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128
A GLIMPSE OF ABSTRACT ALGEBRA
In this lecture we will present some classical algebraic structures and we will see
some particular examples of these structures that come out often when solving
number theoretical problems.
In the previous lectures, we generally restricted ourselves to the integers and the
rational numbers. An important branch of number theory, called algebraic number
theory, extends the theory for the integers to new elements that, have some common,
properties with the integers.
Definition 12.1 An algebraic integer is a complex number which is a root of a
monic polynomial with integer coefficients.
Formally, we say that a € C is an algebraic integer if there exists a monic
polynomial f(r) € Z[r] such that f(a) = 0.
For example, i is an algebraic integer because it is a root of the monic polyno-
mial f(x) =? +1
Definition 12.2 Let d be a square-free integer. Numbers of the form a + bv,
where a,b € Z, are called quadratic integers. The set of quadratic integers is
denoted by Z[Vd], so
ZlVa] = {a+ bVa | a,b € Z}.
Clearly, Z C Z[Vaj € C. In particular, if d > 0 we have Z[Vva] CR.
ES 4 quadratic integer is an algebraic integer of degree two. Indeed,
if =a + bVva, where a,b,d € Z and d is square-free, then
a) =Rd => 2? — Que + (a? — ad)
0x is a root of the quadratic polynomial f(2) = 2 —2az + (ad)
Definition 12.3 If d = —1 in the previous definition, we obtain the numbers of
the form a+ ib, where a,b € Z and i = —1, These numbers are called Gaussian
integers. The set of Gaussian integers is denoted by Z[i], 50
ai
{a+ib| abe Z}. A Glimpse of Abstract Algebra 129
Definition 12.4 If
2asZ=a—bvd.
= a+bviis a quadratic integer, we define the conjugate of
Definition 12.5 A ring (R, +,-) is a set R equipped with two binary operations
+ and -, which we call addition and multiplication respectively,
RxR => R
(cy) > ety
RxR —+ R
(ey) ory
such that the following axioms are satisfied:
(Ai) (@+8) +e = a+ (b+0) for all a,b,c € R (associativity of addition);
(Aa) there exists an element 0 € R such that 0+a
O is the additive identity).
+0 for all a € R (that is,
(As) for all a € R there exists an element —a € R such that a+ (—
0 (that is, every element a has an additive inverse —a);
= (-a)ta=
(A) a+b =b-+0 for all a,b € R (commutativity of addition);
(Mh) (ab)
a(be) for all a,b,c € R (associativity of multiplication);
(D) Multiplication is distributive with respect to addition, which means that
alb+o)=abtac, — (b+e)a=ba+oa
for all a,b,c € R,
Moreover, if the multiplication satisfies the axiom (Mz) there exists an element
1 Ruch that 1-a =a-1 =a for alla € R (that is, 1 is the multiplicative
identity), we say that the ring has a unity. If the multiplication satisfies the axiom
(Mg) ab = ba for all a,b € R, we say that the ring is commutative.
It can be proved that if'a ring R has a unity, then the unity is unique.
During this course we have encountered many times the structure of ring without
being aware of it.
EXAMPLES oF RINGS
(i) (Z,+,-). This is a commutative ring with unity (this is the Lord of the Rings).
(ii) Zn, +,-), where Zn is the set of residues classes modulo m and where the
results of both operations are taken modulo n.. This is a commutative ring
with unity. 130
(iii) The set of arithmetic functions with the addition (f + g)(n) = f(n) + g(n)
and with the convolution product (f «g)(n) = SajS(@g (5). This is a
a
commutative ring with unity, also called the Dirichlet ring
(iv) (Z{r],+,-), where Z[z] is the set of polynomials with integer coefficients and
the addition and the multiplication are the ordinary addition and multipl-
cation for polynomials. ‘This is a commntative ring with unity:
(v) (Z[va),+,-), where d is a square-free integer. This is a commutative ring
with unity.
From now on, we will denote a ring by R instead of (R, +,-) for simplicity.
Definition 12.6 Let R be a ring with unity 140. An element a € R, a #0, is
called zero divisor if there exists b € R,b #0, such that ab =0 or ba = 0.
For example, in Ze, [2]5 and [3]p are zero divisors because [2g - [3]6 = (Os.
Definition 12.7 A commutative ring R with unity 140 having no zero
called integral domain.
