 87.4 1.03 0.04 1.14 92.8 0.97 0.04 1.07 97.1 0.92 0.05 1.03
B065b [26] 54.4 0.03 59.1 0.92 0.03 1.23 62.1 0.88 0.03 1.16 64.7 0.84 0.03 1.12
B080a [26] 65.2 0.03 71.2 0.92 0.03 1.24 74.2 0.88 0.03 1.19 78.0 0.84 0.03 1.12
B110a [26] 128.3 0.04 128.6 1.00 0.04 0.99 135.8 0.94 0.04 0.93 141.8 0.90 0.05 0.90
C065a [26] 91.7 0.03 90.9 1.01 0.03 1.06 95.5 0.96 0.03 0.98 98.4 0.93 0.03 1.03
C100a [26] 122.2 0.03 131.6 0.93 0.03 0.85 137.8 0.89 0.04 0.81 145.3 0.84 0.04 0.76
D075a [26] 90.1 0.03 97.3 0.93 0.03 0.99 101.8 0.88 0.03 0.94 106.0 0.85 0.03 0.92
D090a [26] 96.1 0.03 110.0 0.87 0.03 1.08 114.3 0.84 0.03 1.05 120.2 0.80 0.03 0.99

Table A3. Cracking torques and corresponding twists (smeared constitutive laws l4 to l6).
exp exp
MTcr θcr Mthl4
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl4
cr
exp
θcr Mthl5
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl5
cr
exp
θcr Mthl6
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl6
cr
exp
θcr
Beam ◦ /m ◦ /m ◦ /m ◦ /m
kNm kNm Mthl4
Tcr θthl4
cr kNm Mthl5
Tcr θthl5
cr kNm Mthl6
Tcr θthl6
cr

B3 [35] 20.1 0.12 21.3 0.94 0.10 1.19 20.4 0.99 0.10 1.24 22.0 0.91 0.11 1.15
B4 [35] 21.9 0.12 21.5 1.02 0.10 1.17 20.4 1.07 0.10 1.24 22.0 0.99 0.10 1.15
B5 [35] 22.6 0.14 22.0 1.02 0.10 1.37 20.9 1.08 0.09 1.45 22.2 1.02 0.10 1.36
B6 [35] 25.0 0.16 20.9 1.19 0.09 1.73 20.1 1.24 0.09 1.80 21.7 1.15 0.10 1.67
B7 [35] 20.2 0.11 20.7 0.98 0.10 1.04 19.5 1.04 0.10 1.10 21.0 0.96 0.11 1.02
B8 [35] 21.8 0.13 20.8 1.05 0.10 1.25 19.7 1.10 0.10 1.32 21.3 1.02 0.10 1.22
B9 [35] 19.6 0.11 20.0 0.98 0.10 1.09 20.3 0.97 0.10 1.07 22.0 0.89 0.11 0.99
C4 [35] 11.9 0.13 11.6 1.02 0.12 1.15 11.0 1.08 0.11 1.21 11.8 1.01 0.12 1.12
C5 [35] 14.0 0.17 11.6 1.21 0.11 1.46 11.0 1.27 0.11 1.53 11.9 1.17 0.12 1.41
C6 [35] 13.9 0.17 11.4 1.21 0.11 1.58 10.9 1.27 0.10 1.65 12.0 1.16 0.11 1.51
G3 [35] 27.1 0.10 30.5 0.89 0.09 1.01 28.7 0.94 0.09 1.08 31.0 0.87 0.10 1.00
G4 [35] 28.7 0.12 31.0 0.93 0.09 1.25 29.4 0.98 0.09 1.32 31.6 0.91 0.10 1.23
G5 [35] 29.5 0.11 29.8 0.99 0.09 1.27 28.5 1.03 0.09 1.33 30.7 0.96 0.09 1.24
G7 [35] 33.6 0.13 32.8 1.02 0.10 1.40 30.9 1.09 0.09 1.49 33.3 1.01 0.10 1.38
G8 [35] 33.6 0.12 31.2 1.08 0.09 1.32 29.3 1.15 0.09 1.40 31.5 1.07 0.09 1.30
I3 [35] 25.5 0.11 26.3 0.97 0.11 0.94 25.1 1.02 0.11 0.99 27.2 0.94 0.12 0.91
I4 [35] 28.0 0.12 26.5 1.06 0.11 1.11 25.2 1.11 0.11 1.17 27.3 1.03 0.11 1.08
I5 [35] 28.1 0.15 26.8 1.05 0.11 1.39 25.4 1.11 0.10 1.46 27.4 1.02 0.11 1.36
I6 [35] 27.5 0.13 26.9 1.02 0.11 1.19 25.7 1.07 0.10 1.24 27.7 0.99 0.11 1.15
J1 [35] 14.0 0.09 15.2 0.92 0.09 0.92 14.8 0.95 0.09 0.95 15.9 0.88 0.10 0.88
J2 [35] 17.1 0.12 15.4 1.10 0.09 1.35 14.3 1.19 0.09 1.45 15.7 1.09 0.09 1.32
J3 [35] 16.9 0.10 16.5 1.03 0.09 1.04 15.4 1.10 0.09 1.11 16.6 1.02 0.09 1.03
J4 [35] 18.0 0.11 15.8 1.13 0.09 1.26 15.1 1.19 0.08 1.33 16.3 1.10 0.09 1.23
K2 [35] 12.2 0.18 12.7 0.96 0.14 1.24 11.8 1.04 0.13 1.33 12.7 0.96 0.14 1.24
K3 [35] 12.4 0.19 12.3 1.01 0.14 1.40 11.0 1.13 0.12 1.56 12.2 1.02 0.14 1.42
K4 [35] 13.1 0.21 12.1 1.08 0.13 1.56 10.8 1.21 0.12 1.75 12.0 1.09 0.13 1.58
M1 [35] 19.2 0.11 19.7 0.97 0.10 1.11 20.7 0.93 0.10 1.05 22.5 0.85 0.11 0.97
M2 [35] 20.6 0.11 21.5 0.96 0.10 1.08 20.9 0.98 0.10 1.10 22.5 0.92 0.11 1.03
M3 [35] 20.7 0.12 20.7 1.00 0.10 1.19 19.5 1.06 0.10 1.27 21.0 0.98 0.10 1.18
M4 [35] 20.7 0.13 20.1 1.03 0.10 1.39 19.3 1.07 0.09 1.45 20.8 0.99 0.10 1.34
M5 [35] 21.7 0.12 20.6 1.05 0.10 1.27 19.6 1.11 0.09 1.34 21.3 1.02 0.10 1.23
M6 [35] 22.7 0.15 21.0 1.08 0.09 1.54 20.0 1.13 0.09 1.62 21.7 1.05 0.10 1.49
N1 [35] 7.6 0.13 6.9 1.10 0.16 0.79 6.5 1.17 0.15 0.83 7.0 1.08 0.17 0.77
N1a [35] 7.0 0.11 6.4 1.11 0.15 0.72 6.4 1.10 0.15 0.71 6.9 1.01 0.17 0.66
N2 [35] 7.4 0.22 7.0 1.06 0.16 1.36 6.5 1.14 0.15 1.45 7.1 1.05 0.16 1.34
N2a [35] 7.5 0.21 6.7 1.12 0.16 1.35 6.4 1.17 0.15 1.41 6.9 1.09 0.16 1.31
N3 [35] 7.4 0.21 6.7 1.11 0.16 1.34 6.2 1.19 0.15 1.43 6.7 1.10 0.16 1.33
N4 [35] 7.6 0.21 6.6 1.16 0.15 1.39 6.2 1.22 0.14 1.46 6.7 1.13 0.16 1.36

239
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Table A3. Cont.

exp exp
MTcr θcr Mthl4
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl4
cr
exp
θcr Mthl5
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl5
cr
exp
θcr Mthl6
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl6
cr
exp
θcr
Beam ◦ /m ◦ /m ◦ /m ◦ /m
kNm kNm Mthl4
Tcr θthl4
cr kNm Mthl5
Tcr θthl5
cr kNm Mthl6
Tcr θthl6
cr

A2 [36] 11.3 0.12 13.6 0.83 0.13 0.92 13.1 0.86 0.13 0.96 14.0 0.81 0.13 0.89
A3 [36] 12.2 0.12 13.9 0.87 0.13 0.95 13.2 0.92 0.12 1.00 14.3 0.85 0.13 0.92
A4 [36] 12.5 0.15 14.0 0.90 0.13 1.16 13.2 0.95 0.12 1.22 14.3 0.88 0.13 1.14
B3 [36] 8.8 0.15 12.2 0.72 0.14 1.05 11.6 0.76 0.13 1.10 12.6 0.70 0.14 1.01
B4 [36] 10.2 0.15 12.3 0.83 0.14 1.07 11.7 0.87 0.13 1.12 12.6 0.81 0.14 1.04
B5UR1 [37] 11.6 0.09 12.4 0.93 0.14 0.63 12.0 0.97 0.13 0.65 13.1 0.89 0.14 0.60
B9UR1 [37] 13.0 0.13 16.4 0.79 0.15 0.90 16.0 0.81 0.14 0.92 17.3 0.75 0.16 0.86
B12UR1 [37] 16.2 0.09 16.9 0.96 0.15 0.61 16.5 0.98 0.15 0.62 17.8 0.91 0.16 0.57
B14UR1 [37] 19.3 0.12 17.9 1.08 0.15 0.77 17.4 1.11 0.15 0.79 18.9 1.02 0.16 0.73
B12UR2 [37] 17.8 0.11 16.6 1.07 0.15 0.74 16.1 1.10 0.15 0.76 17.4 1.02 0.16 0.71
B12UR3 [37] 16.0 0.10 15.9 1.01 0.14 0.71 15.8 1.01 0.14 0.71 17.3 0.93 0.16 0.65
B12UR4 [37] 16.9 0.14 16.1 1.05 0.14 0.97 16.1 1.05 0.14 0.97 17.5 0.96 0.16 0.89
B12UR5 [37] 13.6 0.04 16.8 0.81 0.15 0.24 16.4 0.83 0.14 0.25 17.8 0.76 0.16 0.23
H-06-12 [38] 75.0 0.09 65.2 1.15 0.07 1.19 76.5 0.98 0.08 1.02 83.5 0.90 0.09 0.93
H-07-10 [38] 70.5 0.09 67.2 1.05 0.08 1.18 72.8 0.97 0.08 1.09 79.0 0.89 0.09 1.01
H-07-16 [38] 65.3 0.09 69.8 0.93 0.08 1.08 73.0 0.89 0.08 1.03 79.2 0.82 0.09 0.95
H-12-12 [38] 77.1 0.07 78.9 0.98 0.09 0.86 78.6 0.98 0.09 0.87 85.0 0.91 0.09 0.80
H-12-16 [38] 79.3 0.09 79.2 1.00 0.09 1.07 78.6 1.01 0.09 1.08 85.3 0.93 0.09 0.99
H-14-10 [38] 61.8 0.09 76.9 0.80 0.09 0.98 74.7 0.83 0.09 1.01 80.6 0.77 0.09 0.94
H-20-20 [38] 76.0 0.09 83.5 0.91 0.09 1.03 80.6 0.94 0.09 1.07 87.1 0.87 0.09 0.99
N-06-06 [38] 43.2 0.08 53.3 0.81 0.07 1.07 54.7 0.79 0.08 1.04 59.3 0.73 0.08 0.96
N-06-12 [38] 51.8 0.11 54.5 0.95 0.08 1.51 54.7 0.95 0.08 1.51 59.1 0.88 0.08 1.39
N-07-10 [38] 41.6 0.11 55.2 0.75 0.08 1.39 53.5 0.78 0.08 1.44 57.6 0.72 0.08 1.33
N-07-16 [38] 40.0 0.11 52.5 0.76 0.07 1.49 53.4 0.75 0.07 1.46 57.5 0.70 0.08 1.36
N-12-12 [38] 49.3 0.09 57.5 0.86 0.08 1.16 55.4 0.89 0.08 1.21 59.2 0.83 0.08 1.13
N-12-16 [38] 57.1 0.12 57.6 0.99 0.08 1.54 55.0 1.04 0.07 1.61 59.2 0.96 0.08 1.50
N-14-10 [38] 41.8 0.12 56.8 0.74 0.08 1.52 53.7 0.78 0.08 1.60 57.9 0.72 0.08 1.49
N-20-20 [38] 55.0 0.13 58.5 0.94 0.08 1.62 54.6 1.01 0.07 1.74 58.9 0.93 0.08 1.61
SW12-1 [39] 32.3 0.15 36.1 0.89 0.13 1.14 33.8 0.96 0.13 1.20 35.7 0.91 0.16 0.98
SW10-1 [39] 24.6 0.13 24.5 1.00 0.14 0.95 22.7 1.08 0.13 1.03 24.7 1.00 0.19 0.70
SW10-2 [39] 29.6 0.20 30.1 0.98 0.14 1.47 28.7 1.03 0.13 1.49 31.5 0.94 0.15 1.33
SW10-3 [39] 26.6 0.15 25.1 1.06 0.14 1.12 23.5 1.13 0.13 1.18 27.6 0.96 0.15 1.01
SW10-4 [39] 27.7 0.16 27.0 1.02 0.14 1.19 25.2 1.10 0.13 1.26 29.4 0.94 0.15 1.08
SW8-1 [39] 19.7 0.16 19.2 1.03 0.14 1.14 18.5 1.07 0.14 1.13 19.4 1.02 0.19 0.84
SW8-2 [39] 22.5 0.14 19.8 1.14 0.14 1.02 18.7 1.20 0.14 1.06 21.7 1.04 0.16 0.92
D3 [35] 15.2 0.08 7.9 1.92 0.05 1.55 7.9 1.92 0.05 1.50 9.3 1.62 0.06 1.27
D4 [35] 15.8 0.12 8.7 1.83 0.06 2.14 8.7 1.82 0.06 2.10 10.2 1.55 0.07 1.79
T0 [40] 49.8 0.06 38.1 1.31 0.03 2.09 37.9 1.32 0.03 1.99 43.2 1.15 0.03 1.79
T1 [40] 48.0 0.04 33.0 1.45 0.03 1.46 32.8 1.46 0.03 1.39 37.9 1.27 0.04 1.22
T2 [40] 52.8 0.10 33.0 1.60 0.03 3.32 32.8 1.61 0.03 3.16 37.9 1.39 0.04 2.78
T5 [40] 62.5 0.06 86.3 0.72 0.07 0.91 49.9 1.25 0.03 2.08 56.5 1.11 0.03 1.92
VH1 [41] 12.0 0.12 9.7 1.24 0.07 1.66 9.7 1.24 0.07 1.66 9.9 1.21 0.10 1.23
VH2 [41] 11.5 0.07 10.2 1.12 0.08 0.90 10.3 1.12 0.08 0.91 11.0 1.05 0.10 0.73
A2 [42] 109.5 0.06 112.0 0.98 0.06 1.13 66.9 1.64 0.03 2.54 76.6 1.43 0.03 2.27
A3 [42] 113.3 0.06 128.4 0.88 0.04 1.37 67.5 1.68 0.03 2.27 77.7 1.46 0.03 1.98
A4 [42] 120.9 0.06 75.2 1.61 0.02 2.60 74.5 1.62 0.03 2.44 86.2 1.40 0.03 2.14
A5 [42] 120.9 0.04 74.7 1.62 0.02 1.82 74.1 1.63 0.03 1.72 85.6 1.41 0.03 1.50
B2 [42] 116.7 0.04 131.8 0.89 0.04 1.25 84.5 1.38 0.03 1.70 97.5 1.20 0.03 1.49
B3 [42] 130.5 0.05 134.1 0.97 0.03 1.31 92.3 1.41 0.03 1.76 105.3 1.24 0.03 1.57
B4 [42] 142.9 0.07 99.0 1.44 0.03 2.76 96.4 1.48 0.03 2.76 109.9 1.30 0.03 2.46
B5 [42] 146.3 0.06 97.8 1.50 0.03 2.54 95.2 1.54 0.03 2.54 109.4 1.34 0.03 2.21
C2 [42] 124.5 0.05 126.5 0.98 0.03 1.49 97.4 1.28 0.03 1.83 96.3 1.29 0.04 1.38
C3 [42] 131.9 0.06 129.7 1.02 0.03 1.94 98.1 1.34 0.03 2.47 112.4 1.17 0.03 2.18
C4 [42] 132.6 0.05 102.1 1.30 0.03 2.02 100.1 1.32 0.03 1.95 116.0 1.14 0.03 1.69
C5 [42] 138.3 0.05 106.4 1.30 0.02 2.06 104.2 1.33 0.03 2.00 119.5 1.16 0.03 1.75
C6 [42] 139.1 0.05 103.4 1.34 0.03 2.10 101.7 1.37 0.03 2.04 117.0 1.19 0.03 1.78
A095c [26] 102.9 0.03 101.6 1.01 0.04 0.80 99.2 1.04 0.04 0.83 102.9 1.00 0.05 0.64
A120a [26] 89.8 0.05 86.8 1.03 0.04 1.15 85.7 1.05 0.04 1.18 86.4 1.04 0.04 1.11
B065b [26] 54.4 0.03 58.0 0.94 0.03 1.33 58.0 0.94 0.03 1.24 67.4 0.81 0.03 1.09
B080a [26] 65.2 0.03 70.3 0.93 0.02 1.32 69.9 0.93 0.03 1.26 79.7 0.82 0.03 1.13
B110a [26] 128.3 0.04 128.5 1.00 0.04 0.96 125.9 1.02 0.04 1.01 127.1 1.01 0.05 0.80
C065a [26] 91.7 0.03 128.2 0.72 0.03 0.83 89.0 1.03 0.03 1.07 101.0 0.91 0.03 0.99
C100a [26] 122.2 0.03 134.3 0.91 0.03 0.85 128.6 0.95 0.03 0.87 134.8 0.91 0.04 0.67
D075a [26] 90.1 0.03 121.9 0.74 0.03 0.84 95.3 0.95 0.03 1.00 109.8 0.82 0.03 0.90
D090a [26] 96.1 0.03 110.3 0.87 0.03 1.14 107.8 0.89 0.03 1.10 122.8 0.78 0.03 0.98