For example, Z is an integral domain, but Z,
not an integral domain.
Definition 12.8 Let R be a commutative ring with unity and let a,b € R. We
say that @ divides b if there exists ¢ € R such that b= ac. We denote this by a | b.
Definition 12.9 Let R be a commutative ring with unity
we Ris called unit if there exists v € R
In other words, u is a unit if w| 1, ie. if it has a multiplicative inverse in R. We
denote the set of the units of a ring Ras R’.
1 #0. An element
uch that ww = vu = 1
Definition 12.10 Let 7 be a commutative ring with unity 1 4 0. Two elements
a,b € R are associates in R if a = bu, where w is a unit of R.
For example, in Z the only units are 1 and —1, i.e, Z* = {1,—1}. In Ze the only
units are (I)¢ and [55 (check!), ie. 25 = {[I]6, [S]a}. If & € Z, then & and —K are
associates.
Finding all the units in a ring is not always an easy task! However, we can easily
find all the units for some special rings like the ring of residue classes modulo n
or the ring of Gaussian integers
Definition 12.11 Let (R,+,-) be a ring with unity 14 0. If every nonzero clo-
ment of Ris aunit, then (R, +,-) is called a division ring. A field is a commutative
division ring. A Glimpse of Abstract Algebra 131
For example, Z is not a field because 2 is not a unit (it has no multiplicative
inverse). However, Q and R are fields.
Let’s go on with other definitions.
Definition 12.12 A nonzero element p that is not a unit of an integral domain
Dis called an irreducible of D if in every factorization p = ab in D, then a or b is
a unit,
Note that an associate of an irreducible p is again irreducible.
Definition 12.13 A nonzero element p that is not a unit of an integral domain
Dis called a prime if for all a,b € D, p| ab implies that p | a or p |.
Definition 12.14 An integral domain D is a unique factorization domain (UED)
if the following conditions are satisfied:
(i) every element of D that is neither 0 nor a unit can be factored into a product
of a finite number of irreducibl
(ii) if pupa--..-pe and qigy-...-4q are two factorizations of the same element of
D into irreducibles, then r = s and the indices can be relabeled so that p;
and qy are associates
For example, the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic tells us that Z is a UFD.
Ina UFD the concepts of irreducible and prime coincide, but this is not trne in
general for integral domains (see Proposed Problems).
Definition 12.15 A Euclidean function on an integral domain D is a function
¥:D\ {0} 9N
such that the following conditions are satisfied:
(i) for all a,b € D with 6 4 0, there exist q,r € D such that a = bg +r, where
cither r= 0 or u(r) < v(6);
(i) for all a, € D\ {0}, v(a) < v(ab).
An integral domain D is called Euclidean domain if there exists a Euclidean fune-
tion on D.
For example, Z is a Euclidean domain: take v(n) = |n| for n #0 as a Euclidean
function. Another example is F(z], the ring of polynomials with coefficients in a
field F. This is a Euclidean domain: take v(P) = deg P for P # 0 as a Euclidean
function.
We give the following important result (without proof), 132
Theorem 12.16 Every Euclidean domain is a UFD.
We want to prove the following result.
Theorem 12.17 Let D be a Euclidean domain with a Buclidean function v. Then,
HC) = ani, u(a) and w € D is a unit if and only if vw) = v0).
Proof. If a #0, then y(1) < v(1-a) = v(a). On the other hand, if wis a unit in
D, then
ve (1).
Thus, if w is a unit in D, we conclude that 1(w) = v(1). Conversely, suppose that
aw € D\ {0} is such that p(w) = v(1). Then, by the Division Algorithm there
exist qr € D such that 1 = ug +r, where either r= 0 or v(r) < v(u). But
Hu) = HCl) = ain, v(d), which contradicts the fact that u(r) < v(u). Hence,
< v(uum
=O and 1 = ug, $0 w is a unit. a
Corollary 12.18 (i) Z* = {-1,1};
(ii) If F is a field, then Flr)" = {a | ae F\ {0}}.
Proof. The proof follows from the previous theorem.
(In Z with v(m) = Inf, we get that v(u) = v(1) = nip, lal = 1 and itis
reached for @ = +1. So, 1 and —1 are the units in Z.
fi) In F(a] with o(P) = deg P, we get that (u) = (1) = min deg P = 0
(8) In Fla] with 1(P) = deg P, we get that H(u) = v0) = pin des
and it is reached when P(r) = k, where k #0, i.e. for the nonzero constant
polynomials. So, all the elements k € F \ {0} are the units in P{r].