240
Materials 2021, 14, 1260

Table A4. Cracking torques and corresponding twists (smeared constitutive laws l7 to l8).
exp exp
MTcr θcr Mthl7
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl7
cr
exp
θcr Mthl8
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl8
cr
exp
θcr
Beam ◦ /m ◦ /m
kNm kNm Mthl7
Tcr θthl7
cr kNm Mthl8
Tcr kNm θthl8
cr

B3 [35] 20.1 0.12 21.5 0.94 0.11 1.18 24.6 0.82 0.12 1.03
B4 [35] 21.9 0.12 22.1 0.99 0.10 1.14 24.3 0.90 0.11 1.04
B5 [35] 22.6 0.14 22.8 0.99 0.10 1.33 24.7 0.91 0.11 1.23
B6 [35] 25.0 0.16 21.9 1.14 0.10 1.65 23.7 1.05 0.11 1.53
B7 [35] 20.2 0.11 20.2 1.00 0.10 1.06 23.9 0.84 0.12 0.90
B8 [35] 21.8 0.13 20.6 1.06 0.10 1.26 24.2 0.90 0.12 1.07
B9 [35] 19.6 0.11 21.9 0.90 0.11 0.99 24.7 0.79 0.12 0.88
C4 [35] 11.9 0.13 11.9 0.99 0.12 1.11 13.1 0.90 0.13 1.01
C5 [35] 14.0 0.17 11.8 1.18 0.12 1.42 12.8 1.10 0.13 1.32
C6 [35] 13.9 0.17 11.8 1.18 0.11 1.54 12.8 1.09 0.12 1.42
G3 [35] 27.1 0.10 30.5 0.89 0.09 1.02 35.0 0.77 0.11 0.88
G4 [35] 28.7 0.12 31.6 0.91 0.10 1.23 35.5 0.81 0.11 1.09
G5 [35] 29.5 0.11 30.9 0.95 0.09 1.23 34.2 0.86 0.10 1.11
G7 [35] 33.6 0.13 33.1 1.01 0.10 1.38 37.5 0.90 0.11 1.22
G8 [35] 33.6 0.12 32.1 1.05 0.10 1.28 35.3 0.95 0.11 1.16
I3 [35] 25.5 0.11 27.0 0.94 0.12 0.92 30.4 0.84 0.13 0.81
I4 [35] 28.0 0.12 27.4 1.02 0.11 1.08 30.3 0.92 0.13 0.97
I5 [35] 28.1 0.15 27.8 1.01 0.11 1.34 30.2 0.93 0.12 1.23
I6 [35] 27.5 0.13 28.3 0.97 0.11 1.13 29.9 0.92 0.12 1.07
J1 [35] 14.0 0.09 15.3 0.92 0.09 0.92 18.1 0.77 0.11 0.77
J2 [35] 17.1 0.12 15.3 1.11 0.09 1.36 17.6 0.97 0.11 1.18
J3 [35] 16.9 0.10 16.5 1.03 0.09 1.04 18.6 0.91 0.10 0.92
J4 [35] 18.0 0.11 16.4 1.09 0.09 1.22 18.1 0.99 0.10 1.10
K2 [35] 12.2 0.18 12.8 0.95 0.15 1.22 14.0 0.87 0.16 1.12
K3 [35] 12.4 0.19 12.4 1.01 0.14 1.40 13.1 0.95 0.15 1.32
K4 [35] 13.1 0.21 12.2 1.07 0.13 1.55 12.5 1.05 0.14 1.51
M1 [35] 19.2 0.11 21.9 0.88 0.11 0.99 25.4 0.76 0.12 0.86
M2 [35] 20.6 0.11 22.4 0.92 0.11 1.03 25.3 0.81 0.12 0.92
M3 [35] 20.7 0.12 21.1 0.98 0.10 1.17 23.4 0.88 0.11 1.06
M4 [35] 20.7 0.13 21.2 0.98 0.10 1.32 22.9 0.90 0.11 1.22
M5 [35] 21.7 0.12 22.0 0.99 0.10 1.19 23.1 0.94 0.11 1.13
M6 [35] 22.7 0.15 22.6 1.01 0.10 1.43 23.4 0.97 0.11 1.38
N1 [35] 7.6 0.13 7.1 1.07 0.17 0.77 8.0 0.95 0.19 0.68
N1a [35] 7.0 0.11 6.9 1.01 0.16 0.66 7.9 0.89 0.19 0.58
N2 [35] 7.4 0.22 7.3 1.02 0.17 1.30 8.0 0.93 0.18 1.19
N2a [35] 7.5 0.21 7.0 1.08 0.16 1.29 7.6 0.98 0.18 1.18
N3 [35] 7.4 0.21 7.0 1.06 0.17 1.28 7.6 0.97 0.18 1.18
N4 [35] 7.6 0.21 7.0 1.08 0.16 1.30 7.5 1.01 0.17 1.22
A2 [36] 11.3 0.12 13.8 0.82 0.13 0.91 15.9 0.71 0.15 0.79
A3 [36] 12.2 0.12 14.3 0.86 0.13 0.93 16.0 0.76 0.15 0.83
A4 [36] 12.5 0.15 14.4 0.87 0.13 1.13 15.8 0.79 0.15 1.03
B3 [36] 8.8 0.15 13.0 0.68 0.15 0.99 14.2 0.62 0.16 0.90
B4 [36] 10.2 0.15 13.0 0.78 0.15 1.01 14.0 0.73 0.16 0.93
B5UR1 [37] 11.6 0.09 13.0 0.89 0.14 0.60 14.8 0.79 0.16 0.53
B9UR1 [37] 13.0 0.13 17.2 0.76 0.16 0.86 19.7 0.66 0.18 0.75
B12UR1 [37] 16.2 0.09 17.8 0.91 0.16 0.58 20.2 0.80 0.18 0.51
B14UR1 [37] 19.3 0.12 18.8 1.02 0.16 0.73 21.5 0.90 0.18 0.64
B12UR2 [37] 17.8 0.11 17.4 1.03 0.16 0.71 19.9 0.89 0.18 0.62
B12UR3 [37] 16.0 0.10 17.5 0.91 0.16 0.64 19.5 0.82 0.18 0.58
B12UR4 [37] 16.9 0.14 18.0 0.94 0.16 0.87 19.7 0.86 0.18 0.80
B12UR5 [37] 13.6 0.04 18.0 0.75 0.16 0.22 20.0 0.68 0.18 0.20
H-06-12 [38] 75.0 0.09 85.0 0.88 0.09 0.92 94.2 0.80 0.10 0.83
H-07-10 [38] 70.5 0.09 77.1 0.91 0.09 1.03 89.5 0.79 0.10 0.89
H-07-16 [38] 65.3 0.09 80.3 0.81 0.09 0.94 87.5 0.75 0.10 0.86
H-12-12 [38] 77.1 0.07 87.0 0.89 0.10 0.78 96.3 0.80 0.11 0.71
H-12-16 [38] 79.3 0.09 86.5 0.92 0.09 0.98 94.6 0.84 0.10 0.89
H-14-10 [38] 61.8 0.09 78.8 0.78 0.09 0.96 90.5 0.68 0.10 0.83

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Materials 2021, 14, 1260

Table A4. Cont.

exp exp
MTcr θcr Mthl7
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl7
cr
exp
θcr Mthl8
Tcr
exp
MTcr θthl8
cr
exp
θcr
Beam ◦ /m ◦ /m
kNm kNm Mthl7
Tcr θthl7
cr kNm Mthl8
Tcr kNm θthl8
cr

H-20-20 [38] 76.0 0.09 89.7 0.85 0.10 0.96 96.2 0.79 0.10 0.89
N-06-06 [38] 43.2 0.08 57.1 0.76 0.08 1.00 67.4 0.64 0.09 0.85
N-06-12 [38] 51.8 0.11 60.5 0.86 0.08 1.36 66.5 0.78 0.09 1.24
N-07-10 [38] 41.6 0.11 56.3 0.74 0.08 1.36 64.9 0.64 0.09 1.18
N-07-16 [38] 40.0 0.11 58.4 0.68 0.08 1.33 64.0 0.63 0.09 1.22
N-12-12 [38] 49.3 0.09 60.5 0.81 0.08 1.10 66.8 0.74 0.09 1.00
N-12-16 [38] 57.1 0.12 59.9 0.95 0.08 1.48 65.8 0.87 0.09 1.35
N-14-10 [38] 41.8 0.12 56.5 0.74 0.08 1.52 64.1 0.65 0.09 1.34
N-20-20 [38] 55.0 0.13 61.2 0.90 0.08 1.55 64.7 0.85 0.09 1.47
SW12-1 [39] 32.3 0.15 38.7 0.84 0.15 1.04 41.3 0.78 0.16 0.97
SW10-1 [39] 24.6 0.13 26.1 0.94 0.15 0.87 27.8 0.88 0.16 0.82
SW10-2 [39] 29.6 0.20 32.1 0.92 0.15 1.34 34.6 0.86 0.16 1.24
SW10-3 [39] 26.6 0.15 26.6 1.00 0.15 1.04 28.7 0.93 0.16 0.96
SW10-4 [39] 27.7 0.16 28.9 0.96 0.15 1.09 30.3 0.92 0.15 1.04
SW8-1 [39] 19.7 0.16 21.1 0.93 0.16 0.97 21.9 0.90 0.16 0.98
SW8-2 [39] 22.5 0.14 21.1 1.07 0.15 0.94 22.7 0.99 0.17 0.87
D3 [35] 15.2 0.08 8.4 1.81 0.06 1.42 9.1 1.67 0.06 1.32
D4 [35] 15.8 0.12 9.4 1.69 0.06 1.94 10.0 1.58 0.06 1.82
T0 [40] 49.8 0.06 41.2 1.21 0.03 1.78 44.1 1.13 0.04 1.68
T1 [40] 48.0 0.04 34.9 1.38 0.03 1.29 38.8 1.24 0.04 1.15
T2 [40] 52.8 0.10 34.9 1.51 0.03 2.93 38.8 1.36 0.04 2.63
T5 [40] 62.5 0.06 53.1 1.18 0.03 1.92 59.5 1.05 0.04 1.71
VH1 [41] 12.0 0.12 10.1 1.19 0.08 1.60 11.8 1.02 0.09 1.37
VH2 [41] 11.5 0.07 11.4 1.01 0.09 0.82 12.4 0.93 0.09 0.76
A2 [42] 109.5 0.06 67.7 1.62 0.03 2.49 79.5 1.38 0.03 2.09
A3 [42] 113.3 0.06 69.1 1.64 0.03 2.17 80.0 1.42 0.03 1.87
A4 [42] 120.9 0.06 77.9 1.55 0.03 2.34 87.7 1.38 0.03 2.05
A5 [42] 120.9 0.04 78.4 1.54 0.03 1.61 87.0 1.39 0.03 1.44
B2 [42] 116.7 0.04 86.4 1.35 0.03 1.69 99.8 1.17 0.03 1.44
B3 [42] 130.5 0.05 96.6 1.35 0.03 1.66 108.8 1.20 0.03 1.47
B4 [42] 142.9 0.07 100.7 1.42 0.03 2.60 112.4 1.27 0.03 2.36
B5 [42] 146.3 0.06 100.0 1.46 0.03 2.42 110.6 1.32 0.03 2.17
C2 [42] 124.5 0.05 99.0 1.26 0.03 1.79 115.2 1.08 0.03 1.56
C3 [42] 131.9 0.06 102.9 1.28 0.03 2.33 116.0 1.14 0.03 2.04
C4 [42] 132.6 0.05 105.4 1.26 0.03 1.86 117.1 1.13 0.03 1.66
C5 [42] 138.3 0.05 109.5 1.26 0.03 1.88 122.1 1.13 0.03 1.67
C6 [42] 139.1 0.05 109.5 1.27 0.03 1.87 118.1 1.18 0.03 1.75
A095c [26] 102.9 0.03 100.2 1.03 0.04 0.82 120.2 0.86 0.05 0.68
A120a [26] 89.8 0.05 87.6 1.03 0.04 1.15 104.2 0.86 0.05 0.95
B065b [26] 54.4 0.03 62.0 0.88 0.03 1.16 66.8 0.81 0.03 1.07
B080a [26] 65.2 0.03 72.0 0.91 0.03 1.22 81.3 0.80 0.03 1.09
B110a [26] 128.3 0.04 128.6 1.00 0.04 0.99 152.2 0.84 0.05 0.82
C065a [26] 91.7 0.03 92.8 0.99 0.03 1.01 105.7 0.87 0.03 0.88
C100a [26] 122.2 0.03 133.1 0.92 0.03 0.84 153.1 0.80 0.04 0.72
D075a [26] 90.1 0.03 100.1 0.90 0.03 0.95 111.8 0.81 0.03 0.85
D090a [26] 96.1 0.03 110.6 0.87 0.03 1.09 126.0 0.76 0.03 0.94

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 materials
Article
Prediction of Compressive Strength of Fly Ash Based Concrete
Using Individual and Ensemble Algorithm
Ayaz Ahmad 1 , Furqan Farooq 1,2, * , Pawel Niewiadomski 2 , Krzysztof Ostrowski 3 , Arslan Akbar 4, * ,
Fahid Aslam 5 and Rayed Alyousef 5

1 Department of Civil Engineering, Abbottabad Campus, COMSATS University Islamabad,

Islamabad 22060, Pakistan; [email protected]
2 Faculty of Civil Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27,
50-370 Wroclaw, Poland; [email protected]
3 Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, 24 Warszawska Str., 31-155 Cracow, Poland;
[email protected]
4 Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
5 Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering in Al-Kharj, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University,
Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia; [email protected] (F.A.); [email protected] (R.A.)
* Correspondence: [email protected] (F.F.); [email protected] (A.A.)

Abstract: Machine learning techniques are widely used algorithms for predicting the mechanical
properties of concrete. This study is based on the comparison of algorithms between individuals
and ensemble approaches, such as bagging. Optimization for bagging is done by making 20 sub-
models to depict the accurate one. Variables like cement content, fine and coarse aggregate, water,
binder-to-water ratio, fly-ash, and superplasticizer are used for modeling. Model performance is
evaluated by various statistical indicators like mean absolute error (MAE), mean square error (MSE),
and root mean square error (RMSE). Individual algorithms show a moderate bias result. However,
Citation: Ahmad, A.; Farooq, F.; the ensemble model gives a better result with R2 = 0.911 compared to the decision tree (DT) and
Niewiadomski, P.; Ostrowski, K.; gene expression programming (GEP). K-fold cross-validation confirms the model’s accuracy and is
Akbar, A.; Aslam, F.; Alyousef, R. done by R2 , MAE, MSE, and RMSE. Statistical checks reveal that the decision tree with ensemble
Prediction of Compressive Strength
provides 25%, 121%, and 49% enhancement for errors like MAE, MSE, and RMSE between the target
of Fly Ash Based Concrete Using
and outcome response.
Individual and Ensemble Algorithm.
Materials 2021, 14, 794. https://
Keywords: concrete compressive strength; fly ash waste; ensemble modeling; decision tree; DT-
doi.org/10.3390/ma14040794
bagging regression; cross-validation python
Academic Editor: Dario De Domenico
Received: 28 November 2020
Accepted: 1 February 2021
Published: 8 February 2021 1. Introduction
Carbon dioxide produced from the cement industry has a malignant adamant effect
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral on environmental conditions [1]. Its utilization and excessive use in modern construction
with regard to jurisdictional claims in around the world produces greenhouse gases (GHG) [2]. Moreover, countless amounts of
published maps and institutional affil- gases are emitted during the production of cement due to the burning of natural resources
iations. and fossil fuels [3]. Annually, 4 billion tons of Portland cement (PC) is being produced
and approximately one ton of cement generates one ton of CO2 gas [4]. This huge amount
of carbon dioxide is a serious threat to the environment. The report shows that a 1.6%
increment (3.4% to 5%) of global CO2 gas discharge was observed from the year 2000 to
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. 2006. The cement industry contributes 18% of industrial greenhouse gases (GHG to the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. environment. This is due to the direct process-related activity, energy-related combustion,
This article is an open access article and remaining use of electricity, which is termed as indirect energy [5]. To overcome the
distributed under the terms and above-mentioned issue, a process of replacing the cement material with an alternative
conditions of the Creative Commons binder is of great research interest [6].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// The supplementary cementation materials (SCMs) can be used for many purposes,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
especially in the concrete industry. Their utilization in concrete gives a benignant effect
4.0/).

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Materials 2021, 14, 794

by reducing the percentage of CO2 gas emitted. SCMs used in the cement industry can be
industrial and agricultural waste products, which includes olive oil, bagasse ash, sugarcane,
rice husk ash, palm oil fuel ash, etc. However, commonly adopted and used in the con-
struction industry are silica fume, fly ash, and ground granulated blast furnace slag [7–9].
Their utilization in concrete reduces the malignant effect on the environment [10]. The
replacement of cement in concrete with the waste material helps both in the utilization
of the wastes and fulfills the increasing demand for the concrete. What is more, it has
been observed that the use of waste materials as pozzolanic in high-strength concrete
improves its strength and durability. This alternately helps minimize the impending
environmental degradation [11].
Concrete is stated as the second-highest used material after water in the world [12].
This is due to the intensive use of concrete in the construction industries and the field of
civil engineering. Concrete requires a comprehensive technique to produce. It is a mixture
of multiple materials like coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, water, binder, admixtures,
and supplementary raw materials [13]. The concrete matrix is the random distribution
of the previously mentioned variables [14]. The extensive use of it can be seen as a
building material around the globe. For the effective evaluation of the performance of
concrete according to the advanced design technologies, its mechanical properties must
be examined [14]. One of its supreme mechanical properties is its compressive strength,
which is alternately the sign of structural safety throughout life [15]. This remarkable
property of concrete can be affected by numerous factors, like particle size, water-to-
cement ratio, waste composition, and use of chemicals. However, casting concrete by
using the proper techniques in the laboratory and conducting experimental tests to find
the mechanical properties after the setting is quite a time-consuming task [14]. Moreover,
using the previously mentioned technique in the recent and modern period of life is quite
uneconomical. Thus, the modern methodologies of machine learning techniques can be
adapted to predict the desired result in advance [16]. The prediction of variables can be
done from regressions and machine learning models. These algorithm-based techniques
give a precise relation and predict the accurate model by the use of input variables [17].
Machine learning approaches are raising trends in the domain of civil engineering.
They are extensively used in forecasting the mechanical properties of concrete [18–21].
These techniques use extensive data to build a precise model. Their prediction accuracy is
dependent upon the data sample used in experimental work during casting of the specimen
or upon the literature study. Researchers use these algorithms for the prediction of the
mechanical properties of concrete. Javed et al. [22] predict the compressive strength of sug-
arcane bagasse ash (SCBA) concrete using gene expression programming (GEP). The author
used the experimental test for calibration and validation of the model. Similarly, Aslam
et al. [23] predict the compressive strength of high-strength concrete (HSC) by employing
GEP. The author used 357 data points and reported an adamant relationship between
the target and predicted values. Hosein et al. [24] forecast the mechanical properties of
recycled concrete (REC) by using an artificial neural network (ANN). Correspondingly,
Getahun et al. [25] forecast the strength of concrete incorporating waste materials using
ANN. The author concluded that ANN gives adamant relation with fewer errors. Similarly,
Qing et al. [26] predict the diffusion capability of chloride in reinforced concrete structures
with ANN. The result indicates better prediction by employing an individual algorithm
based on 653 data samples. Farooq et al. [15] predict the compressive nature of HSC by
developing two models with random forest (RF) and GEP. RF gives a robust performance
with precise correlation with strong predicted values. That machine learning algorithm is
not limited to predict only the compressive or tensile nature of concrete but can be used to
forecast any response in any engineering or data sciences domain. In turn, Ahmad et al. [27]
employ supervised machine learning (ML) algorithms to predict energy in the distinct
buildings. Similarly, Wang et al. [28] predict the COVID-19 response by employing different
ML-based algorithms. Cladera et al. [29] predict the response of a structural beam with
and without stirrups by using ANN. The author achieved a better response from modeled

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Materials 2021, 14, 794

than empirical relations. Similarly, Onyari et al. [30] reveal robust performance by utilizing
ANN to predict the flexural and compressive strength of modified mortar. Previously
mentioned examples show the overwhelming response of individual algorithms.
Recently, application of ensemble modeling is perceived as a chance for enhancement
of the model’s overall efficiency. It can be achieved due to taking a weak leaner to build
strong, predictive learners than individual learners [31]. Feng et al. [32] use ensemble
algorithm techniques for the prediction of failure mode classification and bearing capacity
of reinforced concrete (RC) structural element (column). Both models give robust perfor-
mance. However, bearing capacity is characterized by better correlation than failure mode
classification. Bui et al. [33] employed a modified firefly algorithm with ANN on high
performance concrete (HPC) and reported better performance of the model. Moreover,
Salamai et al. [34] report good accuracy of R2 = 0.9867 by using the RF algorithm. In turn,
Cai et al. [35] use various supervised machine ensemble algorithms for the prediction
of chloride penetration in the RC structure situated in a marine environment. Ensem-
ble models outclass individual algorithms to predict chloride penetration in RC. Hacer
et al. [36] present the comparative assessment of bagging as the ensemble approach for
high-performance concrete mix slump flow. Ensemble models with bagging were found to
be superior with regard to standalone approaches. Halil et al. [37] predict the strength of
HPC by employing three ensemble modeling approaches. The author used the decision
tree as a base learner for other models and found that the hybrid model outperforms with
the output result of R2 = 0.9368 among the several proposed models. Kermani et al. [38]
represents the performance of five soft, computing base learners for predicting concrete
corrosion in sewers. The author used both tree-based and network-based learners and
reported that RF ensemble learners give a better result with R2 = 0.872. These ensemble
approaches give an enhanced effect with robust performance of the overall models.
Taking the above into consideration, it may seem that ensemble learning models
have more favorable features and give better results than individual learning models. The
difference between individual and ensemble model is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Comparison between individual and ensemble approaches.

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Materials 2021, 14, 794

2. Research Significance
The aim of this study is to use the machine-learning algorithm with ensemble modeling
using Anaconda Python to predict the compressive strength of fly-ash-based concrete using
different algorithms. A decision tree with a bagging algorithm is used and optimization is
done by making 20 sub-models to give a strong outcome. A comparison is made with the
individual, ensemble algorithms, and with gene expression programming to give the best
model. Moreover, K-fold cross-validation and a statistical check are applied to evaluate the
model performance.

3. Data Description
The efficiency of the model is completely dependent upon the variables and the num-
ber of data samples used. The parameters used in models preparation in order to predict
the strength of concrete were taken from published literature [39] and are summarized
in Appendix A. Eight variables concerning composition of the concrete mixture and in-
cluding cement, fine and coarse aggregate, superplasticizer, water, waste material, age,
and a water-to-binder ratio were taken into analysis. The overall distribution in terms
of the relative frequency distribution is illustrated in Figure 2. The range of variables of
each parameter used in the study, with a minimum and maximum value, is illustrated
in Figure 3. Statistical descriptive analysis for the variables in terms of strength is listed
in Table 1.

Figure 2. Cont.

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Figure 2. Relative frequency distribution of variables, (a) cement, (b) fine aggregate, (c) coarse aggregate, (d) fly ash, (e) superplasticizer,
(f) age, (g) water, and (h) water-to-binder ratio.

Figure 3. Parameters range of variables with minimum and maximum values.

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Table 1. Statistical measures on variables.

Statistics Cem * FASH * W* SP * CA * FA * Age * W/B *

Mean 361.39 28.15 184.15 3.68 996.90 775.93 53.31 0.53
Standard Error 5.20 2.94 1.17 0.36 4.70 4.86 4.63 0.01
Median 336.25 0.00 189.00 0.00 987.80 781.95 28.00 0.58
Mode 349.00 0.00 192.00 0.00 1125.00 613.00 28.00 0.58
Standard Deviation 85.49 48.35 19.29 5.95 77.26 79.92 76.06 0.11
Sample Variance 7309.14 2337.79 372.16 35.39 5969.32 6387.59 5784.50 0.01
Kurtosis −0.50 −0.44 0.29 3.52 −0.19 −0.07 7.01 −0.04
Skewness 0.83 1.20 −0.38 1.77 −0.26 −0.67 2.62 −0.92
Range 293.20 142.00 88.00 28.20 324.00 305.80 364.00 0.43
Minimum 246.80 0.00 140.00 0.00 801.00 594.00 1.00 0.27
Maximum 540.00 142.00 228.00 28.20 1125.00 899.80 365.00 0.70
Sum 97,574.60 7601.70 49,720.30 993.40 269,163.90 209,502.40 14,394.00 143.89
Count 270.00 270.00 270.00 270.00 270.00 270.00 270.00 270.00
* CEM = Cement (kg/m3 ), FASH = Fly ash (kg/m3 ), W = Water (kg/m3 ), SP = Super plasticizer (kg/m3 ), CA = Coarse aggregate (kg/m3 ),
FA = Fine aggregate (kg/m3 ), and W/B = Water to binder.

4. Methodology
Individual and ensemble model techniques used to predict the properties in a limited
time that are of great interest. The accuracy level between the actual and prediction level is
typically obtained from the R2 value (ranges from 0–0.99). A high R2 value indicates the
satisfactory results of the selected technique. This study uses three approaches to predict
the compressive strength of concrete with waste material. A decision tree with ensemble
algorithms such as bagging with a learning rate of 0.9 and gene expression programming
is used. These techniques are selected due to their popularity among other algorithms.
The overall machine learning model methodology in the form of a diagram is illustrated
in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Machine learning model methodology.

4.1. Decision Tree

The decision tree is one of the supervised learning techniques used for categorizing
regression problems but is also commonly used for classification problems [40]. There are
classes inside the tree. However, if there is no class, then the regression technique can
predict the outcome by independent variables [37]. A decision tree is a tree-structured
classifier in which the inner nodes reflect the attribute of a database. Branches indicate the
conclusion rules, and every leaf node constitutes the outcome. The decision tree consists
of two nodes known as a decision node and a leaf node. Decision nodes have multiple
branches with the capability to make any decision, while leaf nodes do not have branches

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and are considered as the output of the decisions. It is known as a decision tree because it
has a similar nature to a tree that starts with the root node and distributes in the number of
branches, and reflects a tree-like structure [41]. The decision tree splits the data samples at
various points. The executed algorithm finds the error between the target and predicted
value at every divided point. The errors are calculated at every divided point, and the
variable with the least value for the fitness function is selected as a split point, and the
same procedure is repeated again.

4.2. Ensemble Bagging Approach

The ensemble technique is the concept of machine learning used to train numerous
models by applying a similar learning algorithm [42]. The ensemble involves a substantial
group of methods known as multi-classifiers. The group of hundreds or thousands of
learners with a common intent are joined together to fix the problem. Bagging is a parallel
type ensemble method that explains the variance of the prediction model by producing
supplementary data in the stage of training. This production is from irregular sampling
including substituting from the real set of data. Some of the observations can be repeated
by sampling with replacement in every new training data set. In bagging, every component
has an equal chance to appear in the new dataset. The force of prediction cannot be
enhanced by increasing the size of the training set. The variance can also be reduced
narrowly by tuning the forecast to an anticipated outcome. All these numbers of sets of the
given data are normally used to train other numbers of models. This ensemble of different
models uses the average of all the predictions from the other various models. In regression,
the prediction may be the mean or average of the predictions taken from the different
models [43]. The decision tree with bagging is tuned with 20 sub-models to obtain the
optimized value that gives an adamant output result.

4.3. Gene Expression Programming

Gene expression programming (GEP) is a computer programming-based algorithm
used to develop different models [44]. GEP, which is initially introduced by Ferreira [45], is
considered to be a natural development of genetic programming (GP). Multiple numbers
of genetic operators that are being used in genetic algorithms (GAs) can also be used in
GEP with the help of a few recommended changes. There are five main components of
GEP, namely, function set, terminal set, fitness function, control variables, and termination
condition. GEP works as a fixed length of character twine to explain the problems, which
are next defined as tree-like structures with different dimensions. This type of tree is known
as the GEP expression tree (ETs). Selection of individual chromosomes takes place and
then they are copied into the next generation, as per the fitness by roulette wheel sampling
with elitism [23]. This ensures the durability and replication of the best individual to the
next generation. Fluctuation in the population is shown by applying one or more genetic
operators (mutation, crossover, or rotation) on the given chromosomes. Among the number
of advantages of GEP, the formation of genetic diversity is remarkably simplified because
of the working of genetic operators at the chromosome level. This multi-genic approach of
GEP permits the natural selection of other complicated and complex programs composed
of numerous subprograms. GEP genes along with a function set and terminal set play a
vital role during the process [46].

4.4. K-Fold Cross-Validation and Statistical Measures

The model performance in terms of bias and variance is checked by employing K-fold
cross-validation. The data is divided into 10 stratified groups, which randomly distribute
the data into a training set and test set. This process takes one part of the overall data
into the test sample and the remaining into the training set, as illustrated in Figure 5.
The model’s overall efficiency by cross-validation is then tested by taking an average of
10 rounds by various errors. Similarly, the model evaluation is also done by using statistical

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indicators [23]. Three types of the indicator are used in our current study, which is listed
below (Equations (1)–(3)).
1 n
MAE = (1)
n i∑
| xi − x |
=1

1 n  2
MSE = ∑ y pred − yre f (2)
ni=1
v
u  2
y pred − yre f
u
t
RMSE = ∑ (3)
n
where:
• n = Total number of data samples,
• x, yre f = reference values in the data sample,
• xi , y pred = predicted values from models.

Figure 5. K-fold cross-validation algorithm [46].

5. Model Result
5.1. Decision Tree/Ensemble Model 1
MAE | |
The prediction of concrete strength by employing a decision tree yields an adamantly
strong relationship between targets to output strength, as depicted in Figure 6. It can be
1
seen that the individual model gives MSE a better
response with less variance, as illustrated
in Figure 6a. However, the decision tree with bagging gives precise performance than an
individual one, as illustrated in Figure 6d. This is due to an increase in model efficiency as
it takes several data to train the best model by using weak base learners [47]. The ensemble
model is optimized by making 20RMSE
sub-models, as depicted in Figure 6c. The zero number
shows the individual model, which is made by using the decision approach and shows
R2 = 0.812. After the ensemble approach, there is a significant enhancement in the overall
response of the model. Every model shows a surpass effect by giving an average score of
about R, 2 = 0.904
within 20 models. However, the 12th sub-model gives a prime result with
2 , as depicted in Figure 6c. Moreover, the model comparison in terms of errors
R = 0.911,
is depicted in Figure 6b,e. Decision tree (DT) with bagging enhances the model accuracy
by giving fewer errors. The test data shows that there is a 20.10% prediction capacity of
average errors by bagging than in the individual model. Besides, DT shows the minimum
and maximum error of 0 and 21.97 MPa, respectively. Similarly, DT with an ensemble
model shows the minimum and maximum error of 0.11, and 12.77 MPa, respectively. The
detailed result is shown in Table 2.

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Figure 6. Decision tree (DT) with the ensemble model. (a) Predicted regression model with DT. (b) Model errors between
targets and predictions from the DT technique. (c) Optimize model of ensemble. (d) Predicted regression model with
DT-bagging. (e) Model Errors between targets and predictions from the DT-bagging technique.

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Table 2. Evaluation of models.

Gene
Decision
Data DT Predic- Ensemble Expression GEP Pre- Ensemble GEP
Tree (DT) DT Errors
Points tions Prediction Programming dictions Errors Errors
Targets
(GEP) Targets
1 56.74 55.64 51.14 26.74 27.66 1.10 5.60 0.92
2 32.72 44.87 33.11 37.44 37.21 12.15 0.39 0.23
3 14.31 13.52 14.94 51.04 49.48 0.79 0.63 1.56
4 39.06 39.05 38.35 18.13 21.68 0.01 0.71 3.55
5 38.11 36.15 35.22 51.33 49.31 1.96 2.89 2.02
6 42.64 42.64 37.67 37.91 39.76 0.00 4.97 1.85
7 34.49 36.15 33.57 25.10 36.42 1.66 0.92 11.32
8 21.65 25.18 25.55 74.17 77.61 3.53 3.90 3.44
9 14.7 19.11 20.62 37.27 40.69 4.41 5.92 3.42
10 40.06 40.06 37.74 15.05 14.58 0.00 2.32 0.47
11 38.21 31.65 34.74 23.52 22.76 6.56 3.47 0.76
12 13.52 13.52 14.79 41.89 42.56 0.00 1.27 0.67
13 21.78 21.02 20.63 48.79 46.44 0.76 1.15 2.35
14 69.84 58.52 63.61 40.68 40.59 11.32 6.23 0.09
15 24 30.14 24.11 32.92 34.99 6.14 0.11 2.07
16 39.58 31.35 37.01 25.18 26.87 8.23 2.57 1.69
17 20.28 18.13 18.00 59.20 85.40 2.15 2.28 26.20
18 14.84 18.91 17.15 33.94 32.67 4.07 2.31 1.27
19 41.37 41.37 48.22 53.30 49.35 0.00 6.85 3.95
20 50.51 46.9 44.65 42.22 46.77 3.61 5.86 4.55
21 38.6 34.57 29.43 30.96 18.90 4.03 9.17 12.06
22 33.61 44.87 32.51 21.75 25.93 11.26 1.10 4.18
23 29.59 36.15 30.80 12.54 9.95 6.56 1.21 2.59
24 41.24 38.89 39.02 31.18 37.50 2.35 2.22 6.32
25 44.86 44.87 39.55 14.20 16.26 0.01 5.31 2.06
26 54.32 54.28 50.46 33.80 36.88 0.04 3.86 3.08
27 48.4 55.94 51.65 30.14 29.77 7.54 3.25 0.37
28 36.45 39 37.80 31.88 36.23 2.55 1.35 4.35
29 22.5 22.95 22.03 30.12 36.52 0.45 0.47 6.40
30 40.66 37.91 40.12 32.72 32.57 2.75 0.54 0.15
31 14.99 15.05 15.71 30.85 41.47 0.06 0.72 10.62
32 43.89 43.94 44.89 43.70 45.88 0.05 1.00 2.18
33 6.27 19.11 19.05 24.50 25.95 12.84 12.78 1.45
34 33.94 50.6 41.89 39.29 41.35 16.66 7.95 2.06
35 14.2 18.91 17.38 32.07 35.21 4.71 3.18 3.14
36 23.8 22.95 21.86 9.01 13.37 0.85 1.94 4.36
37 35.76 34.68 33.99 22.50 18.93 1.08 1.77 3.57
38 32.72 41.05 36.38 14.50 16.89 8.33 3.66 2.39
39 36.8 36.8 37.17 39.06 37.75 0.00 0.37 1.31
40 42.13 42.62 43.28 42.42 43.95 0.49 1.15 1.53
41 56.83 78.8 59.50 42.13 38.72 21.97 2.67 3.41
42 33.08 36.94 38.20 42.03 48.82 3.86 5.12 6.79
43 41.3 41.64 39.45 43.89 46.77 0.34 1.85 2.88
44 58.61 56.85 58.01 40.06 31.79 1.76 0.60 8.27
45 26.85 21.75 27.39 48.28 47.22 5.10 0.54 1.06
46 33.21 34.57 28.27 37.42 37.11 1.36 4.94 0.31
47 31.97 31.45 32.39 39.49 41.69 0.52 0.42 2.20
48 39.49 37.91 40.61 36.94 38.73 1.58 1.12 1.79
49 37.33 36.15 34.77 25.22 27.85 1.18 2.56 2.63
50 22.53 27.04 26.86 55.64 55.64 4.51 4.33 0.00
51 40.68 38.63 36.96 60.95 60.16 2.05 3.72 0.79
52 26.06 18.13 20.51 37.33 40.76 7.93 5.55 3.43
53 55.16 51.04 49.54 25.45 29.65 4.12 5.62 4.20
54 48.28 51.33 42.55 - - 3.05 5.73 -

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5.2. Gene Expression Programming

The performance of the model by GEP yielded a robust relationship between targets
and predicted, as illustrated in Figure 7. It can be seen that R2 by employing GEP is close
to 1. Moreover, Figure 7b represents the error distribution of the testing set with fewer
errors. Similarly, the predicted value shows a lower error to target values with a minimum,
maximum, and average value of 0.00 MPa, 26.20 MPa, and 3.48 MPa, respectively. Table 2
presents detailed results from the models.