What we have seen until now can be applied to the ring of Gaussian integers
2hi)
Definition 12.19 Let a
aby
a+ ib be a Gaussian integer. We define the norm of
N(a) =0-@= 0? +07
Lemma 12.20 Let a, 8 € Z[i]. Then, the following properties hold:
(i) N(a) > 0;
(ii) N(a) =0 if and only if =0;
(iii) N(a3) = N(a)N(3). A Glimpse of Abstract Algebra 133
Proof. Easy. a
Lemma 12.21 The ring 2|j] is an integral domain.
Proof. Observe that Z[i] © C, so Z[i] is a commutative ring with unity. Moreover,
if Z[i] had zero divisors, then also C would have zero divisors, contradiction,
Theorem 12.22 The function v given by v(a) = N(a) for a € Zli]\ {0} is a
Euclidean function on Zi. $0, Z{i] is a Euctidean domain.
Proof. If 8 = bi + iby # 0, then N(A) = 63 +53 > 1 and so for all a,8 4 0 in
2 [i] we have
N(a) < N(a)N(8) = (a8)
and the condition (ji) for the definition of Euclidean function is satisfied. Now,
we want to prove condition (i) for N. Let a, 9 € Z[i], $ #0. We must find o and
pin Zi such that @ = Bo + p, where either p = 0 or N(p) < N(B). Observe
that for any complex number a + ib, the norm N(a + ib) = a? +6? is the square
of the distance of a + ib from the origin in the complex plane. In C, the farthest
‘a complex number can be from an element of Z[i) is 1/V/2 since the center points
of 1 x 1 squares with vertices in Z{i] are at distance 1/V/2 from the vertices. Now,
consider 0/3 as a complex number. This is in some 1 x 1 square having vertices
in Z{i]. If it is on one of the vertices, we take o = 0/8 and p = 0, so let’s assume
that it is in the interior of some 1 x 1 square. Let € Z[i] be the vertex of the
square that is nearest to a/3. So,
| <
1
v2
li
Multiplying both sides by [8], we get
la = Bol <
Squaring both sides, we obtain
N(a—8e)< 5N(B) < N(B).
Now, set p = a — Bo. a
EX From the previous theorem, we conclude that Z{i] is a UFD.
Theorem 12.23 The units in Zli] are 1,—1,%,
Proof. Observe that a € Z[i] is a unit if and only if N(a) = N(1) = 1 according
to Theorem 12.17. So, if a = a+ ib, where a,b € Z, then a is a unit if and only if
a? 4B? = 1. We get a=+1,b=0 or a= 0, = +1, and so the only units in Z{i]
are 1,1, i a 134
‘The concept of norm that we have introduced for the ring of Gaussian integers
‘can be given for an arbitrary integral domain. This may be of help in determining,
the arithmetic structure of an integral domain as we will see.
Definition 12.24 Let D be an integral domain. A multiplicative norm on D is a
function N : D + Z such that the following conditions are satisfie
(i) N(a) =0 if and only if a =0;
(ii) (08) = N(a)N(8) for all «, 8 € D.
Theorem 12.25 If D is an integral domain with a multiplicative norm N, then
N(1) = 1 and for every unit u € D we have |N(u)| =1. If, also, every a such
that |N(a}| =1 is a unit in D, then an element in x € D with |N(x)| =p, where
pis a prime in Z, is an irreducible of D.
Proof. Observe that N(1) = N(1-1) = N(I)N(1), so N(1) = 1. ue Disa
unit, then
1) = N(ww) = NWN),
and since N(u) € Z, it follows that |N(u)| = 1. Now, suppose that the units of
D axe exactly the elements of norm #1. Let x € D be such that |N(x)| = p. If
a8, then p = |N(n)] = |N(a).N(8)| = |N(a)||N(3)}, 50 either |N(a)| = 1 or
(8)| So, this means that either o or is a unit in D, which means that 7
irreducible in D. a
Example 385. Is 5 irreducible in Z[i|?