Figure 7. Gene expression programming (GEP) model: (a) Predicted regression model. (b) Model Errors between targets
and predictions from the GEP model.

5.3. Evaluation of the Model by K-Fold and Statistical Checks

Cross-validation is a statistical practice used to evaluate or estimate the actual per-
formance of the machine learning models. It is necessary to know the performance of
the selected models. For this purpose, a validation technique is required to find the accu-
racy level of the model’s data. Shuffling of the data set randomly and splitting a dataset
into k-groups is required for the k-fold validation test. In the described study, data of
experimental samples are equally divided into 10 subsets. It uses nine out of ten subsets,
while the only subset is utilized for the validation of the model. The same approach of this
process is then repeated 10 times for obtaining the average accuracy of these 10 repetitions.
It is clarified widely that the 10-fold cross-validation method well represents the conclusion
and accuracy of the model performance [48].
Bias and a variance decrease for the test set can be checked by employing K-fold
cross-validation. The results of cross-validation are evaluated by a correlation coefficient
(R2 ), a mean absolute error (MAE), a mean square error (MSE), and a root mean square
error (RMSE), as illustrated in Figure 8. The ensemble model shows fewer errors and
better R2 as compared to GEP. The average R2 for ensemble modeling is 0.905 with a
maximum and minimum values of 0.84 and 0.96, as depicted in Figure 8a. Whereas the
GEP model shows an average R2 = 0.873 of ten folds with 0.76 and 0.95 for a minimum and
maximum correlation, respectively, as shown in Figure 8b. Each model shows fewer errors
for validation. The validation indicator result shows that ensemble means values of MAE,
MSE, and RMSE come to be 6.43 MPa, 6.66 MPa, and 2.55 MPa, respectively. Similarly, the
GEP model shows the same trend by showing fewer errors. The GEP model shows mean
values of 7.30 MPa, 9.60 MPa, and 3.06 MPa for MAE, MSE, and RMSE, respectively (see
Figure 8b). Table 3 represents the validation results of both models.

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Figure 8. Statistical indicators from K-Fold Cross-validation; (a) Ensemble model; (b) GEP model.

Table 3. Result of K-Fold Cross-validation.

Ensemble Model GEP Model

K Fold
R2 MAE MSE RMSE R2 MAE MSE RMSE
1 0.96 8.46 4.45 2.10 0.86 10.71 13.57 3.68
2 0.91 5.17 7.44 2.72 0.94 7.45 7.97 2.82
3 0.84 3.73 8.54 2.92 0.89 6.18 11.24 3.35
4 0.90 9.52 5.84 2.41 0.95 5.84 14.51 3.80
5 0.94 6.81 6.44 2.53 0.93 7.81 9.64 3.10
6 0.90 5.65 5.88 2.42 0.86 7.51 6.51 2.55
7 0.85 7.91 6.87 2.62 0.81 8.47 7.25 2.69
8 0.88 5.81 9.85 3.13 0.76 6.58 7.58 2.75
9 0.95 6.37 4.97 2.22 0.84 5.64 9.47 3.07
10 0.92 4.92 6.35 2.51 0.89 6.84 8.35 2.88

Statistical check is also applied to evaluate the model with regard to the testing results.
The statistical check is an indicator that shows the model response towards prediction, as
shown in Table 4. It can be seen that models depict bottom-most errors. However, the
ensemble model shows a 25% error reduction for MAE as compared to the individual
and GEP. Similarly, the bagging approach indicates the robust performance of the model.
Moreover, MSE and RMSE for strong learners show 121% and 49% enhancement in the
predictions by showing reduced errors between the target and predicted outcomes, as
shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Statistical checks.

Statistics MAE (MPa) MSE (MPa) RMSE (MPa)

DT 3.896 36.01 6.00
DT-BAG 3.113 16.28 4.03
GEP 3.478 29.91 5.46

Moreover, permutation feature importance via python is conducted to check the

influence of variables on strength, as depicted in Figure 9. These variables have a vital
influence on the prediction of compressive strength of concrete. The concrete age, cement,
and water-to-cement ratio have a significant influence on model analysis. Whereas water,
filler material (fly ash), superplasticizer, fine aggregate, and coarse aggregate have moderate
influences in making the model. Thus, it can be concluded that every parameter is crucial in

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the forecasting of the strength properties. However, cement, age, and the water-to-cement
ratio should be given more importance while casting of specimens.

Figure 9. Variable influence on compressive strength of fly ash-based concrete.

5.4. Limitation and Future Work

Despite the fact that, in the work, a thorough analysis based on a large number of
data points was conducted and an extensive machine learning algorithm with evaluation
was implemented, the limitations of work should be mentioned. Described in the paper
selection, an approach can be enhanced by using other appropriate methods. A clear
limitation of work is the number of data points equal to 270. The study is also limited to
predict only one result from various mechanical properties of concrete. Tensile strength,
durability, corrosion, toughness, and abrasion behavior of concrete is not considered in this
work. Other algorithm-based techniques, like artificial neural network (ANN), support
vector machine (SVM), gradient boosting, and AdaBoost may also be applied to the same
dataset for a better understanding. However, this research work does not only focus
on algorithm-based techniques but also involves the programming-based GEP, which
indicated the wide scope of this work.
Since concrete is the most widely used material after water on this earth, it is further
recommended that other properties of this material should be incorporated except for its
compressive strength. Machine learning techniques should also be used to predict the
environmental effects on concrete properties. To achieve high accuracy in the actual and
predicted results, the multi-stage genetic programming approach may also be used. It is
also recommended that models can be run for the concrete modified with different fibers
as: jute fibers, glass fibers, polypropylene fibers, nylon fibers, and steel fibers.

6. Conclusions
This study describes the supervised machine learning approaches with ensemble
modeling and gene expression programming to predict concrete strength. The following
points are drawn from the analysis:
1. A decision tree with ensemble modeling gives a robust performance compared to a
decision tree individually and with gene expression programming. The correlation
coefficient of R2 = 0.911 is reported for DT with bagging.

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2. Optimization of the model for the decision tree with bagging is done by making
twenty sub-models. Magnificent enhancement is observed from the twelve, which
shows R2 = 0.911 as compared to the individual model with R2 = 0.812.
3. Validation score is conducted by different indicators. Both models (DT with bagging
and GEP) show better anticipation for testing results.
4. Statistical analysis checks reveal that the decision tree with bagging shows enhance-
ment in model accuracy by minimizing the error difference between targeted and
predicted values.
To summarize, all applied algorithms show a significant effect on the model’s quality
by predicting the target response more accurately. As described in the paper, machine
learning approaches can save experimental time and predict the outcome by gathering
extensive data from laboratory and published papers. It can help the scientific society to
predict the properties and responses in the coming month or year.

Author Contributions: A.A. (Ayaz Ahmad)—conceptualization, modeling, and write up. F.F.—
visualization and review. P.N.—writing, validation and supervision. K.O.—funding and review. A.A.
(Arslan Akbar)—review, editing and visualization. F.A. and R.A.—data acquisition. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The APC was funded by Wroclaw University of Science and Technology.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this article is available within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declared no conflict of interest.

Appendix A
Table A1. Experimental variable data.

S. No. Cement Fly Ash Water Super Plasticizer Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Days W/C Strength
1 540 0 162 2.5 1040 676 28 0.3 79.99
2 540 0 162 2.5 1055 676 28 0.3 61.89
3 475 0 228 0 932 594 28 0.48 39.29
4 380 0 228 0 932 670 90 0.6 52.91
5 475 0 228 0 932 594 180 0.48 42.62
6 380 0 228 0 932 670 365 0.6 52.52
7 380 0 228 0 932 670 270 0.6 53.3
8 475 0 228 0 932 594 7 0.48 38.6
9 475 0 228 0 932 594 270 0.48 42.13
10 475 0 228 0 932 594 90 0.48 42.23
11 380 0 228 0 932 670 180 0.6 53.1
12 349 0 192 0 1047 806.9 3 0.55 15.05
13 475 0 228 0 932 594 365 0.48 41.93
14 310 0 192 0 971 850.6 3 0.62 9.87
15 485 0 146 0 1120 800 28 0.3 71.99
16 531.3 0 141.8 28.2 852.1 893.7 3 0.27 41.3
17 531.3 0 141.8 28.2 852.1 893.7 7 0.27 46.9
18 531.3 0 141.8 28.2 852.1 893.7 28 0.27 56.4
19 531.3 0 141.8 28.2 852.1 893.7 56 0.27 58.8
20 531.3 0 141.8 28.2 852.1 893.7 91 0.27 59.2
21 290.4 96.2 168.1 9.4 961.2 865 3 0.58 22.5
22 290.4 96.2 168.1 9.4 961.2 865 14 0.58 34.67
23 290.4 96.2 168.1 9.4 961.2 865 28 0.58 34.74
24 290.4 96.2 168.1 9.4 961.2 865 56 0.58 45.08
25 290.4 96.2 168.1 9.4 961.2 865 100 0.58 48.97
26 277.1 97.4 160.6 11.8 973.9 875.6 3 0.58 23.14
27 277.1 97.4 160.6 11.8 973.9 875.6 14 0.58 41.89
28 277.1 97.4 160.6 11.8 973.9 875.6 28 0.58 48.28

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Table A1. Cont.

S. No. Cement Fly Ash Water Super Plasticizer Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Days W/C Strength
29 277.1 97.4 160.6 11.8 973.9 875.6 56 0.58 51.04
30 277.1 97.4 160.6 11.8 973.9 875.6 100 0.58 55.64
31 295.7 95.6 171.5 8.9 955.1 859.2 3 0.58 22.95
32 295.7 95.6 171.5 8.9 955.1 859.2 14 0.58 35.23
33 295.7 95.6 171.5 8.9 955.1 859.2 28 0.58 39.94
34 295.7 95.6 171.5 8.9 955.1 859.2 56 0.58 48.72
35 295.7 95.6 171.5 8.9 955.1 859.2 100 0.58 52.04
36 251.8 99.9 146.1 12.4 1006 899.8 3 0.58 21.02
37 251.8 99.9 146.1 12.4 1006 899.8 14 0.58 33.36
38 251.8 99.9 146.1 12.4 1006 899.8 28 0.58 33.94
39 251.8 99.9 146.1 12.4 1006 899.8 56 0.58 44.14
40 251.8 99.9 146.1 12.4 1006 899.8 100 0.58 45.37
41 249.1 98.8 158.1 12.8 987.8 889 3 0.63 15.36
42 249.1 98.8 158.1 12.8 987.8 889 14 0.63 28.68
43 249.1 98.8 158.1 12.8 987.8 889 28 0.63 30.85
44 249.1 98.8 158.1 12.8 987.8 889 56 0.63 42.03
45 249.1 98.8 158.1 12.8 987.8 889 100 0.63 51.06
46 252.3 98.8 146.3 14.2 987.8 889 3 0.58 21.78
47 252.3 98.8 146.3 14.2 987.8 889 14 0.58 42.29
48 252.3 98.8 146.3 14.2 987.8 889 28 0.58 50.6
49 252.3 98.8 146.3 14.2 987.8 889 56 0.58 55.83
50 252.3 98.8 146.3 14.2 987.8 889 100 0.58 60.95
51 246.8 125.1 143.3 12 1086.8 800.9 3 0.58 23.52
52 246.8 125.1 143.3 12 1086.8 800.9 14 0.58 42.22
53 246.8 125.1 143.3 12 1086.8 800.9 28 0.58 52.5
54 246.8 125.1 143.3 12 1086.8 800.9 56 0.58 60.32
55 246.8 125.1 143.3 12 1086.8 800.9 100 0.58 66.42
56 275.1 121.4 159.5 9.9 1053.6 777.5 3 0.58 23.8
57 275.1 121.4 159.5 9.9 1053.6 777.5 14 0.58 38.77
58 275.1 121.4 159.5 9.9 1053.6 777.5 28 0.58 51.33
59 275.1 121.4 159.5 9.9 1053.6 777.5 56 0.58 56.85
60 275.1 121.4 159.5 9.9 1053.6 777.5 100 0.58 58.61
61 297.2 117.5 174.8 9.5 1022.8 753.5 3 0.59 21.91
62 297.2 117.5 174.8 9.5 1022.8 753.5 14 0.59 36.99
63 297.2 117.5 174.8 9.5 1022.8 753.5 28 0.59 47.4
64 297.2 117.5 174.8 9.5 1022.8 753.5 56 0.59 51.96
65 297.2 117.5 174.8 9.5 1022.8 753.5 100 0.59 56.74
66 376 0 214.6 0 1003.5 762.4 3 0.57 16.28
67 376 0 214.6 0 1003.5 762.4 14 0.57 25.62
68 376 0 214.6 0 1003.5 762.4 28 0.57 31.97
69 376 0 214.6 0 1003.5 762.4 56 0.57 36.3
70 376 0 214.6 0 1003.5 762.4 100 0.57 43.06
71 500 0 140 4 966 853 28 0.28 67.57
72 475 59 142 1.9 1098 641 28 0.3 57.23
73 505 60 195 0 1030 630 28 0.39 64.02
74 451 0 165 11.3 1030 745 28 0.37 78.8
75 516 0 162 8.2 801 802 28 0.31 41.37
76 520 0 170 5.2 855 855 28 0.33 60.28
77 528 0 185 6.9 920 720 28 0.35 56.83
78 520 0 175 5.2 870 805 28 0.34 51.02
79 385 136 158 20 903 768 28 0.41 55.55
80 500.1 0 200 3 1124.4 613.2 28 0.4 44.13
81 405 0 175 0 1120 695 28 0.43 52.3
82 516 0 162 8.3 801 802 28 0.31 41.37
83 475 0 162 9.5 1044 662 28 0.34 58.52

259
Materials 2021, 14, 794

Table A1. Cont.

S. No. Cement Fly Ash Water Super Plasticizer Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Days W/C Strength
84 500 0 151 9 1033 655 28 0.3 69.84
85 436 0 218 0 838.4 719.7 28 0.5 23.85
86 289 0 192 0 913.2 895.3 90 0.66 32.07
87 289 0 192 0 913.2 895.3 3 0.66 11.65
88 393 0 192 0 940.6 785.6 3 0.49 19.2
89 393 0 192 0 940.6 785.6 90 0.49 48.85
90 393 0 192 0 940.6 785.6 28 0.49 39.6
91 480 0 192 0 936.2 712.2 28 0.4 43.94
92 480 0 192 0 936.2 712.2 7 0.4 34.57
93 480 0 192 0 936.2 712.2 90 0.4 54.32
94 480 0 192 0 936.2 712.2 3 0.4 24.4
95 333 0 192 0 931.2 842.6 3 0.58 15.62
96 289 0 192 0 913.2 895.3 7 0.66 14.6
97 333 0 192 0 931.2 842.6 28 0.58 31.97
98 333 0 192 0 931.2 842.6 7 0.58 23.4
99 289 0 192 0 913.2 895.3 28 0.66 25.57
100 333 0 192 0 931.2 842.6 90 0.58 41.68
101 393 0 192 0 940.6 785.6 7 0.49 27.74
102 397 0 185.7 0 1040.6 734.3 28 0.47 33.08
103 382.5 0 185.7 0 1047.8 739.3 7 0.49 24.07
104 295.8 0 185.7 0 1091.4 769.3 7 0.63 14.84
105 397 0 185.7 0 1040.6 734.3 7 0.47 25.45
106 381.4 0 185.7 0 1104.6 784.3 28 0.49 22.49
107 295.8 0 185.7 0 1091.4 769.3 28 0.63 25.22
108 339.2 0 185.7 0 1069.2 754.3 7 0.55 21.18
109 381.4 0 185.7 0 1104.6 784.3 7 0.49 14.54
110 339.2 0 185.7 0 1069.2 754.3 28 0.55 31.9
111 382.5 0 185.7 0 1047.8 739.3 28 0.49 37.44
112 339 0 197 0 968 781 3 0.58 13.22
113 339 0 197 0 968 781 7 0.58 20.97
114 339 0 197 0 968 781 14 0.58 27.04
115 339 0 197 0 968 781 28 0.58 32.04
116 339 0 197 0 968 781 90 0.58 35.17
117 339 0 197 0 968 781 180 0.58 36.45
118 339 0 197 0 968 781 365 0.58 38.89
119 277 0 191 0 968 856 14 0.69 21.26
120 277 0 191 0 968 856 28 0.69 25.97
121 277 0 191 0 968 856 3 0.69 11.36
122 277 0 191 0 968 856 90 0.69 31.25
123 277 0 191 0 968 856 180 0.69 32.33
124 277 0 191 0 968 856 360 0.69 33.7
125 307 0 193 0 968 812 180 0.63 34.49
126 307 0 193 0 968 812 365 0.63 36.15
127 307 0 193 0 968 812 3 0.63 12.54
128 307 0 193 0 968 812 28 0.63 27.53
129 307 0 193 0 968 812 90 0.63 32.92
130 325 0 184 0 1063 783 7 0.57 17.54
131 325 0 184 0 1063 783 28 0.57 30.57
132 275 0 183 0 1088 808 7 0.67 14.2
133 275 0 183 0 1088 808 28 0.67 24.5
134 300 0 184 0 1075 795 7 0.61 15.58
135 300 0 184 0 1075 795 28 0.61 26.85
136 375 0 186 0 1038 758 7 0.5 26.06
137 375 0 186 0 1038 758 28 0.5 38.21

260
Materials 2021, 14, 794

Table A1. Cont.

S. No. Cement Fly Ash Water Super Plasticizer Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Days W/C Strength
138 400 0 187 0 1025 745 28 0.47 43.7
139 400 0 187 0 1025 745 7 0.47 30.14
140 350 0 186 0 1050 770 7 0.53 20.28
141 350 0 186 0 1050 770 28 0.53 34.29
142 310 0 192 0 1012 830 3 0.62 11.85
143 310 0 192 0 1012 830 7 0.62 17.24
144 310 0 192 0 1012 830 28 0.62 27.83
145 310 0 192 0 1012 830 90 0.62 35.76
146 310 0 192 0 1012 830 120 0.62 38.7
147 331 0 192 0 1025 821 3 0.58 14.31
148 331 0 192 0 1025 821 7 0.58 17.44
149 331 0 192 0 1025 821 28 0.58 31.74
150 331 0 192 0 1025 821 90 0.58 37.91
151 331 0 192 0 1025 821 120 0.58 39.38
152 349 0 192 0 1056 809 3 0.55 15.87
153 349 0 192 0 1056 809 7 0.55 9.01
154 349 0 192 0 1056 809 28 0.55 33.61
155 349 0 192 0 1056 809 90 0.55 40.66
156 349 0 192 0 1056 809 120 0.55 40.86
157 296 0 186 0 1090 769 7 0.63 18.91
158 296 0 186 0 1090 769 28 0.63 25.18
159 297 0 186 0 1040 734 7 0.63 30.96
160 480 0 192 0 936 721 28 0.4 43.89
161 480 0 192 0 936 721 90 0.4 54.28
162 397 0 186 0 1040 734 28 0.47 36.94
163 281 0 186 0 1104 774 7 0.66 14.5
164 281 0 185 0 1104 774 28 0.66 22.44
165 500 0 200 0 1125 613 1 0.4 12.64
166 500 0 200 0 1125 613 3 0.4 26.06
167 500 0 200 0 1125 613 7 0.4 33.21
168 500 0 200 0 1125 613 14 0.4 36.94
169 500 0 200 0 1125 613 28 0.4 44.09
170 540 0 173 0 1125 613 7 0.32 52.61
171 540 0 173 0 1125 613 14 0.32 59.76
172 540 0 173 0 1125 613 28 0.32 67.31
173 540 0 173 0 1125 613 90 0.32 69.66
174 540 0 173 0 1125 613 180 0.32 71.62
175 540 0 173 0 1125 613 270 0.32 74.17
176 350 0 203 0 974 775 7 0.58 18.13
177 350 0 203 0 974 775 14 0.58 22.53
178 350 0 203 0 974 775 28 0.58 27.34
179 350 0 203 0 974 775 56 0.58 29.98
180 350 0 203 0 974 775 90 0.58 31.35
181 350 0 203 0 974 775 180 0.58 32.72
182 385 0 186 0 966 763 1 0.48 6.27
183 385 0 186 0 966 763 3 0.48 14.7
184 385 0 186 0 966 763 7 0.48 23.22
185 385 0 186 0 966 763 14 0.48 27.92
186 385 0 186 0 966 763 28 0.48 31.35
187 331 0 192 0 978 825 180 0.58 39
188 331 0 192 0 978 825 360 0.58 41.24
189 349 0 192 0 1047 806 3 0.55 14.99
190 331 0 192 0 978 825 3 0.58 13.52
191 382 0 186 0 1047 739 7 0.49 24
192 382 0 186 0 1047 739 28 0.49 37.42

261
Materials 2021, 14, 794

Table A1. Cont.

S. No. Cement Fly Ash Water Super Plasticizer Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Days W/C Strength
193 382 0 186 0 1111 784 7 0.49 11.47
194 281 0 186 0 1104 774 28 0.66 22.44
195 339 0 185 0 1069 754 7 0.55 21.16
196 339 0 185 0 1069 754 28 0.55 31.84
197 295 0 185 0 1069 769 7 0.63 14.8
198 295 0 185 0 1069 769 28 0.63 25.18
199 296 0 192 0 1085 765 7 0.65 14.2
200 296 0 192 0 1085 765 28 0.65 21.65
201 296 0 192 0 1085 765 90 0.65 29.39
202 331 0 192 0 879 825 3 0.58 13.52
203 331 0 192 0 978 825 7 0.58 16.26
204 331 0 192 0 978 825 28 0.58 31.45
205 331 0 192 0 978 825 90 0.58 37.23
206 349 0 192 0 1047 806 7 0.55 18.13
207 349 0 192 0 1047 806 28 0.55 32.72
208 349 0 192 0 1047 806 90 0.55 39.49
209 349 0 192 0 1047 806 180 0.55 41.05
210 349 0 192 0 1047 806 360 0.55 42.13
211 302 0 203 0 974 817 14 0.67 18.13
212 302 0 203 0 974 817 180 0.67 26.74
213 525 0 189 0 1125 613 180 0.36 61.92
214 500 0 200 0 1125 613 90 0.4 47.22
215 500 0 200 0 1125 613 180 0.4 51.04
216 500 0 200 0 1125 613 270 0.4 55.16
217 540 0 173 0 1125 613 3 0.32 41.64
218 339 0 185 0 1060 754 28 0.55 31.65
219 393 0 192 0 940 758 3 0.49 19.11
220 393 0 192 0 940 758 28 0.49 39.58
221 393 0 192 0 940 758 90 0.49 48.79
222 382 0 185 0 1047 739 7 0.48 24
223 382 0 185 0 1047 739 28 0.48 37.42
224 310 0 192 0 970 850 7 0.62 14.99
225 310 0 192 0 970 850 28 0.62 27.92
226 310 0 192 0 970 850 90 0.62 34.68
227 310 0 192 0 970 850 180 0.62 37.33
228 310 0 192 0 970 850 360 0.62 38.11
229 525 0 189 0 1125 613 3 0.36 33.8
230 525 0 189 0 1125 613 7 0.36 42.42
231 525 0 189 0 1125 613 14 0.36 48.4
232 525 0 189 0 1125 613 28 0.36 55.94
233 525 0 189 0 1125 613 90 0.36 58.78
234 525 0 189 0 1125 613 270 0.36 67.11
235 322 0 203 0 974 800 14 0.63 20.77
236 322 0 203 0 974 800 28 0.63 25.18
237 322 0 203 0 974 800 180 0.63 29.59
238 302 0 203 0 974 817 28 0.67 21.75
239 397 0 185 0 1040 734 28 0.47 39.09
240 480 0 192 0 936 721 3 0.4 24.39
241 522 0 146 0 896 896 7 0.28 50.51
242 522 0 146 0 896 896 28 0.28 74.99
243 374 0 190 7 1013 730 28 0.51 39.05
244 305 100 196 10 959 705 28 0.64 30.12
245 298 107 186 6 879 815 28 0.62 42.64
246 318 126 210 6 861 737 28 0.66 40.06
247 356 142 193 11 801 778 28 0.54 40.87

262
Materials 2021, 14, 794

Table A1. Cont.

S. No. Cement Fly Ash Water Super Plasticizer Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Days W/C Strength
248 314 113 170 10 925 783 28 0.54 38.46
249 321 128 182 11 870 780 28 0.57 37.26
250 298 107 210 11 880 744 28 0.7 31.87
251 322 116 196 10 818 813 28 0.61 31.18
252 313 113 178 8 1002 689 28 0.57 36.8
253 326 138 199 11 801 792 28 0.61 40.68
254 336 0 182 3 986 817 28 0.54 44.86
255 298 107 164 13 953 784 28 0.55 35.86
256 313 0 178 8 1000 822 28 0.57 25.1
257 313.3 113 178.5 8 1001.9 688.7 28 0.57 36.8
258 326.5 137.9 199 10.8 801.1 792.5 28 0.61 38.63
259 336.5 0 181.9 3.4 985.8 816.8 28 0.54 44.87
260 298.1 107.5 163.6 12.8 953.2 784 28 0.55 35.87
261 312.7 0 178.1 8 999.7 822.2 28 0.57 25.1
262 374.3 0 190.2 6.7 1013.2 730.4 28 0.51 39.06
263 304.8 99.6 196 9.8 959.4 705.2 28 0.64 30.12
264 298.1 107 186.4 6.1 879 815.2 28 0.63 42.64
265 317.9 126.5 209.7 5.7 860.5 736.6 28 0.66 40.06
266 355.9 141.6 193.3 11 801.4 778.4 28 0.54 40.87
267 313.8 112.6 169.9 10.1 925.3 782.9 28 0.54 38.46
268 321.4 127.9 182.5 11.5 870.1 779.7 28 0.57 37.27
269 298.2 107 209.7 11.1 879.6 744.2 28 0.7 31.88
270 322.2 115.6 196 10.4 817.9 813.4 28 0.61 31.18

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 materials
Article
Long-Term Concrete Shrinkage Influence on the Performance of
Reinforced Concrete Structures
Alinda Dey 1, * , Akshay Vijay Vastrad 1 , Mattia Francesco Bado 1,2 , Aleksandr Sokolov 3 and
Gintaris Kaklauskas 1

1 Department of Reinforced Concrete Structures and Geotechnics, Vilnius Tech University (VGTU),
Saulatekio al. 11, 10221 Vilnius, Lithuania; [email protected] (A.V.V.);
[email protected] (M.F.B.); [email protected] (G.K.)
2 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Catalonia (UPC),
c/Jordi Girona 1-3, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
3 Laboratory of Innovative Building Structures, Vilnius Tech University (VGTU), Saulatekio al. 11,
10221 Vilnius, Lithuania; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The contribution of concrete to the tensile stiffness (tension stiffening) of a reinforced
concrete (RC) member is a key governing factor for structural serviceability analyses. However,
among the current tension stiffening models, few consider the effect brought forth by concrete
shrinkage, and none studies take account of the effect for very long-term shrinkage. The present work
intends to tackle this exact issue by testing multiple RC tensile elements (with different bar diameters
and reinforcement ratios) after a five-year shrinking time period. The experimental deformative and
tension stiffening responses were subjected to a mathematical process of shrinkage removal aimed
at assessing its effect on the former. The results showed shrinkage distinctly lowered the cracking
load of the RC members and caused an apparent tension stiffening reduction. Furthermore, both of
these effects were exacerbated in the members with higher reinforcement ratios. The experimental
and shrinkage-free behaviors of the RC elements were finally compared to the values predicted by
Citation: Dey, A.; Vastrad, A.V.;
the CEB-fib Model Code 2010 and the Euro Code 2. Interestingly, as a consequence of the long-term
Bado, M.F.; Sokolov, A.; Kaklauskas, shrinkage, the codes expressed a smaller relative error when compared to the shrinkage-free curves
G. Long-Term Concrete Shrinkage versus the experimental ones.
Influence on the Performance of
Reinforced Concrete Structures. Keywords: concrete; reinforced concrete; shrinkage; tension stiffening; concrete cracking
Materials 2021, 14, 254.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14020254

Received: 11 December 2020 1. Introduction

Accepted: 4 January 2021 1.1. Theoretical Background
Published: 6 January 2021
The continuous concrete consumption growth across the globe (from buildings to
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu-
bridges, from dams to power plants, etc.) has led to an increased awareness over its
tral with regard to jurisdictional clai-
behavior at both earlier and later stages of its structural life-cycle. Despite such, its most
ms in published maps and institutio- common application, reinforced concrete (RC), is characterized by a complex nonlinear
nal affiliations. behavior that has still not been wholly captured. Amongst its most relevant issues, its
time-dependent behavior (concrete shrinkage and creep) is still abundantly in need of
investigation. This research is of crucial importance for a proper design of RC structures,
as shrinkage and creep may critically affect their stress distribution when subject to a load,
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li- thus altering its deformation behavior [1,2]. Indeed, the negligence of these phenomena
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. can potentially lead to harsh structural consequences such as member shortening, excessive
This article is an open access article
deflection, and early cracking [3,4].
distributed under the terms and con-
Generally, we refer to concrete shrinkage as the reduction of concrete volume due
ditions of the Creative Commons At-
to the evaporation of moisture stored in its gel pores in unsaturated air environments
tribution (CC BY) license (https://
and with no applied stress [5]. Whilst the largest amount of compressive deformations
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
occurs in the short term (due to the withdrawal of water from capillary pores caused by
4.0/).

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Materials 2021, 14, 254

the hydration of the previously unhydrated cement [6,7]), shrinkage keeps occurring along
all the service life of the structure, but at a considerably reduced rate [8]. Shrinkage in
concrete is influenced by several factors such as temperature, humidity, time, mix design,
material characteristics, curing processes, and specimen geometry. Indeed, when dealing
with larger structure sizes (skyscraper columns and long-span bridge beams amongst
others), shrinkage becomes a predominant structural deformation parameter [9,10]. The
observation and monitoring of this phenomenon was recently achieved with Fiber Bragg
Grating (FBG) [11] and the cutting edge monitoring technology represented by distributed
optical fiber sensors (DOFS) [12].
The shrinkage restraint of such a phenomenon induced by embedded elements (rein-
forcement bars in the case of RC structures) causes the compression of the latter and the
rise of tensile stresses in the concrete surrounding it. This is aggravated by the nonuniform
shrinkage occurring inside a member due to its nonuniform moisture distribution. The
tensile stresses of the concrete, however, are relieved by the presence of the tensile creep
phenomenon [13]. The latter can be defined as the slow and gradual deformation of the
material under the continuous influence of mechanical stresses (such as the one induced by
concrete shrinkage), leading, in our case, to the relaxation of the concrete. The impact of
creep on shrinkage strain is dependent upon the member size, and for small sections (as
the ones presented in the current article), it can be assumed null [14].
The consequences that restrained shrinkage brings to the table should be properly
taken in consideration when designing an RC structure. First, among the shrinkage-
restraint issues is the reduction of the tensile capacity of concrete [15] and thus the lowering
of the cracking load of the structure. Secondly, if the tensile strength of concrete is to be
surpassed, the development of cracks will be initiated, thus facilitating the corrosion of
the reinforcement if the former is to occur in a harsh and chemically aggressive environ-
ment. This obviously would negatively influence the durability and serviceability of the
structure [16–18]. Finally, it has been observed [19–21] that shrinkage negatively affects the
tension stiffening potential pool of the structure.
Tension stiffening is representative of the contribution of the concrete to the stiffness
and tensile strength of an RC member. Indeed, in both the elastic and postcracking phases,
the concrete surrounding the rebar (the latter being situated between consecutive cracks in
the second phase) relieves the latter of a certain amount of tensile stress. This phenomenon,
occurring through the bond stress present between concrete and steel [22], allows an RC
member to carry an additional load and its bare rebar counterpart [23,24] (thus named as
tension stiffening). The latter is measured by subtracting the bare steel response from the
measured member response (assuming they share the same origin).
Tension stiffening is indicated as a governing parameter for the crack resistance (in the
elastic phase [25]) and deformations (later reported in [26,27]) of an RC structure. Indeed,
the incorporation of the tension stiffening effect in the structural analysis of RC members
makes their behavioral predictions more realistic [19] and compatible with other analyses
such as the layered beam section one and the smeared finite element one [28,29].
Abundant research on the topic both in the previous century [30] and in the current
one [31,32] has derived multiple tension stiffening relationships based on different assump-
tions and testing methodologies [33–35]. Worth of mention are the ones presented in the
Euro Code 2 [36] (henceforth referred to as EC2) and the CEB-fib Model Code 2010 [37]
(henceforth referred to as MC2010). It should be noted that the deformative response
of the former has been found to be particularly stiff, especially for small reinforcement
ratios [38], whereas the latter also overestimates the member stiffness only at advance
loading stages [39]. However, shrinkage and creep accompany most of the abovemen-
tioned proposed tension stiffening relationships and thus were unaccounted for in their
formulation, except for Bischoff [2] and Kaklauskas et al. [40] who derived shrinkage-free
tension stiffening laws.
As foreshadowed earlier, neglecting the effects of shrinkage in an RC member response
leads to a perceived reduction in the cracking strength of concrete and to a perceived

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influence of the reinforcement ratio on tension stiffening. According to Bischoff [2], these
issues grow proportionally with the reinforcement ratio. Indeed, for the same amount
of shrinkage, the apparent loss of tension stiffening becomes worse, as the reinforcing
percentage increases (becoming unneglectable beyond 1%). Instead, as observed by other
authors [35], once the shrinkage effect is removed, the tension stiffening appears to be
independent from the reinforcement ratio. For all the above reasons, it is crucial to assess
tension stiffening independently from the effect of shrinkage.
It should be mentioned that in most of the aforementioned experimental investigations,
the shrinkage effect was studied for short-term shrinkage only (just few days). As a matter
of fact, no experimental campaign studying the effect of long-term shrinkage on the tension
stiffening of RC members has been reported. The present article, instead, sets itself this
goal precisely.
In order to achieve it, an experimental campaign was designed and performed encom-
passing 14 RC tensile elements (RC ties) that cured during a time of 1947 days (5.3 years).
It should be mentioned that RC ties are often used to illustrate cracking, deformation, and
bond behavior of RC structures due to their simplicity and reasonably good representation
of the internal distribution of forces and strains in the tensile zones of RC structures [40]
(such as the one of an RC beam). After having reported the experimental load–strain
curves of RC ties, the shrinkage influence on their mechanical response was mathematically
extrapolated and both experimental and shrinkage-free results were finally compared with
the tension stiffening predictions of the EC2 and the MC2010. This should help assess the
performance of the codes when long-term concrete behavior with a magnitude of 5.3 years
is concerned.
The following chapter will elucidate the well-established steps that need to be under-
taken in order to remove the effect of shrinkage from tension stiffening readings.