Solution. The answer is no, We know that if a+ ib € Zfi), then N(a + ib) =
a? +? is a multiplicative norm in Z[i]. Moreover, N(a) for nonzero a € Z[i] is a
Euclidean function on Z{i], so the units are precisely the elements a € Z[i] such
that V(a) = N(1) =1. Now, since
5 = (1+ 211-21)
and N(1+2i) = N(1~2é) = 1? +2? =5 and 5 is a prime in Z, then 1 + 24 and
1 ~ 23 are both irreducibles in Zi). <
Asan application of multiplicative norms, we provide the example of an integral
domain which is not a UFD.
Example 386. Prove that the integral domain Z[V—5] = {a + bV=5 | a,b € Z}
is not a UFD.
Solution. It’s easy to see that Z[\V/=] is an integral domain. Define N on Z[V=5]
by
N(a+ by=5) =a? +507. A Glimpse of Abstract Algebra 135
ly, N(a) = 0 if and only if a = 0. Also, it’s easy to see that N(a3) =
N(a)N (3) for all a, 3 € Z[V=5]. For every unit a € Z[y/=3] it must be N(a) = 1
So, if a = a-+by-5 is a unit, it must be a? +56? = 1. The only integer solutions
to this equation are a = +1,b=0. So, +1 are the only possible units and it’s easy
to see that they are indeed units in Z[V—5]. Now, in Z[y—5] we have
= (1+2V—5)(1 — 2V-5).
If we can prove that 3,7, 14+ 2V=5, 1 ~2y=5 are al irreducibles in Z[y/—5], then
we will conclude that Z[y=5] cannot be a UFD, since neither 3 nor 7 is (142V=5).
Now, suppose that 3 = a. Then,
a=
(8)
Then, N(a) € {1,3,9}. If.V(a) = 1, then @ is a unit. If N(a) = 9, then N(3) =1
and so 8 is a unit. If N(a) = 3, then by setting a = a+ bV=B, where a,b € Z,
we get a? +56? = 3, which has no integer solutions. Therefore, from 3 = a8, we
conchide that @ or 3 is a unit, and so 3 is irreducible in Z[V—5]. Similarly, we
can prove that 7 is irreducible in Z[/—5]. Now, if 1+ 2/—5 = 6, then
21 = N(1 + 2V—5) = N(7)N(6),
50 N() € {1,3,7,21}. We have seen that there is no element in Z[/—3] of norm 3
or 7. So, either N(y) = 1 and 7 is a unit or N(7) = 21 and 6 is a unit. Therefore,
142-5 is irreducible in Z[y¥—5] and in the same way, 1 — 2/5 is irreducible in
Zly—B]. So, we have proved that Z[y/—5] is an integral domain, but not a UFD.<
PROPOSED PROBLEMS
Problem 387. Let d be a square-free integer. Prove that Z[Va] is a commutative ring
with unity. Is ita field?
Problem 388. Prove that a? —b
if R is commutative.
(a= ))(a-+6) for all a and b in a ring R if and only
Problem 389. Prove that every field F is an integral domain.
Problem 390. Prove that Zj, = {{a]n | «€ Z.ged(a,n) = 1}.
Problem 391. Prove that Z», is a field if and only if n is prime.
Problem 392. Determine if the following elements are irreducibles for each of the indli-
cated integral domains.
(a) -5in 2;
(b) 35 in 2; 136 Proposed Problems
(c) 2r+8 in 2x};
(a) 22 +8 in Ql}
(e) 2x48 in Zola}
Problem 893. Prove that ifp isa prime in an integral domain D, then p isan irreducible,
Problem 394. Prove that if p is an irreducible in a UFD, then p is a prime,
Problem 395. Determine if the following functions are Euclidean functions for each of
the indicated integral domains
(a) The function » for Z defined by v(n) = n? for n € Z\ {0}
(b) The funetion v for Z{x] defined by v(f(x)) = deg f(x) for f(x) € Za \ {0}
(c) The function v for Q defined by v(a) = a? for a € Q\ {0}.
Problem 396, Prove that every field is a Euclidean domain.
ae 397. Factor the following Gaussian integers into @ product of ireducibles in
(a) 7:
(b) 443%;
(©) 6-7
Problem 398. Prove that 6 does not factor uniquely (up to associates) into irreducibles
in 2[v=3)
Problem 899. Consider a = 6 + and = 2~3i in Z[i). Find o,p € Zi] such that
a=Botp, Np)