1.2. Theoretical Background on the Assessment of the Shrinkage-Free Tension

Stiffening Phenomenon
Considering an RC tie subjected to an external tensile load P, the latter is shared
among the internal forces of concrete Nc and steel Ns, as in Equation (1) (being these two
defined in Equations (2) and (3), respectively):

P = Nc + Ns (1)

Nc = σct Ac (2)
Ns = As Es εs (3)
where σct is the average tensile stress in the concrete, Ac and As are the cross-sectional
areas of concrete and steel, respectively, Es is the modulus of elasticity of steel, and εs is the
average steel strain. Thus, σct can be derived as per Equation (4):

P − εs Es As
σct = (4)
Ac

The two key parameters for the derivation of tension stiffening relations are the
average tensile stress in the concrete σct and the average member strain εm (extracted from
an RC tie test). In the past, although the predicted deformative behavior of RC structures
usually ignored shrinkage strains, this has the potential to yield flawed assessments of
their stress–strain behavior, crack resistance, and carrying capacity. Therefore, the present
article makes the removal of the effect of shrinkage one of its priorities and the process
with which this is achieved is detailed in the following.
Bischoff [2] addresses the issue with a unique method on the grounds of which the
present work is based. The model has three origins (presented graphically in Figure 1):

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(1) “Assumed origin O” which is the starting point of an RC tie test whenever the concrete
shrinkage effects are ignored, which is how the majority of tests have been up until
the present);
(2) “Experimental origin Oexp ” which identifies the starting point of the RC tie test (ex-
ternal load P = 0) except this time acknowledging the compressive effect of shrinkage
on the member strains (henceforth referred to as εm,sh ) as in Figure 1;
(3) “Shrinkage-free origin O*” which identifies the true origin of the RC tie test. This
time, shrinkage elimination does not apply only to the deformative response but also
to the applied load. Indeed, the initial aftermath of the application of an external load
P is simply the compensation of the abovementioned shrinkage-induced compression,
henceforth referred to as Psh (as in Figure 1).

Figure 1. Shrinkage effect on the tension stiffening response of reinforced concrete (RC) ties.

Here, Psh is the fictitious compressive force (defined in Equation (5)) introduced to
represent the effect of the free shrinkage strain (εsh ) of the concrete on the behavior of RC
members occurring in the former prior to the loading stage:

Psh = As Es εsh (5)

In this study, the free concrete shrinkage strains εsh of the members were calculated as
per the codal provisions, in particular according to the EC2 and the MC2010. On the latter
two, it was observed [38] that the EC2 estimates higher free shrinkage strains than the
MC2010 for higher specimen sections whilst, for smaller ones (as is the case for the present
experimental campaign), the two are quite close. Furthermore, in both standards, the total
shrinkage is divided into two components, namely autogenous and drying shrinkage, the
second of which is particularly sensible to the environmental humidity in which the drying
occurs. Since the specimens of the present study were kept in dry condition for a long time
(1947 days), the amount of consequent shrinkage strain was significant.
The free shrinkage also causes an initial member shortening ε m,sh (expressed in
Equation (6)) of which the inclusion would lead to an offset between the experimental
response and the bare rebar response, as visible in Figure 1:

Es As εsh
ε m,sh = . (6)
Es As + Ec Ac

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Therefore, from a graphical point of view, in order to eliminate the shrinkage effect
from the tension stiffening behavior of RC elements, the origin of the load–displacement
diagram can simply be shifted downwards in order to coincide with the shrinkage-free
origin O*. Instead, from a mathematical point of view, in order to obtain the shrinkage free
load P∗ , Psh can simply be subtracted from the experimental tensile force applied on the
member Pexp (Equation (7)):
P∗ = Pexp − Psh (7)
The same procedure can be applied for the calculation of the shrinkage-free average
member strain ε m ∗ as per Equation (8):

εs ∗ = εexp − ε m,sh (8)

Figure 1 also graphically displays the shrinkage-induced apparent reduction in the

cracking load of the RC member (Pcr < Pcr * ), where Pcr and Pcr * are the cracking loads
of the same RC member overlooking the shrinkage effect and eliminating the calculated
shrinkage from the experimentally obtained load–displacement response, respectively.

2. Experimental Campaign
The experimental campaign, which was the topic of the present article, consisted
in the testing of 14 RC ties (visible in Figure 2a), which varied in both geometry and
mechanical characteristics.

Figure 2. Photographs of the experimental test displaying the RC ties (a) and the rib pattern difference between S500 and
S800 rebars (b). (c) An illustration of the RC ties to clarify their dimensional characteristics. (d) The RC tie clamping and
testing by means of a universal testing machine (UTM).

Table 1 details the concrete prism dimensions of the members (in combination with
Figure 2c) and the characteristics of the embedded deformed steel rebars (diameter Øs and
resulting reinforcement ratio ρs ).

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Table 1. Geometrical and mechanical characteristics of the specimens.

Specimen Number of h×b×L Φs ρs fcm Ec fsy Es

Assigned Code Samples mm mm % MPa MPa MPa MPa
T_12_500 4 100 × 100 × 655 12 1.13 198,900
500
T_10_500 2 65 × 65 × 650 10 1.86 208,400
47.6 32,857
T_12_800 3 100 × 100 × 655 12 1.13 190,000
800
T_10_800 5 65 × 65 × 650 10 1.86 198,700

In Table 1, every member was assigned a code, where the first numerical digit was
indicative of the embedded rebar diameter whilst the second represented its steel grade.
The rebars were positioned longitudinally along the centroid axis of the RC tie, and in
order to ensure a proper clamping during the test, their lengths were designed in such a
manner that they extended beyond the concrete prism of 100 mm on both extremities (as in
Figure 2c).
The members were produced with a single concrete batch using CEM II\A-LL 42.5 N
cement and the PowerFlow 3100 superplasticizer. They were dried in an environment with
an average temperature of 18.4 ◦ C and an average humidity of 48.1%.
The concrete compressive strength fcm was established in accordance with BS EN
12,390 and tested on three 150 mm cubes. The modulus of elasticity Ec and the tensile
strength of the concrete fct were determined according to the EC2 equation displayed as
Equations (7)–(10), respectively, while Equations (9) and (10) were used for considering the
time factor, as the specimens were kept for a long time (more than 28 days) before testing:
 0.3
f cm
EC = 22000 (9)
10

2
f ct (t) = ( β cc )α × f ct α = for t > 28 days (10)
3
f ct = 0.3[ f cm − 8](2/3) (11)

28 0.5
  
β cc (t) = exp 0.2 1 − (12)
t
The steel rebars varied both in diameter (Ø10 and Ø12) and in steel grade (S500 and
S800). The contrast in the rib pattern of the different grade bars is shown in Figure 2b.
The reinforcement yielding strength fsy and the modulus of elasticity Es were obtained in
accordance with ISO 6892-1:2009 (specified in the standard BS EN 10025).
The specimens were subjected to uniaxial and monotonic tension loads until yielding
at a rate of 0.2 mm/min by means of a universal testing machine (UTM). The average
member strain was determined by means of four linear variable displacement transformers
(LVDTs) fixed along the longitudinal edges of the former as represented in Figure 2d. On
a side note, for future RC tie tests, an improved measurement system will be put in use.
The latter would include two more LVDTs directly clamped on the rebar ends in order
to avoid any measurement alteration in case of bar slippage in the gripping clamps and
rigidly constraining one end whilst leaving the opposite one free and monitored by an
LVDT mounted upside down in order to avoid any misalignment between the LVDT rod
and the extension direction. Finally, in order to discern the location and the width of each
crack appearing on the surface of the specimen, digital image correlation (DIC) monitoring
was parallelly performed. Two IMAGER E-LITE 5 M cameras from LaVision (Göttingen,
Germany) were fixed on a tripod stand with a distance of 0.7 m from each other and 3 m
from the specimen. The cameras worked at a resolution of 2456 × 2085 pixels and at a
12.2 fps rate.

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3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Standard Test Behavior of an RC Tie
The load–average strain diagram of one of the tested members (T_12_500) is illustrated
in Figure 3 in order to elucidate the cracking, deformative, and tension stiffening behavior
that characterized all RC ties tests.

Figure 3. Failure behavior of a RC tie (study specimen) T_12_500: (a) experimental load–displacement diagram; and
(b) development of crack with the corresponding loads through digital image correlation (DIC) pictures.

The first phase was defined by points O and A in Figure 3a and was defined “elastic
phase” to evaluate the elastic behaviors of both constituting materials. It is at this stage
that tension stiffening provided the largest contribution. Indeed, as visible in Figure 3a,
the difference between the average deformation of the RC tie and the one of the bare steel
rebar was largest in the interval segment OA. As described previously, the increasingly
larger reinforcement stresses and strains were transferred to the concrete by means of bond
stresses present on the surface between the two. This transfer continued uninterruptedly
until point A, where the first crack appeared in the cross-section where the concrete stress
σct first surpassed its tensile strength fct . This represented the beginning of the “cracking
phase” (segment AB). The corresponding load was defined as cracking load Pcr which, for
the study case member T_12_500, corresponded to 31 kN.
As soon as the crack appeared, the contribution of the concrete drastically decreased,
thus reducing the amount of tension stiffening it provided to the member. Consequently,
the average strain of the latter plummets was visible in the segment following point A.
The latter occurred, whenever an RC tie is loaded with a deformation-controlled regimen,
as was the case for the present test. Indeed, as soon as the UTM detected a decrease
in the specimen stiffens (due to the crack formation), it suddenly decreased the applied
load in order to match the defined deformation speed (0.2 mm/min in the present test).
Whenever this adjustment was performed, the profile inverted its trend and increased
one more. The same occurred for all the following cracks. It can be noticed that the trend
of εm progressively approached the one of the bare rebar after the appearance of every
crack. This is indicative of the progressive loss of the initial extra stiffness provided by
the concrete.
It was noticed for most members the first crack appeared close to the mid-section. As
visible in Figure 3a, as the applied tensile stress increased in magnitude, new cracks kept
appearing (their respective loads being 34, 34, and 36 kN) whilst older ones were widened.
The DIC pictures of the latter with their respective loads are shown in Figure 3b. It should
be kept in mind that the loads at which the cracks appeared in the DIC pictures did not

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necessarily correspond to the loads at which the crack-indicative profile drops appeared in
Figure 3a. Indeed, the former only reported the loads at which the cracks appeared on the
RC tie surface. The latter was equivalent to the drops shown in Figure 3a, only if the initial
width of the crack was sufficiently wide.
Beyond point B, the lengths of the various concrete segments in which the RC tie
was subdivided were insufficient for the transferred tensile stresses to reach the concrete
maximum capacity, and thus, no new cracks can appeared. Indeed, in Figure 3a, no new
crack-indicative drops were noticeable, and the profile acquired a linear trend. Therefore,
point B represented the beginning of the third and last behavioral phase known as the
“stabilized cracking stage” (section BC).

3.2. Test Results

The left column of Figure 3 displays all the load/average deformation graphs of the
tested specimens categorized in four classes based on their reinforcement diameters and
steel grades (see Table 1).
Expectedly, a behavioral proximity can be discerned among the load–deformation
graphs of the specimens pertaining to the same category. As such, for clarity purposes,
only one specimen per each category (defined as “study case member” in Figure 4) was
subjected to the shrinkage elimination process. The study case members were processed
according to the steps detailed in Section 1.2, and the shrinkage-free profiles were reported
in the right column of Figure 4 (in yellow). For the latter, the estimated εsh after 1947 days
performed with the EC2 and the MC2010 are reported in Table 2 and categorized per
specimen geometry.

Table 2. Free shrinkage predicted by the Euro Code 2 (EC2) and the CEB-fib Model Code
2010 (MC2010).

εsh According to εsh According to

Specimen Geometry Time (days)
the EC2 the MC2010
100 × 100 × 655 1947 −0.000715 −0.000699
65 × 65 × 650 1947 −0.000722 −0.000729

The process of shrinkage removal based on the EC2 and the MC2010, free shrinkage
strains yielded curves that were practically identical and graphically overlapped as visible
in Figure 4. Consequently, in their stead, a single shrinkage-free curve was displayed and
simply named shrinkage-free experimental curve. It can be observed in Figure 4 that some
of the ascending segments of the initial load–displacement curves were not perfectly linear
due to the occurrence of some rebar slips in the gripping clamps. Figure 4 also shows
that specimens with lower reinforcement ratios (T_12 specimens) had higher cracking
loads (around 42 kN) than those with higher reinforcement ratio ones (T_10 specimens), of
which Pcr oscillated around 19 kN. This is due to the larger amount of concrete volume
present in the former combined with the larger stiffness of its rebar. Figure 4 also displays
how overlooking the shrinkage effect caused a 25% underestimation of the Pcr for the
T_12 specimens and about 38% for the T_10 specimens. This clearly demonstrated the
significance of the long-age (5.3 years) shrinkage influence on an RC member response.
Figure 5 compares the shrinkage-free load–deformation curves of the above-defined
study case members against the ones predicted by the EC2 and the MC2010.

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Figure 4. Load–specimen average strain diagrams of all the members (left column) and those of the study case members
(right column) before and after shrinkage elimination.

Figure 5. Load–specimen average strain diagrams of the study case members before and after shrinkage elimination along
with the EC2 and MC2010 predictions.

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In Figure 5, it can be noticed that the experimental load–displacement curves of some

members (green lines) display strains exceeding the bare rebar ones at later load levels
(particularly for T_12_800 and T_10_800). This might be caused by an imperfect positioning
of the LVDTs. Apart from this issue, an unexpected close match between the shrinkage-free
load–displacement curves and the codal predictions (EC2 and MC2010) can be discerned
for all the members, except T_12_800. The radical difference between the codal predictions
and the experimental curves was highly noticeable. The tension stiffening prediction power
of the codes for long-term-curing RC members is of interest, considering their equations
were built on databases collecting nonshrinkage-free RC structural tests results.

3.3. Experiemental Tension Stiffening and Shrinkrage-Free Tension Stiffenning Relationships

The tension stiffening relationships displayed in this section were derived on the
grounds of the above load–deformation curves and the Equations (3)–(12) of Section 1.2.
The left column of Figure 6 shows the tension stiffening relationships of the various
specimens, named as the fluctuations in the tensile stress of the concrete against the average
member strain, divided in the same four categories as the ones of the previous subsection.
The right column of Figure 6, instead, displays the shrinkage-free tension-stiffening curves
against the experimental ones of their respective study case members.

Figure 6. Tension stiffening behaviors of all the members (left column) and those of a study case member (right column)
before and after shrinkage elimination.

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Expectedly, the concrete gained its maximum tensile stress just prior to the appearance
of the first crack (coinciding with the end of the elastic behavior), beyond which any subse-
quent crack led to rapid σct drops. Once the cracking stabilized, the tension stiffening curve
does not welcome any more sudden drops but instead gradually declines due to the slow
concrete/rebar bond deterioration until the reinforcement was yielded. Also expectedly,
the maximum concrete stresses for all the specimens were found to be similar among all
the specimens (in the range of 2–3 MPa), as they were composed of the same concrete.
The right column of Figure 6, instead, confirms how the unprocessed observations of
the experimental results (thus ignoring the effect of shrinkage) led to an underestimation
of the tension stiffening. In particular, it is evident that, as foreshadowed earlier, the
reinforcement ratio had an undeniable influence on the tension stiffening value alteration.
Figure 7 displays the tension stiffening curves of the abovementioned study case members
before (Figure 7a) and after (Figure 7b) the shrinkage elimination as a function of their
reinforcement ratios.

Figure 7. Comparison of the tension stiffening behaviors of the study case members with different
reinforcement ratios before (a) and after (b) the shrinkage elimination.

The separation present between the curves in Figure 7a is a consequence of the

reinforcement ratio-induced tension stiffening alteration. Expectedly, it disappears in
Figure 7b as a result of the shrinkage elimination. The apparent tension stiffening reductions
were 38% and 80% for the reinforcement ratios of 1.13% and 1.86% respectively. Hence, it
can be stated that for similar shrinkage-free ratios, the apparent loss in tension stiffening
was more pronounced for members with a higher reinforcement ratio. Furthermore,
Figure 7b, different from Figure 7a, also properly reports that the concrete still absorbed
a progressively inferior amount of tensile stress σct until the end of the test (once again,
due to the insurgence of concrete/steel slip and the consequent degradation of their bond).
This is in agreement with the shrinkage-free curves of Figure 4. Indeed, the latter do not
intersect the bare steel strain curve (always remaining above it) due to the continuous effect
of the steel strain relaxation from the part of the concrete. Finally, the largest discrepancy
between the curves in Figure 7b was concentrated in the section corresponding to their
cracking phases. The reason lies in the aforementioned inferior cracking load of the T10
members, leading to a curve trend inversion in correspondence of smaller deformative

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values. For this reason, the T10 graphs are shifted leftwards when compared to their
T12 counterparts.
Finally, Figure 8 plots simultaneously the tension stiffening curves extracted from the
experimental campaign for the study case members, their corresponding shrinkage-free
tension stiffening curves and their respective predicted tension stiffening profiles as per
the EC2 and MC2010.

Figure 8. Tension stiffening behaviors of the study case members before and after shrinkage elimination along with the EC2
and MC2010 predictions.

A substantial difference can be noticed between the predictions of the codes and the ex-
perimental response of the RC ties (green lines). With respect to the shrinkage-free response
(yellow lines), instead, a much closer match can be spotted with the codal predictions.
In spite of multiple research articles reporting that both the EC2 and MC2010 generally
overestimate the shrinkage-free member stiffness [38,39], the “long age” could be the key
explaining factor here. Further research on the topic could confirm the present hypothesis.
Figure 8 further shows that whilst the two codes yielded similar patterns in the
ascending branch, they cannot be said for the descending one. Of the two, the EC2 seemed
to provide closer predictions to the shrinkage-free tension stiffening curves as it includes a
gradual decline in the tensile stress of the concrete in the postcracking stage (different from
the MC2010).

4. Statistical Analysis
This chapter statistically compares the experimental tension stiffening contribution
of concrete σct with and without shrinkage elimination, against their predicted values
according to the EC2 and the MC2010. Their differences were quantified through a relative
error calculated as (σct,predicted −σct,experimental )/σct,predicted . In order to normalize the results,
otherwise differing in cracking load, final load and deformation ratio, the σct,experimental
values of the tested members were sampled at four specific test instances. The first cor-
responded to their cracking deformation εcr , thus coinciding with the beginning of the
descending branch of the tension stiffening graph (therefore labeled as 0% strain). The
last sampling point coincided with the steel yielding strain of the members (labeled as
100%). Two intermediate levels of 33% and 66% were also introduced in order to provide
an indication on the evolution of the relative errors of the readings. Figure 9 displays

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an example of the evolution of the relative error obtained for each of the four T_12_500
specimens along the abovementioned four stages versus the code predictions with (w) and
without (w/o) shrinkage elimination.

Figure 9. Relative errors of the experimental and shrinkage-free tension stiffening values of member T_12_500 versus the
EC2 (left) and MC2010 (right) predictions.

In Figure 9, the red lines are representative of the relative errors between the exper-
imental outputs and the relative code, whilst the green ones are representative of their
shrinkage-free variances. First of all, it is observable that the relative errors of both model
predictions were smaller when compared against the tested shrinkage-free results and the
experimental results. As a matter of fact, the experimental results exhibited average relative
errors of 0.87 and 0.79 with respect to EC2 and MC2010 predictions, respectively, and 0.35
with respect to both models for the shrinkage-free scenario. Furthermore, it is observable
the relative error increased proportionally with the strain level. The relative errors of all
14 tested specimens were calculated in a similar way, and their overall mean relative error
values and corresponding standard deviation for each strain stage are reported in Table 3.

Table 3. Mean relative error and standard deviation values for all specimens at different strain levels.

Strain Ratio
Model Results Processing Statistical Parameter
0% (εcr ) 33% 66% 100% (εsy )
Mean relative error (Re. Er.) 0.416 1.064 1.561 2.078
Experimental
Standard deviation (St. Dev.) 0.156 0.295 0.586 0.976
EC2
Mean Re. Er. 0.231 0.324 0.488 0.698
Shrinkage-free
St. Dev. 0.112 0.199 0.336 0.493
Mean Re. Er. 0.470 0.944 1.294 1.644
Experimental
St. Dev. 0.209 0.250 0.313 0.445
MC2010
Mean Re. Er. 0.331 0.275 0.533 0.884
Shrinkage-free
St. Dev. 0.211 0.189 0.289 0.376

The normal probabilistic distribution data of Table 3 are further graphically repre-
sented in Figure 10. The plots show the tension stiffening prediction errors of the EC2
and the MC2010 versus the experimental and its shrinkage-free counterpart. Furthermore,
the mean relative errors are clearly indicated on the x-axis with the vertical dashed lines
adjoining the respective peaks. It is clear that the experimental tension stiffening results
had overall average relative errors of 1.25 and 1.2 with respect to the EC2 and the MC2010,
respectively, whereas the shrinkage-free data were overall characterized by smaller relative
errors, namely 0.45 and 0.5. Once again, it is of interest to notice the smaller prediction
errors of the codes for the shrinkage-free data by considering the lack of the shrinkage
elimination procedure in their constitutive equations. Additionally, a comparison of the
model predictive errors concerning the raw test data elevated the MC2010 curve over the

279
Materials 2021, 14, 254

EC2 curve, as it is characterized by a smaller data spread (thus thinner bell curve) despite
having a similar average.

Figure 10. Normal distribution relative error curves between the experimental and shrinkage-free
tension stiffening values versus their EC2 and MC2010 predictions.

Interestingly, the situation was reversed, whenever the elimination of shrinkage was
included in Figure 10. Indeed, the EC2 exhibited a smaller data spread and a slightly higher
accuracy (smaller average error) versus the MC2010.

5. Conclusions
The present article studied the long-age shrinkage effect on the tensile behavior, in
particular on tension stiffening, of 14 tested RC tensile elements. Careful consideration
of concrete shrinkage and its mechanism elimination is the key factor of this study. The
assessment of the experimentally obtained results in accordance with the EC2 and the
MC2010 has led to the following conclusions:
(1) The accumulated shrinkage strain during 5.3 years was quite significant and capable
of making serious impact on the load–deformative behavior of the member as well as
on their tension stiffening behaviors;
(2) The shrinkage effect lowered the apparent RC member cracking load. This underesti-
mation increased with the increase in reinforcement ratio (25% for ̺ = 1.13% and 38%
for ̺ = 1.86%);
(3) The shrinkage effect caused an apparent reduction of the tension stiffening mechanism
on an average of 40% for a lower reinforcement ratio (̺ = 1.13%) and about 80% for a
higher one (̺ = 1.86%);
(4) After the process of shrinkage elimination, the tension stiffening behaviors of mem-
bers with different reinforcement ratios were in good agreement with each other,
confirming the influence of the reinforcement ratio on the alteration of the tension
stiffening effect;
(5) A statistical analysis on the tension stiffening-predicted power of the EC2 and MC2010
model codes against the experimental and shrinkage-free results showed an overall
increase in relative error proportional to the strain level increase;
(6) The predictions of both codes displayed a much smaller relative error (66%) when
compared against the shrinkage-free tension stiffening results than against the experi-
mental one;
(7) According to the literature review, the previous point does not occur for short-term
shrinkage, thus suggesting the increased accuracy of the model for members that
include very long-term shrinkage.
(8) Among the predictions of the two models, the MC2010 one exhibited a slightly closer
match to the raw test result, whereas the EC2 predictions were marginally more
accurate to the shrinkage-free tension stiffening.

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Materials 2021, 14, 254

Author Contributions: Conceptualization and design, G.K. and A.S.; execution of laboratory ex-
periments, A.S. with the aid of A.D. and A.V.V.; analysis and postprocess, A.D., A.V.V., and M.F.B.;
software, validation, formal analysis, investigation, and article writing, A.D. and M.F.B.; review and
editing, M.F.B. and G.K.; funding acquisition, G.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: The study was performed within the project (No. 09.3.3-LMT-K-712-01-0145) that has
received funding from the European Social Fund under grant agreement with the Research Council
of Lithuania (LMTLT).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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 materials
Review
Advances in the Deformation and Failure of Concrete
Pavement under Coupling Action of Moisture,
Temperature, and Wheel Load
Wanguo Dong 1 , Chunlin Liu 2,3 , Xueben Bao 2 , Tengfei Xiang 2,3 and Depeng Chen 2,3, *
1 School of Management Science and Engineering, Anhui University of Technology, Ma’anshan 243032, China;
[email protected]
2 School of Architectural and Civil Engineering, Anhui University of Technology, Ma’anshan 243032, China;
[email protected] (C.L.); [email protected] (X.B.); [email protected] (T.X.)
3 Institute of Green Building Materials, Anhui University of Technology, Ma’anshan 243032, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-158-5550-3077

Received: 7 November 2020; Accepted: 2 December 2020; Published: 4 December 2020

Abstract: The deformation and cracking of concrete will lead to various deterioration processes,
which will greatly reduce the durability and service life of the concrete pavement. The relating
previous studies and analysis revealed that the coupling action of environmental temperature,
moisture, and wheel load will cause cracking and seriously affect the normal service and durability of
pavement concrete. This paper presents theoretical and numerical state-of-the-art information in the
field of deformation and failure of pavement concrete under coupling action of moisture, temperature,
and wheel load and draws some conclusions. (a) Concrete is a typical porous material, moisture and
heat transfer theory has obtained enough data to simulate the hygro-thermo properties of concrete,
and the relationship between moisture and heat is very clear. (b) There are few studies on concrete
pavement or airport pavement considering the coupling action of moisture, temperature, and wheel
load. (c) Concrete pavement is subjected to hygro-thermal-mechanical coupling action in service,
which has the characteristics of a similar period and its possible fatigue effect. (d) COMSOL software
has certain advantages for solving the coupled hygro-thermal-mechanical of concrete.

Keywords: hygro-thermo-mechanical; coupling action; pavement concrete; deformation and failure

1. Introduction
Cement concrete pavement is widely used in the construction of the airport runway and high-grade
highway in China. More than 80% of the airport pavement in China adopts cement concrete [1].
For pavement concrete, the exposed surface formed after the construction of the whole cast-in-place
pavement is large, and the trend of early shrinkage cracks caused by concrete water loss is more obvious.
Temperature cracks, including temperature shrinkage and temperature fatigue cracks caused by the
temperature difference between day and night, are also cracks of the airport or highway pavement
form. At present, there are more researches on temperature cracks [2–4]. It is found that the cement
concrete airport and highway pavement which has not reached the design service life has been found
to have various degrees of defects, cracks, and even complete damage. This phenomenon brings huge
maintenance pressure and economic burden. Dry shrinkage cracks and warpage cracks are also the
main forms of concrete cracks on airport pavement, especially in areas with drought, wind, less rainfall,
and large evaporation, the drying shrinkage deformation of concrete is more significant. For the airport
pavement during the service period, the diurnal (seasonal) temperature difference and the diurnal
(seasonal) coupled with dry-wet changes present quasi-periodic changes, and the effects of temperature
and humidity changes also have coupling effects. In addition, airport pavement or highway pavement

283
Materials 2020, 13, 5530

also bears the action of aircraft or driving wheel load and its dynamic effect, which will make pavement
concrete appear fatigue failure. Therefore, the deformation, cracking, and fracture failure of airport
and highway pavement are the comprehensive embodiment of temperature, humidity fatigue effect,
and wheel load fatigue effect.
This paper will start from the coupling action of moisture, temperature, and wheel load that
affects the deformation and failure of concrete pavement in the service life. The basic model of the
multi-physical fields of concrete, research on the fatigue effect of concrete pavement, research on the
deformation and failure of concrete pavement or airport pavement (except for concrete pavement
or airport pavement), and the numerical simulation method of hygro-thermal-mechanical coupling
deformation of concrete are discussed. This paper will provide new research ideas for the study of
concrete deformation and failure of the pavement.

2. The Basic Model of The Multiple Physical Fields of Concrete

Concrete is a typical porous medium material [5,6], and its internal moisture and heat transfer are
similar to the transmission principle and model of general porous media materials. The mechanism
of moisture transmission in concrete is the diffusion of steam and liquid water. The transmission
of water vapor conforms to the principle of liquid diffusion and is also the main form of concrete
wet transmission. According to the actual hole structure size of concrete, the internal water diffusion
should be combined with molecular diffusion and Knudsen diffusion. These provide a theoretical basis
for the numerical simulation calculation of concrete hygro-thermo coupling deformation. The heat
and moisture transfer can be commonly expressed based on Fourier’s Law, Fick’s law, and the law of
conservation of mass, respectively [7–11]. Experiments on temperature and relative humidity were
conducted by Haitao Zhao [11], and a coupled model of temperature and relative humidity was
proposed. The test results showed that the coupled phenomenon of temperature and relative humidity
could be observed and divided into three stages.

2.1. Moisture Diffusion Model

Generally, it is assumed that the moisture transfer in porous cement-based materials is in the
form of diffusion, and the humidity gradient is the driving force of humidity (liquid water and steam).
According to Fick’s law and mass conservation equation, the one-dimensional transmission formula is
as follows [12]: !
∂ ∂M ∂M
Dm + Qm = (1)
∂x ∂x ∂t
In the formula, M is the moisture content: Dm is the moisture diffusion coefficient. In the actual
calculation, the moisture diffusion coefficient should be modified, that is, Dmk = Kf Dm , Kf is the Knudsen
diffusion influence coefficient; Qm is the wet source.

2.2. Heat Transfer Model

Fourier’s law is usually used to describe heat transfer in cement-based materials. The thermal
conductivity is the apparent thermal conductivity which has taken into account the influence of internal
convection. The Formula (2) is as follows [12]:
!
∂T ∂T
−λ + Q = ρcp (2)
∂x ∂t

In the formula, Q is the heat source, the heat change caused by cement hydration heat release
or other non-heat transfer processes; T is temperature; ρ is the apparent density of cement-based
materials; cp is the specific heat of cement-based materials; λ is the nominal thermal conductivity of
cement-based materials.

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Materials 2020, 13, 5530

                   
2.3. Microprestress-Consolidation Theory

  Consolidation ‐ theory [13]  and micro   prestressing consolidation theory [14] are widely accepted
and used theoretical models. Consolidation theory provides a physical mechanism description for the
                       
basic creep and aging effect of concrete, and its B3 model [15] has been widely used in the analysis
                       
and calculation of compressive creep of mature concrete. At present, the Microprestress-Solidification
                                       
(MPS) theory is widely adopted to analyze the complex influence of temperature and humidity on
                      ‐  
concrete creep. However, the MPS theory still has some shortcomings. The MPS theory was improved
                             
for concrete creep under a complex environment [16].
                             
Under the action of uniaxial stress, the total strain of concrete can be regarded as the sum of five
               
parts of strain, which can be expressed by Formula (3). The rheological model is shown in Figure 1.
                                     
            ε=   ε i + εev +  ε f +  εsh  + εT             (3)
 

𝜎
𝜀𝑖
𝜀 𝑒𝑣
𝜀𝑓
𝜀 𝑠ℎ
𝜀𝑇 ∙
∙
∙
∙

𝜎  
Figure  1.  Rheological  model. 

In the formula, the εi is instantaneous strain; the εev is viscoelastic strain; the ε f is the viscous
𝜀 𝑖 the𝜀 𝑒𝑣
𝜀 by
strain; εsh is the shrinkage strain caused 𝜀 𝑓 𝜀 𝑠ℎchange;
humidity  
𝜀 𝑇   εT is the temperature strain caused
by the  temperature
   change.
 𝜀         𝜀          𝜀        
 𝜀                    𝜀          
3. Research on the Fatigue Effect of Concrete Pavement
         
For the pavement in the area with significant temperature and humidity changes, frequent takeoff
  landing  of  aircraft
and   or airport      
runway of large   military multi-wheel
  aircraft, heavy load and frequent
traffic, the pavement is more prone to deformation and damage. The problem of deformation and
                         
cracking of airport runway, highway, and urban road pavement has not been well solved because
                      ‐        
the influence factors of pavement concrete deformation and failure are not fully considered in the
                             
design stage. The above factors include temperature change, dry and wet change, and dynamic and
                             
static action of wheel load and its coupling effect. The research on the fatigue effect of airport concrete
                           
is mainly as follows: large scale airfield concrete slabs were tested by Jeffery R. Roesler [17] in the
                             
laboratory to evaluate the effect of multi-wheel gears on the fatigue resistance of concrete slabs. The test
                                   
program solved the influence of peak stress ratio, stress range and stress pulse type on the fatigue
                                 
resistance of concrete slabs. The mechanical properties of pavement concrete under the joint action
                    ‐              
of corrosion, fatigue, and fiber content were assessed by response surface methodology (RSM) [18].
                                 
The RSM model fitted well and indeed effectively revealed the mechanical properties of pavement
                           
                             
                           
              285                
Materials 2020, 13, 5530

                   

concrete under the joint action of corrosion, fatigue, and fiber content. Frost damage was a common
                               
durability problem for concrete structures in cold and wet regions, and in many cases, the frost damage
                                 
was coupled with fatigue loadings such as the traffic loads on bridge decks or pavements. To investigate
                             
the basic fatigue
    behavior
  of concrete  materials
    affected
    by frost   damage,   a mesoscale
    approach
  based 
on Rigid  Body   Spring Method
  (RBSM)
    had  been developed      [19].  Some researchers
    studied
    the fatigue 
failure
  law
  of concrete
  pavement
  by adding
     new   materials   in the concrete
    pavement     [20–23].
‐ To sum
‐
up, concrete  pavement     is subjected
    to hygro-thermal-mechanical
          action
  in
  service,
    which   has the 
characteristics
  of a similar period and its possible fatigue effect.

 
4. Research   Deformation
on    
and  
Failure  of  Concrete  Pavement  or  Airport
  Pavement
 
In the   related  research
  on
  deformation
    and  failure  of  airport  pavement   or   cement   concrete  
pavement, many   researchers
  mainly
  focus
  on  the   influence
  of temperature,
  fatigue
  load
  and   freeze-thaw,
  ‐
temperature  and humidity     changes   on the   shrinkage,
    and  cracking   of  pavement
   
concrete  
[24–32],
 
and there is  a little    previous
    literature   on the coupling       of humidity,    heat and  wheel   load   or considering
     
   
the effect of temperature,     humidity and   wheel   load   at  the same      time  [33].   Yinchuan   Guo  [33]  
  micropore
studied   deterioration  and its  mechanism
       
in pavement   in seasonally
concrete     frozen   regions,  
           
the dynamic deterioration rules of micropores under different coupling levels were discussed at the            
micro scale.   To  clarify     influence
the     of the   coupling
        on the  evolution  of pavement
conditions        
concrete
micropores, a fatigue load single field and fatigue load and freeze-thaw double field were designed  as
                        ‐  
 
the control  
groups. The   detailed
     
programs are   shown    
in Figures   3.
2 and   Xiaolong     Yang [30]     studied    
                             
the micropore change and its mechanism of pavement concrete in the seasonal freeze-thaw region.
  ‐                   ‐          
The coupling effect tests of fatigue load, freeze-thaw cycle, and dry wet cycle were carried out, and the
                             
evolution mechanism of micropore in seasonally frozen regions was proposed.
 

Coupling test

Concrete 
Coupling period Ⅰ `
specimen(n=3+3)

50%Fatigue load (2h)+ Freeze‐thaw cycling (75 times)
80% Fatigue load (2h)+ Freeze‐thaw cycling (50 times)

50%Fatigue load (2h)+ Freeze‐thaw cycling (75 times)
Coupling period Ⅱ 80%Fatigue load (0h)+ Freeze‐thaw cycling(0 times)

Coupling test

Coupling period Ⅲ

Coupling test

Coupling period Ⅳ End
 

Figure 2.  Flow

   
chart  of  the  double-field
‐   coupling  experiment
  [30].
 

286
Materials 2020, 13, 5530
                   

Coupling test

Concrete 
Coupling period Ⅰ `
specimen(n=3+3)

50%Fatigue load (2h)+ Freeze‐thaw cycling (25 times)
+dry‐wet cycling(30 days)
80% Fatigue load (1h)+ Freeze‐thaw cycling 25 times
++dry‐wet cycling(30 days)

50%Fatigue load (0h)+ Freeze‐thaw cycling (50 times)
+dry‐wet cycling(0 days)
Coupling period Ⅱ 80%Fatigue load (0h)+ Freeze‐thaw cycling(0 times)
++dry‐wet cycling(0 days)
Coupling test

Coupling period Ⅲ

Coupling test

Coupling period Ⅳ End
 
  Flow
Figure 3.    chart of  the  triple-field
‐   coupling
  experiment
  [30].
 

Seongcheol. Choi     et  al.

[29]   studied     influence
the     environmental
of    
temperature  and  humidity  on
         
the behavior of continuously reinforced concrete pavement. The drying shrinkage of concrete                
and  
the
elastic  modulus   of coarse     aggregate   played   a decisive     role in   the  development
       
of nonstructural stress  of
         
concrete pavement. The behavior analysis of continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) under              
         
environmental load was divided into two stages, namely the early stage and the late stage. Two models                      
   
were proposed, and  Figure  
4a illustrated    
the structural    
model    
used to analyze  
the  behavior    
of CRCP    
at
                             
the early stages before transverse cracking. Figure 4b showed the structural model used to analyze the
                             
behavior of CRCP at later stages after transverse crack development. Arunw. Dhawale [34] concluded
                                 
that the stress in the rigid concrete slab was caused by wheel load and slab movement caused by
                               
moisture loss and temperature change in the whole slab depth. The warpage stress caused by the
                                 
difference
  of  moisture     content
  between
      the top and   bottom
    of the slab   was   equal   to the   stress   caused  by
the heaviest
    load in importance,       and the warpage     stress
  response
      was more  important   than
    the wheel  
load stress.  H. Tomas   Yu [35] measured
    the   response
      of concrete pavement
      surface temperature
  and
 
wheel load     with   an instrument     panel.   For cracking     performance,   most   of the  pavement   ‐ with stable  
base showed   an  unbonded     response,
    although
  ‐ the back-calculation
      results   showed   that
  most  of the  
same cross-sections
    an
  adhesive   response,     which   may indicate     that
  most
  slab cracking   occurred     under  
the corner  loading.     Dan
Ye.   and   Mukhopadhyay,     Anal.  K [26,36]   studied    the  warpage   stress  and  
 
deformation of  pavement    concrete  slab  caused   by  early   moisture     and   heat transfer.   It  was   considered  
that the damp   heat effect   had   a decisive    
influence   on pavement     concrete deformation     and cracking    
       
under the condition of environmental climate change, and emphasized the importance of strengthening              
early maintenance.    Many     researchers   [24–27,29,37]    
had studied     warpage
the     of concrete   pavement,  
         
which showed that the early warpage deformation behavior of concrete pavement was not only affected                   
       
by temperature change but also affected by humidity change, drying shrinkage, and temperature              
conditions during     construction.     The   core viewpoints         of relevant studies are shown in Table 1.

287
      
                       
 
                     
   
             
Materials 2020, 13, 5530                
 
                 

 
(a) Early‐age phase model 

 
(b) Later‐age phase model 

Figure 4.   Early-age
‐   and  Later-age
‐  phase model [29]. 

Many  Chinese researchers

   
have  
carried   research
out   on  warpage
    In recent
stress.     years,  there  have 
                     
been studies considering the joint effect of temperature effect and wheel load stress. Tan Zhiming     et al.  [38] 
earlier studied the numerical simulation of temperature field, temperature warpage stress, and load 
                       
 
stress of cement  concrete       under different
pavement    
conditions.   Jun  et al. [39,40]
Wu   studied the  dynamic
     
performance test of a multi-layer pavement system under impact load and concluded that the impact 
                  ‐          
resistance of rigid pavement was weak and brittle fracture occurred easily under impact load. The impact
resistance performance test and numerical simulation of composite pavement structure were carried
out. The three-dimensional numerical model of the composite pavement system under impact load was
established. Zhao fangran et al. [41] studied the damage of the airport pavement thermal blowing-snow
process and considered that the comprehensive effects of thermal shock stress, the thermal expansion
force caused by ice crystal vaporization, and freeze-thaw cycle were the fundamental reasons for the
damage of the airport concrete pavement. Ling Jianming et al. [42,43] used the finite element software
ABAQUS to analyze the mechanical responses of cement concrete airport pavement to multiple-gear
military aircraft loadings.
A 3D finite element model was established for analyzing the mechanical responses of cement
concrete airport pavement to multiple-gear military aircraft loadings. The test results showed that the
maximum tensile stress in the pavement occurred at the bottom of the slab, the tensile stress and the
deformation of the pavement under two 8-wheeled gears were smaller than that under one 8-wheeled
gear. The elasticity modulus of the slab, the resilience modulus of the base and the reaction modulus of
the subgrade all had significant effects on the mechanical responses of the pavement.

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Table 1. Research progress abroad.

Number of Cycles Author Viewpoints

Study on the behavior of concrete slabs on the ground
1 Shadravan. Shideh [24]
in controlled moisture and temperature environment.
Structural creep deformations were reproduced by
2 Maekawa. Koichi [25] using the multi-scale coupled
thermo-hygro-mechanical modeling.
Moisture capacity was induced into the temperature
and moisture analysis for curing concrete to solve the
3 Ye. Dan [26]
coupled and nonlinear heat transfer and moisture
transport problems in early-age concrete.
A simplified method termed NOLA(Nonlinear Area)
and a mechanistic-based rigid pavement analysis
4 Hiller. Jacob E. [27]
program called RadiCAL was proposed to determine
fatigue damage levels and critical cracking locations.
The scope of the research is to analyze the impact of
ambient temperature variations in water, and the
5 Simonova. Anna [28]
thermal state of the subgrade on different types of
road structures.
Mesoscale analysis of continuously reinforced
6 Seongcheol. Choi [29] concrete pavement behavior subjected to
temperature and moisture variations.

Zheng Fei and Weng Xingzhong [44] analyzed the main influence factors of pavement slab stress
using elastic foundation plate theory and proposed the stress calculation method of cement concrete
pavement slab under aircraft load. Wang Zhenhui et al. [45] considered that the cumulative damage
model of rigid pavement should consider the influence of load stress distribution of pavement slab,
and established the cumulative damage optimization model suitable for rigid pavement by using
the covering action curve and stress distribution function. Huang Xiaoming et al. [46] studied the
temperature warpage stress of continuously reinforced cement concrete pavement and considered that
the temperature warpage stress of a single slab in the Winkler foundation model can be calculated by
using the warpage stress calculation formula of ordinary cement concrete slab consistent with its size.
Li Xinkai et al. [47] analyzed the deformation and stress of cement pavement slab under the action of
axial load and temperature. Slab deflection and stress were calculated under axial loads at different
slab positions and negative or positive temperature gradient coupling. The calculated results show that
the different conditions of axial loads and temperature gradient coupling will change the maximum
tension and cause various types of cracks in a slab. Yang Jinzhi [48] analyzed the deformation and crack
generation mechanism of concrete pavement surface under the coupling effect of temperature and
cyclic load by using finite element software, and obtained the relationship among temperature, load,
and pavement displacement. The failure law of pavement under the coupling effect of temperature
and the cyclic load was obtained. Some valuable conclusions for concrete pavement construction were
obtained. Hu Changbin et al. [49] studied the temperature field and temperature stress of cement
concrete pavement in hot and humid areas, and concluded that “with the periodic change of external
environmental meteorological conditions, there were many typical distribution shapes of pavement
temperature gradient and they changed with the external environment”. Combined with relevant
research experience and results [6,50–52], the deformation and cracking of pavement concrete during
the service period are related to the times of wheel load action and wheel load impact effect, and closely
related to the temperature and humidity changes in the actual use environment. Especially for areas
where the temperature and humidity changed dramatically in day and night or season, it was very
important to study the deformation and cracking behavior and meso mechanical mechanism of concrete
pavement under the coupling action of moisture-heat-force.

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5. Research on Deformation and Failure of Concrete (Except for Airport Pavement and Highway
Pavement) under the Action of Moisture-Heat-Force
The research on the hygro-thermal-mechanical coupling action analysis was previously in the
field of rock engineering and had always been a research hotspot [53,54]. The moisture-heat-force
multi-field coupling research in the field of rock engineering was basically about the deterioration
of concrete performance under high temperature or fire [55–61]. Schrefler et al. [55,56] put forward
the mathematical and numerical model of the nonlinear performance of porous multiphase concrete
according to the characteristics of porous multiphase concrete and the principle of thermodynamic
equilibrium. The early performance of self-drying and high-temperature deformation of concrete was
simulated and analyzed. A moisture-heat-force coupling model of concrete at high temperature was
proposed, its numerical simulation was realized by a finite element method, and the performance of
high-performance concrete walls and columns in the fire was studied. Through moving boundary
problems, Beneš and Štefan [59] put forward a mathematical model of hygro-thermal-mechanical
analysis for a high-temperature burst of the concrete wall. The thermal stress effect and pore pressure
change of burst were considered, and the validity was verified. S. Grasberger and G. Meschke [62]
established a 3D coupled thermo-hygro-mechanical model for concrete accounting for moisture and
heat transport, cracking and irreversible deformations, and the various interactions between these
processes. The effects of drying shrinkage, non-isothermal transmission, and cracking on the drying
process of concrete were studied. Bangert et al. [63] considered the mechanical damage and the
interaction of moisture heat transfer and established a concrete hygro-thermal-mechanical coupling
model based on the theoretical mechanism analysis and experimental results. A two-dimensional
simulation of a concrete slab under the condition of moisture thermal-mechanical coupling was carried
out. D. Gawin et al. [64,65] regarded concrete as a multiphase porous material and proposed
a mathematical model for analyzing the hygro-thermal behavior of high-temperature concrete.
Jaroslav Kruis et al. [66] studied and analyzed the effective computer implementation of the coupled
analysis of prestressed concrete nuclear reactor based on the hygro-thermal-mechanical coupled
analysis. The hydro-thermo-mechanical analysis of reactor vessels based on the finite element method
was a very difficult task because of its complexity and numerous unknowns. This contribution involved
efficient computer implementation of coupling analysis and was also devoted to the implementation
of domain decomposition methods that could utilize parallel computers. Parallel processing could
achieve very good acceleration and solve large problems in an acceptable time. The proposed strategy
is demonstrated in the coupling analysis of existing reactor vessels. C.T. Davie et al. [67] analyzed
the sensitivity of typical prestressed pressure vessels through the hygro-thermal-mechanical fully
coupled model of concrete. The results showed that changes to operating procedures only led to
minor changes in the behavior of the structure throughout its life cycle but the unplanned thermal
excursions could have a greater impact on the concrete structure. Li Rongtao and Li Xikun [57,58]
studied the failure process of concrete at high temperature, the constitutive relationship of concrete
at high temperature, the chemical hygro-thermal-mechanical coupling process, and the numerical
calculation method. Li Zhongyou and Liu Yuanxue [68] studied the evolution process of mechanical
damage, which started from the characteristics of energy dissipation in the process of material
deformation (failure) and based on the mixture theory. Considering the thermal damage caused by
high temperature, the heat-water-force coupling damage model of concrete under high temperature
was established. Liu Jiaping et al. [69] studied the early cracking of sidewall concrete. A multi-field
(hygro–thermo-chemo-mechanical) coupling model based on Fourier’s law, Fick’s law, and mass and
energy balance equations, was adopted to describe the cement hydration, temperature, and humidity
evolution for early-age sidewall concrete. Gasch et al. [70,71] established the hygro-thermal-mechanical
coupling model of hardened concrete based on microprestress-consolidation theory, which took into
account the factors such as age, creep, shrinkage, thermal expansion, and cracking under the condition
of varying temperature and humidity, which had inspirations on this project.

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6. Numerical Simulation Method of Hygro-Thermal-Mechanical Coupling Deformation of Concrete

In the research of the numerical simulation method of hygro-thermal-mechanical coupling
deformation of concrete, there are four main numerical simulation methods:

6.1. Heat and Mass Transfer in Porous Media of Phenomenological Thermodynamic Method
This method does not involve the internal heat and mass transfer mechanism and specific
processes of the porous media, but only considers the relationship and cross effect between various
flows and forces of heat and mass transfer. A phenomenological equation can be obtained to describe
various flows. Phenomenological methods are difficult to apply in practice due to the influence of test
conditions and many material parameters. Due to the lack of effective means and methods for testing
moisture distribution, the moisture migration rate is slower than the thermal migration rate. In the
process of solving various models, the values of some coefficients are basically based on experimental
or empirical data, which affects the versatility of this method.

6.2. Numerical Analysis Method Based on Luikov’s Coupled Heat and Mass Transfer Equation
This method considers the heat absorption or exotherm in the process of heat and mass transfer,
and establishes a partial differential equation system based on the principles of mass conservation
and energy conservation in the process of moisture migration. The method of numerical analysis is
used to solve the equations to obtain the analytical solutions of the heat, humidity fields, and their
dynamic changes [72–75]. This method is also mainly used for the analysis of heat and mass transfer
in porous media. With the development of computer technology, the difficulty of implementing
numerical analysis methods is greatly reduced. Concrete is also a typical porous medium [5,6] and the
above method can be considered for application in concrete. In the process of solving the temperature
and humidity coupling equations, there are different solutions; for example, Bouddour [76] et al.
used the asymptotic continuous method of periodic structure to study the heat and humidity transfer
in the evaporation and condensation process. However, the research methods involved material
did not absorb wet steam, and the hygroscopicity of the material had an effect on the heat transfer
process. Lobo and Mikhailov [77,78] used the classic integral transformation method to solve the
heat and mass transfer problem in porous media. Because of its complex characteristics and difficult
calculation, it could not accurately reflect the distribution of temperature and humidity to a large
extent, and can not get the correct results. Chang [79] et al. used decoupling technology to solve the
coupled equations of the heat and mass transfer process; however, this appeared powerless when
the governing equations and boundary conditions were coupled at the same time. Cheroto [80] et al.
used an improved lumped system analysis method to find the approximate solution of the coupling
equation. Although it avoided the problems encountered in the calculation of complex eigenvalues and
Chang’s decoupling technology, its accuracy was not enough. It can not truly reflect the temperature
and humidity distribution in porous media.

6.3. Finite Element Analysis Method

The finite element method is the most widely used numerical calculation method in scientific
research and has become the main tool for solving scientific and technological problems. At present,
many commercial finite element softwares have been developed, such as ANSYS, MSC, ADINA,
ABAQUS, etc. In the finite element analysis method, the model should be established first,
and then solved by self-programming [57,58,63,81], ANSYS and ABAQUS software are used more in
pratice [82–85]. Bernard et al. [82] proposed a three-dimensional multi-scale simulation method for
the mechanical properties of cement-based materials. Firstly, the CEMHYD3D model was used to
generate ideal three-dimensional representative volume elements of cement-based materials at different
scales, and then the mechanical behavior was calculated by using the finite element analysis software
ABAQUS. Li Zhaoxia et al. [83–85] studied the damage analysis and state assessment of long-span

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structures. A series of multi-scale modeling processes, multi-scale damage, and its homogenization
algorithms in the structural multi-scale simulation were studied based on the nonlinear finite element
software ABAQUS.

6.4. Application of Multiphysics Coupling Analysis Software

The analysis method of COMSOL multi-physical field coupling calculation software [6,70,86] was
used to model and simulate engineering problems based on partial differential equations. This method
was easy for a couple of different physical fields for simulation. In the author’s previous research,
the analytical calculation of the temperature and humidity field based on the Luikov humidity–heat
coupled transfer equation had been studied carefully. The analytical calculation of temperature and
humidity field and finite element analysis of coupled deformation were realized by mixed programming
based on the principle of heat and moisture transfer in porous media. The above research can simulate
the moisture heat coupling deformation behavior of some concrete within a certain engineering precision
range. The differential equation of this model had considered the mutual influence between temperature
and humidity, which reflected the coupling of humidity and heat, but it was more difficult to solve.
Moreover, through the Laplace transform and the transfer function method, the calculation requirements
were stricter, and the selection of the transfer function was more difficult, especially for the study of
the internal temperature and humidity distribution of the concrete under the change of environmental
temperature and humidity conditions. The author published an academic paper [6] in 2013. Based on
the theory of moisture and heat transfer in porous media and microprestress consolidation theory,
the coupled model of concrete moisture-heat-force was established, and the numerical solution of
the coupling was realized by using COMSOL multi-physical field numerical simulation software and
proposed the concrete moisture expansion coefficient. Gasch et al. [70] published a paper in 2016,
using COMSOL software to carry out coupled finite element simulation analysis of strong form partial
differential equation, which has important reference value for this research.

7. Conclusions and Perspective

The studies of the coupled hygro-thermo-mechanical behavior of concrete pavement have been
reviewed in this paper. The various aspects on the deformation and failure of concrete pavement under
coupling action of moisture, temperature and wheel load presented in this paper could be summarized
and concluded as:
1. Concrete is a typical porous material, moisture and heat transfer theory had been obtained
enough data to simulate the hygro-thermo-mechanical properties of concrete, and the relationship
between moisture and heat is very clear.
2. There has been some research on the moisture-heat-mechanical coupling of concrete materials,
but most of the research focused on the performance of concrete in fire or high temperature.
There are few studies on the moisture-heat-mechanical coupling deformation of concrete under
normal service conditions.
3. In the related research on deformation and failure of airport pavement or cement concrete
pavement, many researchers mainly focused on the influence of temperature, fatigue load and
freeze-thaw, and temperature and humidity changes, which lead to the shrinkage and cracking of
pavement concrete. There are few kinds of literature considering the coupling action of moisture,
temperature, and wheel load at the same time.
4. Concrete pavement is subjected to hygro-thermal-mechanical coupled action in service,
which has the characteristics of a similar period and its possible fatigue effect. In the existing
moisture-heat-mechanical coupling research, the research on “force” is mostly the load of a certain
stress level continuously applied, but not enough attention is paid to the periodicity of wheel load and
the change of temperature and humidity.
5. COMSOL software has certain advantages for solving the coupled hygro-thermal-mechanical
of concrete.

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In the later research, the deformation and failure mechanism of pavement concrete under the
coupling action of moisture, temperature, and wheel load need to be studied.

Author Contributions: W.D., C.L., X.B., and T.X. conducted the theoretical analysis and wrote the manuscript.
D.C. advised the theoretical research and previous experimental work and revised the manuscript. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51978002,
51108002 and 11802001) and the Natural Science Foundation for Higher Education Institutions in the Anhui
Province of China (Grant No. KJ2016SD08).
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the National Natural Science Foundation of China for
their financial support of this work. The authors would like to express our gratitude to Anhui University of
Technology for providing various research conditions to facilitate this work.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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